CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

DEFINITIONS

100. The Art And Science Of Navigation • Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial
measurements to lines of position using tables,
Marine navigation blends both science and art. A good spherical trigonometry, and almanacs. It is used pri-
navigator gathers information from every available source, marily as a backup to satellite and other electronic
evaluates this information, determines a fix, and compares systems in the open ocean.
that fix with his pre-determined “dead reckoning” position.
A navigator constantly evaluates the ship’s position, antic- • Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine po-
ipates dangerous situations well before they arise, and sition by either radio direction finding systems or
always keeps “ahead of the vessel.” The modern navigator hyperbolic systems.
must also understand the basic concepts of the many navi-
gation systems used today, evaluate their output’s accuracy, • Radar navigation uses radar to determine the dis-
and arrive at the best possible navigational decisions. tance from or bearing of objects whose position is
Navigation methods and techniques vary with the type known. This process is separate from radar’s use as
of vessel, the conditions, and the navigator’s experience. a collision avoidance system.
Navigating a pleasure craft, for example, differs from nav-
igating a container ship. Both differ from navigating a naval • Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellites for
vessel. The navigator uses the methods and techniques best determination of position.
suited to the vessel and conditions at hand.
Some important elements of successful navigation can- Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving fu-
not be acquired from any book or instructor. The science of ture navigation system planning. Integrated systems take
navigation can be taught, but the art of navigation must be inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display po-
developed from experience. sitioning information, and provide control signals required
to maintain a vessel on a preset course. The navigator be-
101. Types Of Navigation comes a system manager, choosing system presets,
interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.
Methods of navigation have changed through history. In practice, a navigator synthesizes different methodol-
Each new method has enhanced the mariner’s ability to ogies into a single integrated system. He should never feel
complete his voyage safely and expeditiously. One of the comfortable utilizing only one method when others are
most important judgments the navigator must make in- available for backup. Each method has advantages and dis-
volves choosing the best method to use. Commonly advantages. The navigator must choose methods
recognized types of navigation are listed below. appropriate to each particular situation.
With the advent of automated position fixing and elec-
tronic charts, modern navigation is almost completely an
• Dead reckoning (DR) determines position by ad- electronic process. The mariner is constantly tempted to
vancing a known position for courses and distances. rely solely on electronic systems. This would be a mistake.
A position so determined is called a dead reckoning Electronic navigation systems are always subject to failure,
(DR) position. It is generally accepted that only and the professional mariner must never forget that the
course and speed determine the DR position. Cor- safety of his ship and crew may depend on skills that differ
recting the DR position for leeway, current effects, little from those practiced generations ago. Proficiency in
and steering error result in an estimated position conventional piloting and celestial navigation remains
(EP). An inertial navigator develops an extremely essential.
accurate EP.

• Piloting involves navigating in restricted waters 102. Phases Of Navigation

with frequent determination of position relative to
geographic and hydrographic features. Four distinct phases define the navigation process. The

1
2 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

mariner should choose the system mix that meets the accu- • Coastal Phase: Navigating within 50 miles of the
racy requirements of each phase. coast or inshore of the 200 meter depth contour.

• Ocean Phase: Navigating outside the coastal area in

• Inland Waterway Phase: Piloting in narrow canals, the open sea.
channels, rivers, and estuaries.
The navigator’s position accuracy requirements, his fix
• Harbor/Harbor Approach Phase: Navigating to a interval, and his systems requirements differ in each phase.
harbor entrance and piloting in harbor approach The following table can be used as a general guide for se-
channels. lecting the proper system(s).

Inland Harbor/Harbor Coastal Ocean

Waterway Approach

DR X X X X
Piloting X X X
Celestial X X
Radio X X X
Radar X X X
Satellite X* X X X
Table 102. The relationship of the types and phases of navigation.
* Differential GPS may be used if available.

NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND CONVENTIONS

103. Important Conventions And Concepts voyage.

The meridian of London was used as early as 1676, and
Throughout the history of navigation, numerous terms over the years its popularity grew as England’s maritime in-
and conventions have been established which enjoy world- terests increased. The system of measuring longitude both
wide recognition. The professional navigator, to gain a full east and west through 180° may have first appeared in the
understanding of his field, should understand the origin of middle of the 18th century. Toward the end of that century,
certain terms, techniques, and conventions. The following as the Greenwich Observatory increased in prominence, En-
section discusses some of the important ones. glish cartographers began using the meridian of that
Defining a prime meridian is a comparatively recent observatory as a reference. The publication by the Observa-
development. Until the beginning of the 19th century, there tory of the first British Nautical Almanac in 1767 further
was little uniformity among cartographers as to the meridi- entrenched Greenwich as the prime meridian. An unsuc-
an from which to measure longitude. This did not lead to cessful attempt was made in 1810 to establish Washington,
any problem because there was no widespread method for D.C. as the prime meridian for American navigators and car-
determining longitude accurately. tographers. In 1884, the meridian of Greenwich was
Ptolemy, in the 2nd century AD, measured longitude officially established as the prime meridian. Today, all mar-
eastward from a reference meridian 2 degrees west of the itime nations have designated the Greenwich meridian the
Canary Islands. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI established a prime meridian, except in a few cases where local references
line in the Atlantic west of the Azores to divide the territo- are used for certain harbor charts.
ries of Spain and Portugal. For many years, cartographers Charts are graphic representations of areas of the earth
of these two countries used this dividing line as the prime for use in marine or air navigation. Nautical charts depict
meridian. In 1570 the Dutch cartographer Ortelius used the features of particular interest to the marine navigator.
easternmost of the Cape Verde Islands. John Davis, in his Charts have probably existed since at least 600 BC. Stereo-
1594 The Seaman’s Secrets, used the Isle of Fez in the Ca- graphic and orthographic projections date from the 2nd
naries because there the variation was zero. Mariners paid century BC. In 1569 Gerardus Mercator published a chart
little attention to these conventions and often reckoned their using the mathematical principle which now bears his
longitude from several different capes and ports during a name. Some 30 years later, Edward Wright published cor-
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 3

