Architecture Inspired by Nature

María Rosa Cervera Sardá
Elena-Codina Dușoiu
Tana Nicoleta Lascu Editors
Architecture
Inspired by Nature
Experimenting Bionics
Architecture Inspired by Nature
María Rosa Cervera Sardá
Elena-Codina Dușoiu • Tana Nicoleta Lascu
Editors
Architecture Inspired
by Nature
Experimenting Bionics
Editors
María Rosa Cervera Sardá Elena-Codina Dușoiu
Universidad de Alcalá “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture
Alcalá de Henares, Spain and Urban Planning
Bucharest, RO, Romania
Tana Nicoleta Lascu
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture
and Urban Planning
ISBN 978-3-031-33143-5 ISBN 978-3-031-33144-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33144-2
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Paper in this product is recyclable.
Introduction
The application of bionics and detailed study of nature in architecture and design have not
been widely approached yet, even if specialists seem to be convinced about its potential and
diversity. The book comes to fill this gap, bringing together the opinion of specialists from
several countries who are concerned with the field. An international multidisciplinary team
was gradually developed around Professor Rosa Cervera, based at the School of Architecture
of the University of Alcalá, Spain. This research is probably the most complete and diverse
approach in the field. The book can be studied as a source of inspiration by architects, design-
ers, engineers and so on and is also a good tool for students from all fields of visual arts, engi-
neering, physics and many other domains, opening the way to amazing discoveries in the
future.
Architecture Inspired by Nature. Experimenting Bionics is the result of some decades of
research and experiments, realized by the authors individually or collaboratively. The book is
conceived in five sections: the first four sections include the scientific contributions grouped
into four different categories; the fifth and last section “Practicing Bionics. Experimental
Workshops” contains a short selection of workshop results with the aim of illustrating the
translation of bionic thinking into a new approach to design and architecture. The five sections
of the book offer an overall view of the object of research from a correct understanding of
nature through the tools of bionics, from general to particular and from simple to complex. The
book proves how bionic thinking can be employed at various scales: territory and landscape,
architecture and construction, interior and object design, construction materials – going into a
micro and nano scale in the end.
The first section of the book, Learning from Natural Structures: The Basis for a Bionic
Approach, constitutes a basis for the study of nature, mainly referring to the various categories
of natural structures and some principles for their correct understanding: specific geometry,
configuration, proportion and dimensions, physical properties etc. While it is proved that natu-
ral structures are by far more performant than the ones created by humans, it is an inborn
impulse to study them and to apply to artificial constructions the criteria that have ensured the
success in nature. The section starts with a creative contribution by Rosa Cervera and Iván
Curiel, presenting how structural models from nature, both at a macro and micro scale, have
been applied to architectural buildings after the industrial revolution and how this type of study
can be pushed further and expanded. The next contribution refers to the application of bionics
in the conception of tall buildings, by Mark Sarkisian, engineer and researcher with outstand-
ing experience in the field, representing Skidmore, Owings & Merill – SOM. The next work
consists in the analysis of large deployment structures, studied by Frei Otto, as a result of his
observations of the spider’s web and other natural structures, presented by Juan Maria Songel.
Next, the section focuses on the more reduced scale of interior design and furniture, defining
the study of four categories of natural principles to be considered, by Codina Duşoiu. The first
section ends with research on increasing and diversifying possibilities of light perception in
architectural space, taking inspiration from the accurate perception of light of various species
of organisms present in nature, analyzed by Codina Duşoiu.
The second section, Establishing the Tools: Parametric and Biodigital Architectural Design,
makes a further step into the methodology of dealing with bionics in design. The first
v
vi Introduction
c ontribution by Alberto T. Estevez and Yomna K. Abdallah is based on the generative biodigi-
tal design concept, which has been studied and practiced by the authors in various projects and
experiments, in terms of forms, biomanufacturing, materials, tissues and even biocybernetics.
The second one, by Mauro Costa, is an analysis of the cognitive revolution generated by the
new media and the extended reality and their effects on human mind, with a complete change
of paradigm in the interpretation of the relation with surrounding environment and nature.
Ioseph Cabeza-Lainez follows with a personal interpretation of geometric surfaces derived
from the conoid and proves the applicability of this family of forms inspired from nature in
architecture and design. In the end of the section, Anca Vitcu presents an essay about how new-
generation machine learning algorithms are not always a reliable tool, as they can distort a
natural, authentic perception of the surrounding environment and its values.
The third section, Studying Scales in Territory: Bionics and Landscape, brings into discus-
sion the concept of scale in design, mainly referring to the study of territory, landscape and
sustainable urban planning. Tana Lascu presents an original perspective on the interpretation
of landscape as a process, analyzed by using a transdisciplinary vision, including notions of
fractal theory, semiotics and other related sciences. Henry Lazarte expounds the disruptive
biotope concept, exemplifying it by the case of the Rimac River in Peru and explaining the
level of contamination of this river and its neighboring area and its effects on the surrounding
environment. Ivan Curiel moves further the concern about the environmental crisis on Earth,
wondering whether sustainable design can be a solution for the continuity of life on our planet.
Cerasella Crăciun and Codruț Papina study the origins of the biophilia concept and its potential
for future strategies in urban planning. Some modern and contemporary study cases are ana-
lyzed and compared (Portland, in the United States, Singapore and the European models of
the Garden City. Additionally, the authors share conclusions from their own projects, strategi-
cally considering landscape at a territorial scale for the cities of Bucharest and Buzău, in
Romania. The contribution which concludes the section, belonging to Ana Mohonea, brings an
original and useful approach, to be applied both to architecture and urban planning, referring
to a proposal of bionic criteria for sustainable labelling of buildings.
The fourth section, Researching on Materials: from Macro to Nano, focuses on the analysis
of innovative materials applicable in architectural bionics and sustainable design, considering
a variety of scales. All the contributions in this section are based on original laboratory sub-
stantiations, with direct and immediate applicability. Maria Segura, representing the company
AlgaEnergy, Spain, explains the potential of the use of micro-algae as an industry for the
future, as a source of energy in the fields of agriculture, food and feed, aquaculture, energy,
pharmaceutical and cosmetics. The contribution explains the conditions necessary to the culti-
vation of micro-algae as well. Rosa Cervera and Maria Rosa Villalba share the experience of
translating the process of cultivation of micro-algae to architectural design and its benefits,
obtaining a zero-carbon print. The next three contributions propose innovative material inspired
by bionic laws. The first proposal refers to nanocomponents for new constructions and tech-
nologies, by Hugo Varela, Gonzalo Barluenga, and Arnaud Perrot. The next one deals with
PET residual recycled concrete and post-fire self-healing concrete, obtained through a bacteria
encapsulation method by Ajitanshu Vedrtnam. The last contribution of the section remains in
the same investigation area, referring to cement-based materials with self-modulating and self-
sensing properties, by Javier Puentes, Irene Palomar, Gonzalo Barluenga, and Cynthia Guardia
Martin.
The fifth section of the book, the last and the concluding one, brings a different perspective,
being in fact a visual and experimental second part. The section is based on a selection of proj-
ects that were produced during the workshops dedicated to research of architectural bionics,
organized by the University of Alcalá, in 2011, 2012, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, as well as at the
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning in 2009, 2010, 2014, 2017, 2019,
2022, with the contribution of participating lecturers and students. All these events were gener-
ated by María Rosa Cervera Sardá, some of them with the contribution of Javier Pioz, Cristina
Ochinciuc, Elena-Codina Duşoiu and Tana-Nicoleta Lascu. The projects are classified in eight
Introduction vii
categories, offering eight possible methods of investigation offered by the deep study of natu-
ral laws and principles: vertical structures, bioinspired forms, fluid topological compositions,
design with fractal geometry, building with modules, recycling and self-healing structures,
perception of light, lightweight structures.
The stimulation of continuous transversal mental representations leads the student to con-
nect with what the school institutionally separates. In this case, knowledge is enriched through
analogical metaphors that can return a more organic and complementary perception of the
complex epistemological universe we are living in.
Using bionics as an interface between the natural and man-made world, the workshops have
been a model of systemic and empathetic education about the real world, leading to new cycles
of conceptual thinking that offer new challenges in the noosphere. Truely creative laboratories
that discovered geometric patterns and bio-morphological laws, have generated a transversal
perception able to understand complex potentialities and going beyond the limits of disciplin-
ary didactics. It has also activated a type of evolutionary sensibility based on a holistic vision
that allows us to understand the dynamism of the organic world, and to perceive human cre-
ation as an integral part of natural creation.
We believe this book will represent a useful tool for academics and professionals belonging
to a variety of fields: architects, designers, engineers, biologists, physicians, etc., as well as for
students from all fields of architecture and visual arts – design, media, etc. and for students in
engineering, physics, biology, to name just a few areas. At the same time, we hope the book
will provide a pleasant reading quality time for everybody who is interested in a deeper under-
standing of nature and in encountering solutions for respectful adaptation to life on our planet.
Alcalá de Henares, Spain María Rosa Cervera Sardá

Bucharest, Romania Elena-Codina Duşoiu
Bucharest, Romania Tana Nicoleta Lascu
December 22, 2022

Foreword: Uncertainty. Physics and
Structures of Life
After 400 years, physics has reached the limit of the study of simple and linear systems. Now,
we are entering the new adventure of trying to understand complex structures and situations.
Moreover, here we can learn from living systems.
In physics, we have many unsolved problems dealing with subjects like fluid turbulence,
nonlinear waves, weather and climate, the structure of stars, and particularly the sun, and many
others. All these systems are characterized by having many different parts, sizes and time
scales in nonlinear interactions, and this is a characteristic of living structures.
The nonlinear interactions produce uncertainty in the time evolution of the physical systems
and that is also a property of living structures that are anything but deterministic. Can we learn
from living beings in these aspects?
When a fluid moves in a spatial domain with big scales, or moves with a high velocity, the
fluid organizes itself in three-dimensional vortexes that decompose into smaller and smaller
ones and combine into bigger systems, filling up the available space with individual structures
of all available spatial scales. We are, until now, unable to explain this phenomenon. The
motion is uncertain. As the atmosphere is a fluid moving in big space and time scales, and at
times with very high velocities, its motion is turbulent, forming big vortexes that represent
storms and in certain cases, hurricanes and typhoons, that move in an uncertain way.
The climate is the analysis of the weather on long time scales. In scales of centuries, the
weather patterns change in a notable way. Around 800 AD, the average temperature in Europe
increased by around 1.5°C, promoting the surge of population in the Scandinavian region, and
massive migrations towards the south (the viking cruises). The reverse happened around 1650,
when the average temperature decreased around 1.5°C all around the world, causing famines,
revolutions and abandonment of residence sites, for instance in New Mexico. Climate change,
and its evolution, is uncertain.
Uncertainty is the rule in the universe, although the human beings try hard to eliminate it.
However, it is impossible, and it is much better to assume that it is, and will be, always present,
and design our structures accepting this reality.
This assumption should force designs that provide alternative ways and solutions, and plan-
ning for many different possibilities.
For instance, urbanism. Cities are made new, or are reformed when existing, with the idea
of a regular way of living, when the reality is that living in them has important chaotic ele-
ments. As this chaos is often not taken into account, there are no departments in municipal
administrations that deal with alternative plans.
For instance, in January 2021, a big episode of snowing took place in Madrid. No plan was
extant to deal with this possible occurrence, with the result that the city was paralyzed for ten
days, with huge economic losses and a considerable disruption of social life.
Now, life acknowledges uncertainty. Bacteria mutate constantly. Insects produce hundreds
of eggs, fishes, millions of them, because it is uncertain if anyone will fructify.
Inside trees and the bodies of big animals there are no traffic jams, although fluid motion is
crucial for the life to keep on. Traffic inside the bodies is carried smoothly due to multiple
branching. Walls surround human cities as a relic of warlike times, when attacks were at the
level of the soil. Now the attacks are done by air, so walls are obsolete, but we have surrounded
ix
x Foreword: Uncertainty. Physics and Structures of Life
cities by the walls of circular highways with an extremely reduced number of entrances. Traffic
jams are the norm in all cities of the world. There is neither branching nor capillarity.
To solve this problem, the only solution that city planners develop is to concentrate the
people in saturated buses and trains, which are the contrary to the smooth circulation. No living
system, be it vegetal or animal, save the human beings, concentrate its cells with a daily peri-
odicity to produce the resources needed to live.
If we learn from the universe of plants, hierarchical cities with “a center” must be aban-
doned. Instead, we should distribute people and institutions in many highly connected nuclei,
where the connections should be smooth instead of concentrated. This can be obtained by a
system of moving platforms with increasing speeds, in a way that any walking person could
jump from the street into the first platform and reach the central one in 4 or 5 jumps if she must
travel long distances between centers of population.
Life is smooth and distributed. People inhabit today monster agglomerations that present no
evident advantages and clear unsolved problems.
We must learn from living systems and their solutions to confront inescapable uncertainty.
University of Alcalá Antonio Ruiz de Elvira