rected mathematical tables for this projection, enabling the metric format. Considerations of expense, safety of nav-
cartographers to produce charts on the Mercator projection. igation, and logical sequencing will require a conversion
This projection is still widely in use. effort spanning many years. Notwithstanding the conver-
Sailing directions or pilots have existed since at least sion to the metric system, the common measure of distance
the 6th century BC. Continuous accumulation of naviga- at sea is the nautical mile.
tional data, along with increased exploration and trade, led The current policy of the Defense Mapping Agency
to increased production of volumes through the Middle Hydrographic/Topographic Center (DMAHTC) and the
Ages. “Routiers” were produced in France about 1500; the National Ocean Service (NOS) is to convert new compila-
English referred to them as “rutters.” In 1584 Lucas
tions of nautical, special purpose charts, and publications to
Waghenaer published the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt (The
the metric system. This conversion began on January 2,
Mariner’s Mirror), which became the model for such pub-
1970. Most modern maritime nations have also adopted the
lications for several generations of navigators. They were
known as “Waggoners” by most sailors. Modern pilots meter as the standard measure of depths and heights. How-
and sailing directions are based on extensive data collec- ever, older charts still on issue and the charts of some
tion and compilation efforts begun by Matthew Fontaine foreign countries may not conform to this standard.
Maury beginning in 1842. The fathom as a unit of length or depth is of obscure
The compass was developed about 1000 years ago. origin. Posidonius reported a sounding of more than 1,000
The origin of the magnetic compass is uncertain, but Norse- fathoms in the 2nd century BC. How old the unit was then
men used it in the 11th century. It was not until the 1870s is unknown. Many modern charts are still based on the fath-
that Lord Kelvin developed a reliable dry card marine com- om, as conversion to the metric system continues.
pass. The fluid-filled compass became standard in 1906. The sailings refer to various methods of mathematical-
Variation was not understood until the 18th century, ly determining course, distance, and position. They have a
when Edmond Halley led an expedition to map lines of history almost as old as mathematics itself. Thales, Hippar-
variation in the South Atlantic. Deviation was understood chus, Napier, Wright, and others contributed the formulas
at least as early as the early 1600s, but correction of com- that permit computation of course and distance by plane,
pass error was not possible until Matthew Flinders traverse, parallel, middle latitude, Mercator, and great cir-
discovered that a vertical iron bar could reduce errors. Af- cle sailings.
ter 1840, British Astronomer Royal Sir George Airy and
later Lord Kelvin developed combinations of iron masses
104. The Earth
and small magnets to eliminate most magnetic compass
error.
The gyrocompass was made necessary by iron and The earth is an oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at
steel ships. Leon Foucault developed the basic gyroscope in the poles). Measurements of its dimensions and the amount
1852. An American (Elmer Sperry) and a German (Anshutz of its flattening are subjects of geodesy. However, for most
Kampfe) both developed electrical gyrocompasses in the navigational purposes, assuming a spherical earth introduc-
early years of the 20th century. es insignificant error. The earth’s axis of rotation is the line
The log is the mariner’s speedometer. Mariners origi- connecting the North Pole and the South Pole.
nally measured speed by observing a chip of wood passing A great circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and
down the side of the vessel. Later developments included a a plane through its center. This is the largest circle that can
wooden board attached to a reel of line. Mariners measured be drawn on a sphere. The shortest line on the surface of a
speed by noting how many knots in the line unreeled as the sphere between two points on the surface is part of a great
ship moved a measured amount of time; hence the term circle. On the spheroidal earth the shortest line is called a
knot. Mechanical logs using either a small paddle wheel or geodesic. A great circle is a near enough approximation to
a rotating spinner arrived about the middle of the 17th cen- a geodesic for most problems of navigation. A small circle
tury. The taffrail log still in limited use today was is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane which does
developed in 1878. Modern logs use electronic sensors or not pass through the center. See Figure 104a.
spinning devices that induce small electric fields propor-
The term meridian is usually applied to the upper branch
tional to a vessel’s speed. An engine revolution counter or
shaft log often measures speed onboard large ships. Dop- of the half-circle from pole to pole which passes through a given
pler speed logs are used on some vessels for very accurate point. The opposite half is called the lower branch.
speed readings. Inertial and satellite systems also provide A parallel or parallel of latitude is a circle on the
highly accurate speed readings. surface of the earth parallel to the plane of the equator. It
The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 and the Omnibus connects all points of equal latitude. The equator is a
Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 established the great circle at latitude 0°. See Figure 104b. The poles are
metric system of weights and measures in the United single points at latitude 90°. All other parallels are small
States. As a result, the government is converting charts to circles.
4 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

Figure 104a. The planes of the meridians meet at the Figure 104b. The equator is a great circle midway
polar axis. between the poles.