Alcalá de Henares, Spain
Acknowledgements
This book was made possible due to the research and experimental workshops on bionics and
its connection with architecture carried out at the University of Alcalá de Henares (Spain), and
at the “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning (Bucharest, Romania) between
2009 and 2022. The results owe to the collaboration with all the professors and professionals
involved, as well as with the institutions and companies to which they belong. We mention
here especially Javier Pioz, who was part of the team in the first editions developed in Romania
and Spain.
We would like to express our gratitude for the collaboration of Prof. em. Ph.D. Arch.
Cristina Victoria Ochinciuc, former Director of the Doctoral School of IMUAU, one of the first
promoters of academic cooperation between the Schools of Architecture of the Universities
from Alcalá and Bucharest. We would also like to express our special thanks to the experts who
were members of the scientific committee of the book. We mention here Andreea Anamaria
Anghel, Lecturer, Ph.D. Arch. (Polytechnic University Timișoara, Romania). Subhes
Bhattacharyya, Prof. Ph.D. MEng. (University of Surrey, UK); Angelica Stan, Prof.
Ph.D. Arch., Director of the Council of Doctoral Studies (IMUAU, Bucharest, Romania).
Pablo Millán Millán, Prof. Ph.D. Arch.; Santiago Quesada García, Prof. Ph.D. Arch.; and
Inmaculada Rodríguez Cunill, Prof. Ph. D. Arch., from the University of Seville, Spain. Our
appreciation also goes to the reviewers and translators who helped with editing of the final
materials, mainly to Dana Lupu (“Ion N. Socolescu” College of Architecture and Public Works,
Bucharest), Victoria-Elena Vlad, Ana Cervera Benito and Maria Mohonea. Furthermore, we
would like to thank the people who helped with the layout of the last part of the book, namely
to Iván Curiel and to all the students who participated in the different editions of the workshops
and events we have organized together since 2009.
xi
Contents
Part I Learning from Natural Structures: The Basis for a Bionic Approach

Bio-inspired Lightweight Structural Systems: Nature-Inspired Architecture�� 3
María Rosa Cervera Sardá and Iván Curiel Martínez

Bionics and the Future of Tall Building Design�� 19
Mark P. Sarkisian

Frei Otto: Light Structures Inspired by Nature. Experiments with Physical
Self-Forming Processes: Soap Solutions, Viscous Fluids, Branching Structures
and Funicular Forms �� 49
Juan María Songel

Categories of Natural Principles and Their Adaptation to Bionic Design�� 69
The Bionic Paradigm of Light in Architecture and Design: From Animal Vision
to Architectural Conception�� 79
Part II Establishing the Tools: Parametric and Biodigital Architectural Design

Generative Biodigital Architecture and Design: From the DNA to the Planet�� 93
Alberto T. Estévez and Yomna K. Abdallah

Bionic Approaches and the Cyborg Culture: Human’s Phenotypic and Cognitive
Extensions �� 103
Mauro Costa Couceiro
The Potential of Architectural Forms Derived from the Conoid: Ruled Surfaces
in Parametric Design and Construction�� 111
Joseph Cabeza-Lainez

The Challenge of Next-Generation Machine Learning Algorithms for Architecture
Design and Living Environment �� 121
Anca Vitcu
Part III Studying Scales in Territory: Bionics and Landscape

Landscape as Process: A Transdisciplinary Integrated Approach�� 129
Tana Nicoleta Lascu

Disruptive Biotope: The Interstitial Space between Nature and Urbanism�� 139
Henry Daniel Lazarte Reátegui
xiii
xiv Contents

Life on Earth: Reflections in Times of Crisis�� 147
Iván Curiel
Evolutionary Biophilic Concerns in the Landscape and the Relationship
with the Future Consciousness Society�� 155
Cerasella Crăciun

Nature – A Structural Component for Future Human Settlements?
Biophilic City Approaches�� 161
Codruț Papina and Cerasella Crăciun

Bionic Criteria for Sustainable Labelling of Buildings�� 171
Ana Mohonea
Part IV Researching on Materials: From Macro to Nano

Microalgae Biotechnology: The Bioindustry of the Future�� 183
María Segura Fornieles
Cultivating Microalgae in Architecture: Toward a Zero Carbon Print:
A CO2 Sequester Analysis�� 191
Ma. Rosa Villalba and María Rosa Cervera Sardá
Nano-modified Materials for New Construction Technologies: Self-Compacting
and 3D Printing�� 205
Hugo Varela, Gonzalo Barluenga, and Arnaud Perrot

Bacteria Encapsulation Method for Achieving Post-Fire Self-Healing
in Concrete�� 215
Ajitanshu Vedrtnam and Gonzalo Barluenga

Adaptative and Bioinspired Materials: Cement-Based Materials
with Self-Modulating and Self-Sensing Properties �� 223
Javier Puentes, Irene Palomar, Gonzalo Barluenga, and Cynthia Guardia Martin
Experimental Bionics Workshops�� 233
Mark P. Sarkisian, María Rosa Cervera Sardá, Elena-Codina Duşoiu, Ana Mohonea,
and Tana Nicoleta Lascu
Index�� 239
About the Editors
María Rosa Cervera Sardá Ph.D. Architect, Professor and for-

mer Dean of the School of Architecture at the University of
Alcalá. Current Director of the Master’s degree in Advanced
Architecture and City Projects. She is the author of writings and
books on architecture, among which we highlight: Bionics,
Biomimetics and Architecture (2019); Space and Time in
Architectural Composition (2018); Recycling Mumbai.
Re-envisioning the Slum (2012); Madrid, Recycled City (2011);
Iron in 19th Century Madrid Architecture (2006). A regular
speaker in professional and academic circles, she has given lec-
tures in Spain, China, India, USA, Bolivia, Peru, El Salvador,
Venezuela, Romania, Italy, etc.
As an architect, Rosa Cervera has received several awards: the
“Antonio Maura” award, the COAM award, the “Transfer of
Knowledge” award, and has won several international architec-
ture competitions.
Rosa Cervera is a pioneer in the research of Bionics, Biomimetics
and the application of biological structures to innovative and efficient
architecture and urban design. A direct result of these studies is the Self-
Sustainable Vertical Garden City, Bionic Tower.
Elena-Codina Duşoiu is an Architect (graduated in 2000,

IMUAU) and Professor within the “Ion Mincu” University of
Architecture and Urban Planning from Bucharest, Romania. She
also accomplished study periods within the Polytechnic University
of Catalonia, Barcelona (Master in Restoration of Monuments,
2001) and Venice International University (Dottorato di Eccelenza.
Storia della Citta, dell’Architettura e del Restauro, 2004). Her
main fields of research are: rehabilitation and conversion of build-
ings (published books: The Dynamics of the Sacred Space. The
Influence of Function, 3 Breweries and Their Destiny, “Ion Mincu”
Publishing House, 2009), vernacular architecture and ecology
(organizer of 12 editions of Spanish-Romanian workshops on ver-
nacular architecture 2006-2018), design and bionics (research
studies realized within the IMUAU and the Alcalá University,
2021–2022). She received various research grants and published
about 100 scientific articles and 8 authored and co-authored books
in the mentioned research fields. Outstanding activity as visiting
professor in Spain, Italy, Greece, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein,
Argentina etc. Several national and international prizes and nomi-
nations in architectural research and architectural design, owner of
a personal architecture studio since 2003.
xv
xvi About the Editors
Tana Nicoleta Lascu Ph.D. Architect and Urban Planner,

Lecturer at the Basics of Architectural Design Department, Faculty
of Architecture of the “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and
Urban Planning from Bucharest.
Graduated at IMUAU in 1992 and having a postgraduate spe-
cialization in restoration and conservation of monuments and his-
toric sites, she has been involved in several restoration projects in
Romania, France, and Italy, thereafter developing more than 100
projects during the 7-year activity at Cornelis de Jong
Architektenburo bna, Middenbeemster, Noord-Holland, the most
significant in Urk, De Rijp, Marken and Beemster, elaborating
the project for the listing of Beemster polder on UNESCO World
Heritage List.
She was a Visiting Professor at the University of Liège (2014),
the University of Architecture in Venice – IUAV, and the
University of Alcalá (2021).
Since 2012, she has represented IMUAU within The Network
of Universities for Studies and Education according to the
European Landscape Convention – UNISCAPE.
Her doctoral thesis “Landscape as an Integrated Concept in
the Sustainable Development”, finalized in 2011, and her stud-
ies published in four books and over 20 international conference
Proceedings, as well as the three research grants and more than
50 international curated exhibitions, seminars and workshops,
emerged as a result of her constant interest in connecting archi-
tecture with landscape, within a transdisciplinary integrated
approach.
Part I
Learning from Natural Structures: The Basis for a
Bionic Approach
Bio-inspired Lightweight Structural
Systems: Nature-Inspired Architecture
María Rosa Cervera Sardá and Iván Curiel Martínez
Abstract tigation that establishes bridges with nature towards