105. Coordinates the prime meridian and the meridian of a point on the earth,
measured eastward or westward from the prime meridian
Coordinates, termed latitude and longitude, can de- through 180°. It is designated east (E) or west (W) to indi-
fine any position on earth. Latitude (L, lat.) is the angular cate the direction of measurement.
distance from the equator, measured northward or south- The difference of longitude (DLo) between two plac-
ward along a meridian from 0° at the equator to 90° at the es is the shorter arc of the parallel or the smaller angle at the
poles. It is designated north (N) or south (S) to indicate the pole between the meridians of the two places. If both places
direction of measurement. are on the same side (east or west) of Greenwich, DLo is the
The difference of latitude (l, DLat.) between two numerical difference of the longitudes of the two places; if
places is the angular length of arc of any meridian between on opposite sides, DLo is the numerical sum unless this ex-
their parallels. It is the numerical difference of the latitudes ceeds 180°, when it is 360° minus the sum. The distance
if the places are on the same side of the equator; it is the sum between two meridians at any parallel of latitude, expressed
of the latitudes if the places are on opposite sides of the in distance units, usually nautical miles, is called departure
equator. It may be designated north (N) or south (S) when (p, Dep.). It represents distance made good east or west as
appropriate. The middle or mid-latitude (Lm) between a craft proceeds from one point to another. Its numerical
two places on the same side of the equator is half the sum value between any two meridians decreases with increased
of their latitudes. Mid-latitude is labeled N or S to indicate latitude, while DLo is numerically the same at any latitude.
whether it is north or south of the equator. Either DLo or p may be designated east (E) or west (W)
The expression may refer to the mid-latitude of two when appropriate.
places on opposite sides of the equator. In this case, it is
equal to half the difference between the two latitudes and 106. Distance On The Earth
takes the name of the place farthest from the equator. How-
ever, this usage is misleading because it lacks the Distance, as used by the navigator, is the length of the
significance usually associated with the expression. When rhumb line connecting two places. This is a line making
the places are on opposite sides of the equator, two mid-lat- the same angle with all meridians. Meridians and parallels
itudes are generally used. Calculate these two mid-latitudes which also maintain constant true directions may be consid-
by averaging each latitude and 0°. ered special cases of the rhumb line. Any other rhumb line
Longitude (l, long.) is the angular distance between spirals toward the pole, forming a loxodromic curve or
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 5

107. Direction On The Earth

Direction is the position of one point relative to anoth-

er. Navigators express direction as the angular difference in
degrees from a reference direction, usually north or the
ship’s head. Course (C, Cn) is the horizontal direction in
which a vessel is steered or intended to be steered, ex-
pressed as angular distance from north clockwise through
360°. Strictly used, the term applies to direction through the
water, not the direction intended to be made good over the
ground.
The course is often designated as true, magnetic, com-
pass, or grid according to the reference direction. Track
made good (TMG) is the single resultant direction from
the point of departure to point of arrival at any given time.
Course of advance (COA) is the direction intended to be
made good over the ground, and course over ground
(COG) is the direction between a vessel’s last fix and an
EP. A course line is a line drawn on a chart extending in the
direction of a course. It is sometimes convenient to express
a course as an angle from either north or south, through 90°
Figure 106. A loxodrome or 180°. In this case it is designated course angle (C) and
should be properly labeled to indicate the origin (prefix)
loxodrome. See Figure 106. Distance along the great circle and direction of measurement (suffix). Thus, C N35°E =
connecting two points is customarily designated great-cir- Cn 035° (000° + 35°), C N155°W = Cn 205° (360° - 155°),
cle distance. For most purposes, considering the nautical C S47°E = Cn 133° (180° - 47°). But Cn 260° may be either
mile the length of one minute of latitude introduces no sig- C N100°W or C S80°W, depending upon the conditions of
nificant error. the problem.
Speed (S) is rate of motion, or distance per unit of time. Track (TR) is the intended horizontal direction of
A knot (kn.), the unit of speed commonly used in navigation, travel with respect to the earth. The terms intended track
is a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour. The expression speed of and trackline are used to indicate the path of intended trav-
advance (SOA) is used to indicate the speed to be made el. See Figure 107a. The track consists of one or a series of
along the intended track. Speed over the ground (SOG) is course lines, from the point of departure to the destination,
the actual speed of the vessel over the surface of the earth at along which it is intended to proceed. A great circle which
any given time. To calculate speed made good (SMG) be- a vessel intends to follow is called a great-circle track,
tween two positions, divide the distance between the two though it consists of a series of straight lines approximating
positions by the time elapsed between the two positions. a great circle.

Figure 107a. Course line, track, track made good, and heading.
6 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

Heading (Hdg., SH) is the direction in which a vessel a point on the earth. A relative bearing is measured relative
is pointed, expressed as angular distance from 000° clock- to the ship’s heading from 000° (dead ahead) clockwise
wise through 360°. Do not confuse heading and course. through 360°. However, it is sometimes conveniently mea-
Heading constantly changes as a vessel yaws back and forth sured right or left from 0° at the ship’s head through 180°.
across the course due to sea, wind, and steering error. This is particularly true when using the table for Distance
Bearing (B, Brg.) is the direction of one terrestrial of an Object by Two Bearings.
point from another, expressed as angular distance from
000° (North) clockwise through 360°. When measured To convert a relative bearing to a true bearing, add the
through 90° or 180° from either north or south, it is called true heading:
bearing angle (B). Bearing and azimuth are sometimes used
interchangeably, but the latter more accurately refers to the True Bearing = Relative Bearing + True Heading.
horizontal direction of a point on the celestial sphere from Relative Bearing = True Bearing – True Heading.

Figure 107b. Relative Bearing.

DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIGATION

108. Latitude And Longitude Determination abilities of the average seaman. It was apparent that the so-
lution lay in keeping accurate time at sea.
Navigators have made latitude observations for thou- In 1714, the British Board of Longitude was formed,
sands of years. Accurate sun declination tables have been offering a small fortune in reward to anyone who could pro-
published for centuries, enabling experienced seamen to vide a solution to the problem.
compute latitude to within 1 or 2 degrees. Mariners still use An Englishman, John Harrison, responded to the chal-
meridian observations of the sun and highly refined ex-me- lenge, developing four chronometers between 1735 and
ridian techniques. Those who today determine their latitude 1760. The most accurate of these timepieces lost only 15
by measuring the altitude of Polaris are using a method well seconds on a 156 day round trip between London and Bar-
known to 15th century navigators. bados. The Board, however, paid him only half the
A method of finding longitude eluded mariners for promised reward. The King finally intervened on Harri-
centuries. Several solutions independent of time proved too son’s behalf, and Harrison received his full reward of
cumbersome. The lunar distance method, which determines £20,000 at the advanced age of 80.
GMT by observing the moon’s position among the stars, Rapid chronometer development led to the problem of
became popular in the 1800s. However, the mathematics re- determining chronometer error aboard ship. Time balls,
quired by most of these processes were far above the large black spheres mounted in port in prominent locations,
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 7

were dropped at the stroke of noon, enabling any ship in sides of the triangle were available. From these the meridian
harbor which could see the ball to determine chronometer angle was computed. The comparison of this with the Green-
error. By the end of the U.S. Civil War, telegraph signals wich hour angle from the almanac yielded the longitude.
were being used to key time balls. Use of radio signals to The time sight was mathematically sound, but the navigator
send time ticks to ships well offshore began in 1904, and was not always aware that the longitude determined was only as
soon worldwide signals were available. accurate as the latitude, and together they merely formed a point
on what is known today as a line of position. If the observed
109. The Navigational Triangle body was on the prime vertical, the line of position ran north and
south and a small error in latitude generally had little effect on
Modern celestial navigators reduce their celestial obser- the longitude. But when the body was close to the meridian, a
vations by solving a navigational triangle whose points are small error in latitude produced a large error in longitude.
the elevated pole, the celestial body, and the zenith of the ob- The line of position by celestial observation was un-
server. The sides of this triangle are the polar distance of the known until discovered in 1837 by 30-year-old Captain
body (codeclination), its zenith distance (coaltitude), and Thomas H. Sumner, a Harvard graduate and son of a United
the polar distance of the zenith (colatitude of the observer). States congressman from Massachusetts. The discovery of
A spherical triangle was first used at sea in solving lunar the “Sumner line,” as it is sometimes called, was consid-
distance problems. Simultaneous observations were made of ered by Maury “the commencement of a new era in
the altitudes of the moon and the sun or a star near the ecliptic practical navigation.” This was the turning point in the de-
and the angular distance between the moon and the other velopment of modern celestial navigation technique. In
body. The zenith of the observer and the two celestial bodies Sumner’s own words, the discovery took place in this
formed the vertices of a triangle whose sides were the two manner:
coaltitudes and the angular distance between the bodies. Us-
ing a mathematical calculation the navigator “cleared” this Having sailed from Charleston, S. C., 25th November,
distance of the effects of refraction and parallax applicable to 1837, bound to Greenock, a series of heavy gales from the
each altitude. This corrected value was then used as an argu- Westward promised a quick passage; after passing the
ment for entering the almanac. The almanac gave the true Azores, the wind prevailed from the Southward, with thick
lunar distance from the sun and several stars at 3 hour inter- weather; after passing Longitude 21° W, no observation
vals. Previously, the navigator had set his watch or checked was had until near the land; but soundings were had not far,
its error and rate with the local mean time determined by ce- as was supposed, from the edge of the Bank. The weather
lestial observations. The local mean time of the watch, was now more boisterous, and very thick; and the wind still
properly corrected, applied to the Greenwich mean time ob- Southerly; arriving about midnight, 17th December, within
tained from the lunar distance observation, gave the 40 miles, by dead reckoning, of Tusker light; the wind
longitude. hauled SE, true, making the Irish coast a lee shore; the ship
The calculations involved were tedious. Few mariners was then kept close to the wind, and several tacks made to
could solve the triangle until Nathaniel Bowditch published his preserve her position as nearly as possible until daylight;
simplified method in 1802 in The New American Practical when nothing being in sight, she was kept on ENE under
Navigator. short sail, with heavy gales; at about 10 AM an altitude of
Reliable chronometers were available in 1802, but their the sun was observed, and the Chronometer time noted;
high cost precluded their general use aboard most ships. but, having run so far without any observation, it was plain
However, most navigators could determine their longitude the Latitude by dead reckoning was liable to error, and
using Bowditch’s method. This eliminated the need for par- could not be entirely relied on. Using, however, this Lati-
allel sailing and the lost time associated with it. Tables for the tude, in finding the Longitude by Chronometer, it was
lunar distance solution were carried in the American nautical found to put the ship 15' of Longitude E from her position
almanac until the second decade of the 20th century. by dead reckoning; which in Latitude 52° N is 9 nautical
miles; this seemed to agree tolerably well with the dead
110. The Time Sight reckoning; but feeling doubtful of the Latitude, the observa-
tion was tried with a Latitude 10' further N, finding this
The theory of the time sight had been known to mathe- placed the ship ENE 27 nautical miles, of the former posi-
maticians since the development of spherical trigonometry, tion, it was tried again with a Latitude 20' N of the dead
but not until the chronometer was developed could it be used reckoning; this also placed the ship still further ENE, and
by mariners. still 27 nautical miles further; these three positions were
The time sight used the modern navigational triangle. The then seen to lie in the direction of Small’s light.
codeclination, or polar distance, of the body could be deter- It then at once appeared that the observed altitude
mined from the almanac. The zenith distance (coaltitude) was must have happened at all the three points, and at
determined by observation. If the colatitude were known, three Small’s light, and at the ship, at the same instant of time;
8 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

Figure 110. The first celestial line of position, obtained by Captain Thomas Sumner in 1837.

and it followed, that Small’s light must bear ENE, if igator had no choice but to solve each triangle by tedious,
the Chronometer was right. Having been convinced of manual computations.
this truth, the ship was kept on her course, ENE, the Lord Kelvin, generally considered the father of modern
wind being still SE., and in less than an hour, Small’s navigational methods, expressed interest in a book of tables with
light was made bearing ENE 1/2 E, and close aboard. which a navigator could avoid tedious trigonometric solutions.
However, solving the many thousands of triangles involved
In 1843 Sumner published a book, A New and Accurate would have made the project too costly. Computers finally pro-
Method of Finding a Ship’s Position at Sea by Projection on vided a practical means of preparing tables. In 1936 the first
Mercator’s Chart. He proposed solving a single time sight volume of Pub. No. 214 was made available; later, Pub. No. 249
twice, using latitudes somewhat greater and somewhat less was provided for air navigators. Pub. No. 229, Sight Reduction
than that arrived at by dead reckoning, and joining the two Tables for Marine Navigation, has replaced Pub. No. 214.
positions obtained to form the line of position. Modern calculators are gradually replacing the tables.
The Sumner method required the solution of two time Scientific calculators with trigonometric functions can easi-
sights to obtain each line of position. Many older navigators ly solve the navigational triangle. Navigational calculators
preferred not to draw the lines on their charts, but to fix their readily solve celestial sights and perform a variety of voyage
position mathematically by a method which Sumner had planning functions. Using a calculator generally gives more
also devised and included in his book. This was a tedious accurate lines of position because it eliminates the rounding
but popular procedure. errors inherent in tabular inspection and interpolation.