creating the architecture of building “as light as air”.
The growing worldwide urbanisation trend, together with
an equally global energy crisis, is forcing a new stance in Keywords
building processes. The studies made to date conclude Vacuum/void · Structural micro-vacuum · Nature ·
that the global contribution of energy consumption of the Lightweight structure · Bio-inspired architecture · Tree
building sector has surpassed that of other industries. trunk
Nowadays, great care is taken regarding the reduction of
operational energy consumption during the useful life of
the building. However, looking into minimising the Introduction: Towards a Reduction
embedded or incorporated energy consumption is fairly in the Embedded Energy
recent. This relates to the energy that the making of the
building has consumed right up to minute zero, that is, the There is a growing global narrative of rampant urbanisation
very beginning of its useful life. The revolution 4.0 offers and an unstoppable expansion of constructions of all and any
opportunities that allow for new investigations in the range and class, which, together with the fossil fuel energy
reduction of material during the building and structural crisis, forces a new positioning in the constructive processes.
processes in construction. And taking a closer look into Since the first space voyages that took place in the 60s pre-
the examples nature has to offer is the starting point. In sented us with the view of a fragile blue planet, there has
the process of creating living forms, nature takes into been a waking up of consciousness. The first green move-
account the relationship between mass and energy. ments came into being aware of the necessity of preserving
Evolution in living organisms has been progressing life on Earth, our shared home. With the sum of pressing
towards a lightening up of mass to the point of making environmental, energy, demographics, etc., issues, any and
vacuum a constant in every step of the scale. And this is all efforts put into reducing the use of natural resources is a
the very reason why air is a great ally for both the stability must. In this chapter, we will analyse how nature’s morpho-
and the resistance of structures. Its great advantage is that genesis tends to lighten up the weight of solid matter to a
air does not carry embodied energy. Some examples of maximum.
naturally forming lightweight structures are revised in And it manages so by utilising the air as the lead element,
this chapter. The composition of a fragment of a tree trunk hence optimising the energy consumed. The objective is to
is taken here as a case study by delving into it through the build bridges with nature and learn from it so that it might
computer modelling of its composition and geometry. lead us to find novel construction systems that are truly
Thanks to digital computing, it has been found that in a efficient.
given tree trunk bulk, the presence of vacuum is quanti- An awareness has evolved over the last few decades of the
fied as 58% of the total. And with the tree being one of the twentieth century of the need to avoid any further squander-
slenderest natural shapes in the planet, of mighty resis- ing, and a solid theory has been developed over the opera-
tance and longevity, this chapter opens up a line of inves- tional energy or consumed energy of a building during the
period of time comprising its useful life. Practice has fol-
lowed theory first by the use of certificates of energy-saving
M. R. Cervera Sardá (*) · I. C. Martínez
systems that promote energy-efficient architecture, some-
Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] thing that has been undertaken by firms on a voluntary basis
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

M. R. Cervera Sarda et al. (eds.), Architecture Inspired by Nature, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33144-2_1
4 M. R. Cervera Sardá and I. C. Martínez
and later on with the relatively recent Building Technical tural processes by observing the examples nature has to offer
Codes dictated by governments and public administrations, as a starting point. The natural world takes into account the
which mandate that the totality of any new construction relationship between matter and energy in the process of cre-
scheme optimises energy use. ating living structures. The diverse materials responsible for
But the interest in reducing embedded or embodied the completion of natural textures require not only different
energy is nevertheless a rather recent affair. Embedded amounts of energy spent per unit of mass but also the differ-
energy comprises the amount of energy a building has ent proportions of such mass as determined by structural and
already consumed only just during construction up to the functional requirements (Cervera, 2019). In the process of
very start of its useful life: at minute zero. There is a require- effort optimisation in the evolution of living organisms, the
ment to revise materials, how these are produced, how they lessening of the weight of matter has been progressing in
are transported and introduced in the building site, as well as such a way that one of the lead materials utilised in forms
a revision of all construction criteria. The studies made to and structures is actually air. The air is a great ally of struc-
date tell us that the global construction contribution to energy tures for both stability and resistance, and it does not imply
consumption has surpassed that of other sectors such as embodied energy. The benefit is obvious and indisputable.
industry and transport (Pérez-Lombard et al., 2008). They Throughout this chapter, we will revise a diversity of vegetal
also agree that embedded or embodied energy in a building organisms and animal structures, focusing on analysing the
of an average useful life of approximately 50 years can com- tree trunk and delving into its process of systematically light-
prise up to 60% of the total, which is actually larger than the ening up its structure. In the balance of matter and air and the
operational energy of the building depending on construction geometry utilised to reach the vital requirements of stability
systems and typologies (Quispe Gamboa, 2016). and resilience lay the clues to a novel approach of construc-
The birth of industry in the eighteenth century radically tive processes.
changed construction methods and the pre-industrial materi-
als used. From building with little processed materials locally
sourced such as soil, clay, straw, stone and wood, the indus- io-inspired Lightweight Structures:
B
try shifted to using materials that require complex extraction Precedents
and elaboration processes. Among those most used in con-
temporary construction and that consume the most embodied The nature-inspired search for lightening up structures pres-
energy are iron, aluminium and plastics. In fact, each ton of ents remarkable examples throughout history. Such is the
steel consumes 35 MJ/kg (Cepeda Gutiérrez & Mardaras case of Antoni Gaudí, the utmost visionary representative in
Larrañaga, 2004). If we add to that the knowledge of its high the art of learning from nature and merging this knowledge
density, 7800 kg/m3, it turns out that one steel cubic metre with his architecture. Recently though, we might also refer to
needs 273,000 MJ, or to put it another way, 75.8394 kWh. other relevant professionals who have studied alternatives to
Even if steel is primarily used in linear rather than cubic- reduce the amount of construction material. Nature has been
shaped elements, its density and therefore weight implies a the starting point for Le Ricolais, Nervi, Torroja, Candela,
large amount of embedded energy. Ranking directly opposite Fuller and Frei Otto, among others.
among those that consume less energy is wood. Midway on The French engineer Robert le Ricolais (1894–1977)
the scale, we find ceramics, plaster, cement and concrete, to showed an interest in the internal structure of bones and their
name but a few of the most universally used. In the case of three-dimensional arrangement and was also interested in
concrete, it is one of the lead materials in contemporary con- the complex structural geometry of radiolarians. These stud-
struction, and significantly more efficient than steel; produc- ies provided him with a knowledge that evolved into the
tion requires 1.1 MJ/kg or 2.775 MJ/m3 of energy use experimental designs of lightweight structures with a reduc-
(Cepeda Gutiérrez & Mardaras Larrañaga, 2004), though it tion in the amount of solid matter. He went through a series
is used in very large quantities particularly on the founda- of prototypes to explore the limits of optimisation of a struc-
tions and buried parts, so it has a high impact of the embod- ture with maximum light and minimum weight by utilising
ied energy of a building. Revising the literature on this hollow forms and pentagonal and hexagonal geometries. He
subject, several studies agree that the structural part of a also looked into the functioning of the textures produced by
building, particularly when it includes underground storeys, soap, as well as into the tension generated by spiderwebs
might reach up to 60% of the total embedded energy (Cepeda when stresses were put upon them, and applied this to tenseg-
Gutiérrez & Mardaras Larrañaga, 2004). rity models (Juárez Chicote, 1996) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
The opportunities offered by the revolution 4.0 and cur- Engineers such as Pier Luigi Nervi (1891–1979), Eduardo
rent advances in the investigations into biomaterials allow to Torroja (1889–1961) and the architect Félix Candela (1910–
further expand new research that looks to minimise the 1997) worked on optimising structures using containers and
amount of material involved in the construction and struc- reinforced concrete ribbed shells inspired on folded struc-
Bio-inspired Lightweight Structural Systems: Nature-Inspired Architecture 5
Fig. 3 Complex structural formations with soap and water from skel-
etons. (Photo I. Curiel)
which succeeds in covering a space of 45 m by 111.5 m with