111. Navigational Tables 112. Electronics And Navigation

Spherical trigonometry is the basis for solving every Perhaps the first application of electronics to naviga-
navigational triangle, and until about 80 years ago the nav- tion involved sending telegraphic time signals in 1865 to
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 9

check chronometer error. Transmitting radio time signals 114. Development Of Hyperbolic Radio Aids
for at sea chronometer checks dates to 1904.
Radio broadcasts providing navigational warnings, be- Various hyperbolic systems were developed from
gun in 1907 by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, helped World War II, including Loran A. This was replaced by the
increase the safety of navigation at sea. more accurate Loran C system in use today. Using very low
By the latter part of World War I the directional prop- frequencies, the Omega navigation system provides world-
erties of a loop antenna were successfully used in the radio wide, though less accurate, coverage for a variety of
direction finder. The first radiobeacon was installed in
applications including marine navigation. Various short
1921. Early 20th century experiments by Behm and Lan-
range and regional hyperbolic systems have been devel-
gevin led to the U.S. Navy’s development of the first
oped by private industry for hydrographic surveying,
practical echo sounder in 1922.
Today, electronics touches almost every aspect of navi- offshore facilities positioning, and general navigation.
gation. Hyperbolic systems, satellite systems, and electronic
charts all require an increasingly sophisticated electronics 115. Other Electronic Systems
suite. These systems’ accuracy and ease of use make them in-
valuable assets to the navigator. Indeed, it is no exaggeration The Navy Navigation Satellite System (NAVSAT)
to state that, with the advent of the electronic chart and dif- fulfilled a requirement established by the Chief of Naval Op-
ferential GPS, the mariner will soon be able to navigate from erations for an accurate worldwide navigation system for all
port to port using electronic navigation equipment alone. naval surface vessels, aircraft, and submarines. The system
was conceived and developed by the Applied Physics Labo-
113. Development Of Radar ratory of The Johns Hopkins University. The underlying
concept that led to development of satellite navigation dates
As early as 1904, German engineers were experimenting to 1957 and the first launch of an artificial satellite into orbit.
with reflected radio waves. In 1922 two American scientists, NAVSAT has been replaced by the far more accurate and
Dr. A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young, testing a communica- widely available Global Positioning System (GPS).
tion system at the Naval Aircraft Radio Laboratory, noted
The first inertial navigation system was developed in
fluctuations in the signals when ships passed between stations
on opposite sides of the Potomac River. In 1935 the British be- 1942 for use in the V2 missile by the Peenemunde group under
gan work on radar. In 1937 the USS Leary tested the first sea- the leadership of Dr. Wernher von Braun. This system used two
going radar. In 1940 United States and British scientists com- 2-degree-of-freedom gyroscopes and an integrating accelerom-
bined their efforts. When the British revealed the principle of eter to determine the missile velocity. By the end of World War
the multicavity magnetron developed by J. T. Randall and H. II, the Peenemunde group had developed a stable platform with
A. H. Boot at the University of Birmingham in 1939, micro- three single-degree-of-freedom gyroscopes and an integrating
wave radar became practical. In 1945, at the close of World accelerometer. In 1958 an inertial navigation system was used to
War II, radar became available for commercial use. navigate the USS Nautilus under the ice to the North Pole.

NAVIGATION ORGANIZATIONS

116. Governmental Roles navigation systems. Many maritime nations have similar
organizations performing similar functions. International
Navigation only a generation ago was an independent organizations also play a significant role.
process, carried out by the mariner without outside assis-
tance. With compass and charts, sextant and chronometer, 117. The Coast And Geodetic Survey
he could independently travel anywhere in the world. The
increasing use of electronic navigation systems has made The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey was founded in
the navigator dependent on many factors outside his con- 1807 when Congress passed a resolution authorizing a sur-
trol. Government organizations fund, operate, and regulate vey of the coast, harbors, outlying islands, and fishing
satellites, Loran, and other electronic systems. Govern- banks of the United States. President Thomas Jefferson ap-
ments are increasingly involved in regulation of vessel pointed Ferdinand Hassler, a Swiss immigrant and
movements through traffic control systems and regulated professor of mathematics at West Point, the first Director of
areas. Understanding the governmental role in supporting the “Survey of the Coast.” The survey became the “Coast
and regulating navigation is vitally important to the mari- Survey” in 1836.
ner. In the United States, there are a number of official The approaches to New York were the first sections of
organizations which support the interests of navigators. the coast charted, and from there the work spread northward
Some have a policy-making role; others build and operate and southward along the eastern seaboard. In 1844 the work
10 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

was expanded and arrangements made to chart simultaneous- with the log book data, were compiled into the “Wind and
ly the gulf and east coasts. Investigation of tidal conditions Current Chart of the North Atlantic” in 1847. This is the an-
began, and in 1855 the first tables of tide predictions were cestor of today’s Pilot Chart. The United States instigated
published. The California gold rush necessitated a survey of an international conference in 1853 to interest other nations
the west coast. This survey began in 1850, the year California in a system of exchanging nautical information. The plan,
became a state. Coast Pilots, or Sailing Directions, for the At- which was Maury’s, was enthusiastically adopted by other
lantic coast of the United States were privately published in maritime nations. In 1854 the Depot was redesignated the
the first half of the 19th century. In 1850 the Survey began “U.S. Naval Observatory and Hydrographical Office.” In
accumulating data that led to federally produced Coast Pilots. 1861, Maury, a native of Virginia, resigned from the U.S.
The 1889 Pacific Coast Pilot was an outstanding contribution Navy and accepted a commission in the Confederate Navy
to the safety of west coast shipping. at the beginning of the Civil War. This effectively ended his
In 1878 the survey was renamed “Coast and Geodetic career as a navigator, author, and oceanographer. At war’s
Survey.” In 1970 the survey became the “National Ocean end, he fled the country. Maury’s reputation suffered from
Survey,” and in 1983 it became the “National Ocean Ser- his embracing the Confederate cause. In 1867, while Maury
vice.” The Office of Charting and Geodetic Services was still absent from the country to avoid arrest for treason,
accomplished all charting and geodetic functions. In 1991 George W. Blunt, an editor of hydrographic publications,
the name was changed back to the original “Coast and Geo- wrote:
detic Survey,” organized under the National Ocean Service
along with several other environmental offices. Today it In mentioning what our government has done to-
provides the mariner with the charts and coast pilots of all wards nautical knowledge, I do not allude to the
waters of the United States and its possessions, and tide and works of Lieutenant Maury, because I deem them
tidal current tables for much of the world. Its administrative worthless. . . . They have been suppressed since
order requires the Coast and Geodetic Survey to plan and the rebellion by order of the proper authorities,
direct programs to produce charts and related information Maury’s loyalty and hydrography being alike in
for safe navigation of the Nation’s waterways, territorial quality.
seas, and national airspace. This work includes all activities
related to the National Geodetic Reference System; survey-
After Maury’s return to the United States in 1868, he
ing, charting, and data collection; production and
served as an instructor at the Virginia Military Institute. He
distribution of charts; and research and development of new
continued at this position until his death in 1873. Since his
technologies to enhance these missions.
death, his reputation as one of America’s greatest hydrog-
raphers has been restored.
118. The Defense Mapping Agency
In 1866 Congress separated the Observatory and the
Hydrographic Office, broadly increasing the functions of
In the first years of the newly formed United States of
the latter. The Hydrographic Office was authorized to carry
America, charts and instruments used by the Navy and mer-
out surveys, collect information, and print every kind of
chant mariners were left over from colonial days or were
nautical chart and publication “for the benefit and use of
obtained from European sources. In 1830 the U.S. Navy es-
navigators generally.”
tablished a “Depot of Charts and Instruments” in
Washington, D. C. It was a storehouse from which available The Hydrographic Office purchased the copyright of
charts, sailing directions, and navigational instruments The New American Practical Navigator in 1867. The first
were issued to Naval ships. Lieutenant L. M. Goldsborough Notice to Mariners appeared in 1869. Daily broadcast of
and one assistant, Passed Midshipman R. B. Hitchcock, navigational warnings was inaugurated in 1907. In 1912,
constituted the entire staff. following the sinking of the Titanic, the International Ice
The first chart published by the Depot was produced Patrol was established.
from data obtained in a survey made by Lieutenant Charles In 1962 the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office was redes-
Wilkes, who had succeeded Goldsborough in 1834. Wilkes ignated the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office. In 1972
later earned fame as the leader of a United States expedition certain hydrographic functions of the latter office were
to Antarctica. From 1842 until 1861 Lieutenant Matthew transferred to the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrograph-
Fontaine Maury served as Officer in Charge. Under his ic Center. In 1978 the Defense Mapping Agency
command the Depot rose to international prominence. Hydrographic/Topographic Center (DMAHTC) as-
Maury decided upon an ambitious plan to increase the mar- sumed hydrographic and topographic chart production
iner’s knowledge of existing winds, weather, and currents. functions. DMAHTC provides support to the U.S. Depart-
He began by making a detailed record of pertinent matter ment of Defense and other federal agencies on matters
included in old log books stored at the Depot. He then inau- concerning mapping, charting, and geodesy. It continues to
gurated a hydrographic reporting program among fulfill the old Hydrographic Office’s responsibilities to
shipmasters, and the thousands of reports received, along “navigators generally.”
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 11