1.1 m by 15 cm ribs, and another work, realised together
with Vitellozzi, the Sports Arena in Rome that has the shape
of a spheroid cap of 69 m diameter that is 12 cm thick
(Fig. 4). One of the major reference sources he studied was
the geometrical and structural organisation in the leaves of
the water lily Victoria Amazónica (Fig. 5), as they served as
inspiration for his reinforced concrete ribbed shapes
Fig. 1 Structural formations with soap and water from two skeletons. (Granados, 2018).
(Photo I. Curiel) Eduardo Torroja looked to cover large areas with the min-
imum possible thickness (Fig. 6) and concentrated his search
in the exoskeletons in molluscs. Thanks to their curvature, it
is not only the now optimised material that offers resistance
but its geometry. One of his most distinguished works is the
Hipódromo de la Zarzuela (Zarzuela’s Racecourse) where he
manages 13 m high cantilevered slab roofs with curved
sheets of variable thickness that reach a mere 5 cm in the
extremes (Fig. 7).
Meanwhile, Félix Candela also applied the double curva-
ture structure. In this case, he used the paraboloid hyperbolic
as the prevailing geometry in his works. An early example is
the Capilla de Palmira (Palmira Chapel). It is a space exclu-
sively covered by a type of geometry known as saddle sur-
face or saddle roof in this case. It reaches 21 m in height and
it is just 4 cm thick per structural sheet. There are many tree
Fig. 2 Structural formations with soap and water from skeleton and
leaves that adopt this most characteristic shape to carry loads
movement. (Photo I. Curiel) such as water or snow while they themselves being extremely
lightweight (Figs. 8, 9, and 10).
tures. The objective was to save on construction material in Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983) was a visionary archi-
the zero load-bearing sections to achieve very thin structures, tect that studied the properties of materials and developed the
thanks to the ribs directed loads and the geometry used. so-called geodesic dome. He based it on the principles of
Nervi’s ribbed designs have great geometric strength and tensegrity, using structures configured by forces of traction
large span structures while minimising material on those and compression, where the elements work as though they
areas where there is no structural activity going on. Some of were a skeleton. So the geodesic dome is about a light and
his more widely known works are the Hangar of Orvieto, stable structure that can span large dimensions with the least
Fig. 4 Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome, Italy. (Photo R. Cervera)
amount of material involved. Even if Fuller’s work was not tensile structures guided architecture in a new direction. One
inspired by nature, it so happened that later on, in 1985, a of his most emblematic works is the Olympic Park in Munich
type of carbon molecule was found that had the same con- where the most significant work is the Olympic Stadium
figuration as his dome does. This molecule was named built with a PVC sheet just 4 mm thick (Fig. 12).
“Fullereno” in his honor (Fig. 11). Equal to the structure pro-
duced by Buckminster Fuller, these are greatly resilient mol-
ecules, thanks to the configuration of their hexagonal and acuum and Micro-vacuum: Nature’s
V
pentagonal unions between atoms as well as for being cova- Strategy for Structural Optimisation
lent bonds (Martínez, 2020).
Frei Otto (1925–2015) was an architect and engineer who In nature materials are expensive and form is cheap. (Vincent,
1997, p. 9)
contributed to the innovation of lightweight and extensible
structures inspired by natural phenomena and biological
forms such as spiderwebs and birds’ skulls. He created con- In the process of morphogenesis in the near infinite vari-
structive environmentally conscious solutions basing it all on ety of existing living species, nature tends to constantly
the self-generation processes of form such as the structures reduce the amount of material in use. The reason behind is
in a net of cables, pneumatic structures, etc. Just as in the ever so simple: Producing materials requires energy and
case of Le Ricolais, he was inspired by soap bubbles to gen- nature tends towards minimising the use of energy, given its
erate large structures. He developed all kinds of models, marked low efficiency. This is why forms and shapes in
looking to find methods of using the least possible amount of nature end up organising themselves with the minimum
material and energy in order to create large covered spaces. amount of embodied or embedded energy possible. And as
Thanks to technology, prefabrication and mass production, such, they can turn out to be a training book for artificial
Fig. 5 The geometry of the reverse side of the water lily leaf. (Cervera & Pioz)
Fig. 6 Geometry of the bivalve shell, Playa de Gavá, Barcelona. (I. Curiel)
man-made constructions. In the process, natural forms fol- cavities that make up the whole. The air becomes a material
low to optimise energy, and one of the most interesting strat- that cooperates to achieve strength and stability against the
egies we are able to observe is their choice of air as a primary impacts of gravity, winds, aggressions and earthquakes, their
element. Envisioning the world at a macroscopic scale, it own weight plus added ones, and all in all, the many forces
seems to be brimming with solid forms, massive and robust, that reign planet Earth. Le Ricolais knowingly interpreted
when they are in fact lightweight forms following a relent- this in his well-known reflection: “If instead of working with
less process of lessening the load. And this is iterated at solid elements one thinks of the empty spaces between them,
every scale, from macro to micro to nano and even atomic truth reveals itself” (Juárez Chicote, 1996, p. 8).
level, where vacuum percentage is 99%. This is the reason In this chapter, we shall focus on the macro and micro
the configuration of forms in nature is spongy and puffy like, scales as they are as affected by the forces of gravity and
balancing matter and the air that complements it in the empty wind aggressions as man-made constructions are. We could
Fig. 7 Construction and nature. Geometry of the Zarzuela racecourse and study of the curvature of a leaf. (I. Curiel)
Fig. 8 Church Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, Madrid. (Photo R. Cervera)
present here an infinite number of examples of living forms its perimeter with a thick wall. At a macro scale, this hollow
with a porous constitution. By way of an example, we shall tube presents a ratio between matter and vacuum of approxi-
revise some of the most notorious cases before delving into mately 50%, a bit less further down the base and up to 60%
the final objective of this chapter: the tree trunk. in the higher smaller parts at the top. Descending now to the
One of the flora species that best represents the vacuum as microscopic scale, we find the wall in the perimeter presents
the lead element of its structure is bamboo. It is the slender- a porous structure of heterogeneous density that is accentu-
est vertical structure that exists. Some varieties can reach a ated in the external layers of the bark. So the bark is dense
diameter to height ratio of 1/200, while others can grow up to the further out from the centre the layers are. The configura-
40 m high having a mere 20 cm thick diameter. Structurally tion of this wall can reach an average ratio of matter to vac-
speaking, bamboo is made up of a hollow tube surrounded in uum of 25–75%, respectively (Table 1). Finally, should we
Figs. 9 and 10 Hyperbolic paraboloid in a leaf. (Cervera & Pioz)
able to withstand the stresses of flying. If we take a feather