119. The United States Coast Guard authorized to purchase everything necessary to continue as-
tronomical study. The observatory was completed in 1844
Alexander Hamilton established the U.S. Coast and the results of its first observations were published two
Guard as the Revenue Marine, later the Revenue Cutter years later. Congress established the Naval Observatory as
Service, on August 4, 1790. It was charged with enforcing a separate agency in 1866. In 1873 a refracting telescope
the customs laws of the new nation. A revenue cutter, the with a 26 inch aperture, then the world’s largest, was in-
Harriet Lane, fired the first shot from a naval unit in the stalled. The observatory, located in Washington, D.C., has
Civil War at Fort Sumter. The Revenue Cutter Service be- occupied its present site since 1893.
came the U.S. Coast Guard when combined with the
Lifesaving Service in 1915. The Lighthouse Service was 122. The Royal Greenwich Observatory
added in 1939, and the Bureau of Marine Inspection and
Navigation was added in 1942. The Coast Guard was England had no early privately supported observatories
transferred from the Treasury Department to the Depart- such as those on the continent. The need for navigational
ment of Transportation in 1967. advancement was ignored by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I,
The primary functions of the Coast Guard include mar- but in 1675 Charles II, at the urging of John Flamsteed, Jo-
itime search and rescue, law enforcement, and operation of nas Moore, Le Sieur de Saint Pierre, and Christopher Wren,
the nation’s aids to navigation system. In addition, the established the Greenwich Royal Observatory. Charles
Coast Guard is responsible for port safety and security, limited construction costs to £500, and appointed Flam-
merchant marine inspection, and marine pollution control. steed the first Astronomer Royal, at an annual salary of
The Coast Guard operates a large and varied fleet of ships, £100. The equipment available in the early years of the ob-
boats, and aircraft in performing its widely ranging duties. servatory consisted of two clocks, a “sextant” of 7 foot
Navigation systems operated by the Coast Guard in- radius, a quadrant of 3 foot radius, two telescopes, and the
clude the system of some 40,000 lighted and unlighted star catalog published almost a century before by Tycho
beacons, buoys, and ranges in U.S. waters; the U.S. stations Brahe. Thirteen years passed before Flamsteed had an in-
of the Loran C system; the Omega navigation system; ra- strument with which he could determine his latitude
diobeacons and racons; differential GPS (DGPS) services accurately.
in the U.S.; and Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) in major In 1690 a transit instrument equipped with a telescope
ports and harbors of the U.S. and vernier was invented by Romer; he later added a vertical
circle to the device. This enabled the astronomer to deter-
120. The United States Navy mine declination and right ascension at the same time. One of
these instruments was added to the equipment at Greenwich
The U.S. Navy was officially established in 1798. Its in 1721, replacing the huge quadrant previously used. The
role in the development of navigational technology has been development and perfection of the chronometer in the next
singular. From the founding of the Naval Observatory to the hundred years added to the accuracy of observations.
development of the most advanced electronics, the U.S. Other national observatories were constructed in the
Navy has been a leader in developing devices and techniques years that followed: at Berlin in 1705, St. Petersburg in
designed to make the navigator’s job safer and easier. 1725, Palermo in 1790, Cape of Good Hope in 1820, Parra-
The development of almost every device known to matta in New South Wales in 1822, and Sydney in 1855.
navigation science has been deeply influenced by Naval
policy. Some systems are direct outgrowths of specific 123. The International Hydrographic Organization
Naval needs; some are the result of technological im-
provements shared with other services and with The International Hydrographic Organization
commercial maritime industry. (IHO) was originally established in 1921 as the Internation-
al Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). The present name was
121. The United States Naval Observatory adopted in 1970 as a result of a revised international agree-
ment among member nations. However, the former name,
One of the first observatories in the United States was International Hydrographic Bureau, was retained for the
built in 1831-1832 at Chapel Hill, N.C. The Depot of Charts IHO’s administrative body of three Directors and a small
and Instruments, established in 1830, was the agency from staff at the organization’s headquarters in Monaco.
which the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office and the U.S. Na- The IHO sets forth hydrographic standards to be
val Observatory evolved 36 years later. Under Lieutenant agreed upon by the member nations. All member states are
Charles Wilkes, the second Officer in Charge, the Depot urged and encouraged to follow these standards in their sur-
about 1835 installed a small transit instrument for rating veys, nautical charts, and publications. As these standards
chronometers. are uniformly adopted, the products of the world’s hydro-
The Mallory Act of 1842 provided for the establish- graphic and oceanographic offices become more uniform.
ment of a permanent observatory. The director was Much has been done in the field of standardization since the
12 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

Bureau was founded. Monaco to provide suitable accommodations for the Bureau in
The principal work undertaken by the IHO is: the Principality. There are currently 59 member governments.
Technical assistance with hydrographic matters is available
• To bring about a close and permanent association be- through the IHO to member states requiring it.
tween national hydrographic offices. Many IHO publications are available to the general
• To study matters relating to hydrography and allied public, such as the International Hydrographic Review, In-
sciences and techniques. ternational Hydrographic Bulletin, Chart Specifications of
• To further the exchange of nautical charts and docu- the IHO, Hydrographic Dictionary, and others. Inquiries
ments between hydrographic offices of member should be made to the International Hydrographic Bureau,
governments. 7 Avenue President J. F. Kennedy, B.P. 445, MC98011,
• To circulate the appropriate documents. Monaco, CEDEX.
• To tender guidance and advice upon request, in par-
ticular to countries engaged in setting up or 124. The International Maritime Organization
expanding their hydrographic service.
• To encourage coordination of hydrographic surveys The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
with relevant oceanographic activities. was established by United Nations Convention in 1948. The
• To extend and facilitate the application of oceano- Convention actually entered into force in 1959, although an
graphic knowledge for the benefit of navigators. international convention on marine pollution was adopted in
• To cooperate with international organizations and 1954. (Until 1982 the official name of the organization was
scientific institutions which have related objectives. the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organiza-
tion.) It is the only permanent body of the U. N. devoted to
During the 19th century, many maritime nations estab- maritime matters, and the only special U. N. agency to have
lished hydrographic offices to provide means for improving its headquarters in the UK.
the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing The governing body of the IMO is the Assembly of
nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigation- 137 member states, which meets every two years. Between
al services. There were substantial differences in Assembly sessions a Council, consisting of 32 member
hydrographic procedures, charts, and publications. In 1889, governments elected by the Assembly, governs the organi-
an International Marine Conference was held at Washing- zation. Its work is carried out by the following committees:
ton, D. C., and it was proposed to establish a “permanent
international commission.” Similar proposals were made at • Maritime Safety Committee, with subcommittees
the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation for:
held at St. Petersburg in 1908 and again in 1912. • Safety of Navigation
In 1919 the hydrographers of Great Britain and France • Radiocommunications
cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an in- • Life-saving
ternational conference of hydrographers. London was • Search and Rescue
selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and • Training and Watchkeeping
on July 24, 1919, the First International Conference • Carriage of Dangerous Goods
opened, attended by the hydrographers of 24 nations. The • Ship Design and Equipment
object of the conference was “To consider the advisability • Fire Protection
of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in the • Stability and Load Lines/Fishing Vessel Safety
preparation, construction, and production of their charts • Containers and Cargoes
and all hydrographic publications; of rendering the results • Bulk Chemicals
in the most convenient form to enable them to be readily • Marine Environment Protection Committee
used; of instituting a prompt system of mutual exchange of • Legal Committee
hydrographic information between all countries; and of • Technical Cooperation Committee
providing an opportunity to consultations and discussions • Facilitation Committee
to be carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by the
hydrographic experts of the world.” This is still the major IMO is headed by the Secretary General, appointed by
purpose of the International Hydrographic Organization. the council and approved by the Assembly. He is assisted
As a result of the conference, a permanent organization by some 300 civil servants.
was formed and statutes for its operations were prepared. The To achieve its objectives of coordinating international pol-
International Hydrographic Bureau, now the International Hy- icy on marine matters, the IMO has adopted some 30
drographic Organization, began its activities in 1921 with 18 conventions and protocols, and adopted over 700 codes and rec-
nations as members. The Principality of Monaco was selected ommendations. An issue to be adopted first is brought before a
because of its easy communication with the rest of the world committee or subcommittee, which submits a draft to a confer-
and also because of the generous offer of Prince Albert I of ence. When the conference adopts the final text, it is submitted
 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION 13