and cut through its pen, we will find the same bone formation
mentioned before: a structural hollow tube with an inner
three-dimensional network where void has an important role.
If we repeat the process on a barb with a 3 mm section, on a
barbule with a 1.5 mm section or on the very tip of a barbule
(0.5 mm), we’ll find the same formation. All in all, it is a
fractal process that seeks to lower weight at all scales. With
this mechanism of sponginess, material and non-material
parts cooperate to withstand the forces when moving through
the air. It is relevant the weight of the skeleton of birds in
comparison with their total weight (Cervera, 2019). For
example, the Bald Eagle weights about 4 kg, and its skeleton
is only 300 g due to the air inside the bones and amounts to
less than 1/13th of the total weight, and its plumage reaches
up to 600 g (Fig. 13). But even the skeleton of large land
mammals maintains the concept of porosity. It has a crown
of compact exterior bone with a larger density and an interior
spongy one inside with a variable density depending on its
Fig. 11 Fullerene molecule. (I. Curiel) resistance to stresses (Fig. 14).
The water lily leaf is a floating sheet of astounding struc-
tural efficiency that has inspired artists, engineers and archi-
add up the vacuum perceived simply by looking to the vac- tects alike (Fig. 15). Varieties such as the giant Amazonian
uum inside the most inner structure, we find that of all the water lily, Victoria Amazonica, can reach up to 2 m diameter
possible total volume of bamboo, only approximately 15% and can bear 40 kg of weight. The geometrical organisation
of it is actually made up of matter. of radio concentric nervation presents a fractal system that
The pneumatic structure of animal bones reaches its makes them subdivide themselves the further out from the
utmost expression in birds. The pneumatic structure has the centre they are. It is thanks to this subdivision that a series of
goal of reducing weight to improve flight. They adopt the polygons between the radial and concentric nervation are
form of hollow tubes with criss-crossing struts for structural generated that never exceed the optimum dimension so as to
strength. These trabeculae or diagonal projections of osseous not increase the thickness of the fine layer of the sheet. The
tissue work as braces of a structure and are arranged in all water lily leaf is highly porous in both the nervation and in
directions, creating an interesting three-dimensional network the parenchyma, which reduces its weight and makes it float.
Fig. 12 Tensile structure, Olympiastadion and Olympiapark, Munich, F. Otto. (Photo R. Cervera)
Despite this characteristic, and thanks to its ribs, it is highly