to member governments for ratification. Ratification by a speci- to navigation services of more than 80 member countries
fied number of countries is necessary for adoption; the more for technical coordination, information sharing, and coordi-
important the issue, the more countries must ratify. Adopted nation of improvements to visual aids to navigation
conventions are binding on member governments. throughout the world. It was established in 1957 to provide
Codes and recommendations are not binding, but in a permanent organization to support the goals of the Tech-
most cases are supported by domestic legislation by the nical Lighthouse Conferences, which had been convening
governments involved. since 1929. The General Assembly of IALA meets about
The first and most far-reaching convention adopted by every 4 years. The Council of 20 members meets twice a
the IMO was the Convention of Safety of Life at Sea (SO- year to oversee the ongoing programs.
LAS) in 1960. This convention actually came into force in Five technical committees maintain the permanent
1965, replacing a version first adopted in 1948. Because of programs:
the difficult process of bringing amendments into force in-
ternationally, none of subsequent amendments became • The Marine Marking Committee
binding. To remedy this situation, a new convention was • The Radionavigation Systems Committee
adopted in 1974, and became binding in 1980. Among the • The Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) Committee
regulations is V-20, requiring the carriage of up-to-date • The Reliability Committee
charts and publications sufficient for the intended voyage. • The Documentation Committee
Other conventions and amendments were also adopted,
such as the International Convention on Load Lines (adopt- IALA committees provide important documentation to
ed 1966, came into force 1968), a convention on the tonnage the IHO and other international organizations, while the
measurement of ships (adopted 1969, came into force 1982), IALA Secretariat acts as a clearing house for the exchange
The International Convention on Safe Containers (adopted of technical information, and organizes seminars and tech-
1972, came into force 1977), and the convention on Inter- nical support for developing countries.
national Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea Its principle work since 1973 has been the implemen-
(COLREGS) (adopted 1972, came into force 1977). tation of the IALA Maritime Buoyage System, described in
The 1972 COLREGS convention contained, among Chapter 5, Visual Aids to Navigation. This system replaced
other provisions, a section devoted to Traffic Separation some 30 dissimilar buoyage systems in use throughout the
Schemes, which became binding on member states after world with 2 major systems.
having been adopted as recommendations in prior years. IALA is based near Paris, France in Saint-Germaine-
One of the most important conventions is the Internation- en-Laye.
al Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL 73/78), which was first adopted in 1973, amended 126. The Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
by Protocol in 1978, and became binding in 1983. This conven- Services
tion built on a series of prior conventions and agreements dating
from 1954, highlighted by several severe pollution disasters in- The Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
volving oil tankers. The MARPOL convention reduces the Services is a non-profit organization which serves as a fo-
amount of oil discharged into the sea by ships, and bans dis- cal point for the exchange of information and the
charges completely in certain areas. A related convention development of recommendations and standards related to
known as the London Dumping Convention regulates dumping all aspects of maritime telecommunications.
of hazardous chemicals and other debris into the sea. Specifically, RTCM:
IMO also develops minimum performance standards
for a wide range of equipment relevant to safety at sea. • Promotes ideas and exchanges information on mari-
Among such standards is one for the Electronic Chart Dis- time telecommunications.
play and Information System (ECDIS), the digital • Facilitates the development and exchange of views
display deemed the operational and legal equivalent of the among government, business, and the public.
conventional paper chart. • Conducts studies and prepares reports on maritime
Texts of the various conventions and recommendations, telecommunications issues to improve efficiency
as well as a catalog and publications on other subjects, are and capabilities.
available from the Publications Section of the IMO at 4 Al- • Suggests minimum essential rules and regulations
bert Embankment, London SE1 7SR, United Kingdom. for effective telecommunications.
• Makes recommendations on important issues.
125. The International Association Of Lighthouse • Pursues other activities as permitted by its by-laws
Authorities and membership.

The International Association of Lighthouse Au- Both government and non-government organizations
thorities (IALA) brings together representatives of the aids are members, including many from foreign nations. The or-
14 INTRODUCTION TO MARINE NAVIGATION

ganization consists of a Board of Directors, the Assembly 1957 whose purpose is to coordinate the efforts of marine
consisting of all Members, Officers, staff, technical advi- electronics manufacturers, technicians, government agen-
sors, and standing and special committees. cies, ship and boat builders, and other interested groups. In
Working committees are formed as needed to develop of- addition to certifying marine electronics technicians and
ficial RTCM recommendations regarding technical standards professionally recognizing outstanding achievements by
and policies in the maritime field. Currently committees exist corporate and individual members, the NMEA sets stan-
for maritime safety information, electronic charts, emergency dards for the exchange of digital data by all manufacturers
position-indicating radiobeacons (EPIRB’s) and personal lo- of marine electronic equipment. This allows the configura-
cator beacons, survival craft telecommunications, differential tion of integrated navigation system using equipment from
GPS, and GLONASS. Ad hoc committees address short-term different manufacturers.
concerns such as regulatory proposals. NMEA works closely with RTCM and other private
RTCM headquarters is in Washington D.C. organizations and with government agencies to monitor the
status of laws and regulations affecting the marine electron-
127. The National Marine Electronic Association ics industry.
It also sponsors conferences and seminars, and pub-
The National Marine Electronic Association lishes a number of guides and periodicals for members and
(NMEA) is a professional trade association founded in the general public.