tubes organised in all three directions in space cooperate to
resistant (Cervera, 2019, p. 106). It has been studied that the increase resilience and lighten the weight.
Amazonian water lily leaf is an economy of matter that could In order to study the relationship between matter and void
have evolved in response to the cost-benefit associated with in arboreal structures, we have found it appropriate to con-
leaf size (i.e., benefit accrued by photosynthesis balanced by duct a differential study between types of wood, such as the
the costs of construction and maintenance) (Box et al., 2022). hard wood of beech, cherry, oak, maple, etc., and soft ones
such as pine, birch, black poplar, etc. The main difference for
classifying these two types of wood lay on the microstruc-
Analysing the Void Inside a Tree Trunk ture growth of each of them, the different tissues that con-
form them and their geometrical arrangement. The basic cell
Trees are structures vertically developed and embedded at types in wood are tracheids, vessels, fibres and parenchyma.
one of its ends. They could simulate a cantilever with a peak Depending on these elements’ specialisation, their function
load produced by the wind beared at the top (Cervera, 2019). leans more towards carrying liquids and nutrients or towards
Varieties such as sequoias can shoot up to 100 m high and being a skeleton-like structural support. In other cases, they
display a slender ratio that exceeds 1/30, something that is help in hormonal communication. Tracheids and paren-
unthinkable in buildings. This structure’s efficiency exists chyma prevail in softer woods, whereas vessels, fibres and
thanks to the large percentage of void at the micro level. The parenchyma do so in hard ones; however, differences might
apparently solid wood can manage a proportion of void of up appear depending on assorted species.
to 65% of its volume as we are about to see. Trees are the These basic components are all tubular like and have per-
slenderest forms on the planet, and they manage to lessen forated walls, as if they were perforated layers that allow
their load by having an internal puffy configuration of fibres water and nutrients to flow. These are larger in softer woods
and veins. The fractal increase of the wall surfaces of the than in harder ones. They are arranged in both radial and
numerous empty tubes that make up the wood does not con- axial manners. The conduits in axial disposition are the ones
dense the volume, but it does reduce the embodied energy. It with vertical dominance that runs parallel to the trunk’s axis
also carries other functions such as allowing water and its and plays a leading role in its constitution. And the radial
nutrients in from the roots to any and all the elements of the disposition conduits are perpendicular to the bark to ensure
tree by a process of capillarity. The vast number of nano- that water and nutrients flow laterally (Spicer, 2014) and
Table 1 Study of macro-vacuum

and micro-vacuum in the struc-
ture of bamboo. (R. Cervera;
I. Curiel)
contribute towards the three-dimensional bond of the struc- in a scientific sense, they do however offer an approxima-
ture (Table 2). Also to take into account is the helicoidal tion into how the system works towards lightening up its
growth of the whole that adds a double alternating direction structure. The trunk is made up of multiple small cooperat-
helix that, although this varies as per species, presents a ing hollow pieces and perforated walls, none of which
structural solution to the absorption of the lateral stresses depreciate structural capacity, and it also avoids grand ges-
produced by wind thrusts. tures in structural shape that would add to the total embed-
This chapter has followed a process of digitally replicat- ded energy. The continuity in the presence of vacuum
ing, as faithfully as possible, the makeup of the structure of explains the low density in wood compared to that of other
tree trunk fragments in two types of wood—hard and soft. materials, as it oscillates between 400 kg/m3 and 550 kg/m3
Thanks to digital modelling, the percentages of void and depending on tree species. Interestingly, it has been evi-
solid matter have been subsequently quantified in units denced that the elemental wood component that is the cel-
within the total volume of said fragments. lulose cell replicates at a micro scale the same hollow tube
The geometry of a tree trunk fragment has been repli- system that exists at the macro scale and also alternates lay-
cated by analysing each of the elements one by one, be them ers and helicoidal movement, reinforcing in this manner and
fibres, vessels, axial parenchyma, ray or radial parenchyma. at a cellular scale the same structural answer to the twists
The proportion of void in the total volume of the fragment and turns that wind incurs on the tree (Figs. 16 and 17). And
with respect to the proportion of solid matter has been cal- low density does not by any means equate to lower resil-
culated, and results show that hardwood presents up to 58% ience. It is quite the opposite in fact. The tension force of
(Table 3) of vacuum and softwood even up to 69% (Table 4). cellulose is 10,000 kg/cm2, which is greater than that of
Even if these amounts cannot be considered 100% accurate steel in spite of its density being 15 times lower. Lignin has
Fig. 13 Pneumatic structure in birds. (Cervera & Pioz)
a compression strength of 2400 kg/cm2, which is greater The parallel views on the morphological organisation in
than that of concrete, and that makes it lightweight in rela- living beings and the contemporary artificial constructions in
tion to its strength. We cannot compete with natural materi- architecture could pave the way towards getting past the
als at the moment but we can learn from their display and model that has been generically in place since it was intro-
geometrical disposition and from their mechanism of light- duced by the industrial production system. The possibilities
ening up matter (Cervera, 2019, p. 247). of new construction processes anticipated by the digital revo-
lution and recent scientific advances in bio- and nano materi-

als foresee a change of cycle that is in turn imperative in the
aim to reduce the consumption of natural resources.
Conclusion
Reducing the embedded or embodied energy in architectural

constructions is a clear need, as we are by now well aware of
the fact that it has a high impact in the overall life cycle of the
building. Investigations have taken place that looked into dif-
ferent living forms in nature in order to understand how they
are structurally and morphologically organised. It has been
observed in every case that they consistently lighten up the
amount of solid matter utilised and consequently use the sur-
rounding void as part of its structure. This particular quality
has already been investigated by relevant architects and engi-
neers, and it has been further examined in detail in this chap-
ter by looking into a tree trunk fragment and digitally
replicating its composition and geometry. Thanks to digital
modelling, the presence of vacuum in a given tree trunk has
been quantified at more than 58% and even up to 69%
Fig. 14 Cow bone. (Photo R. Cervera)
depending on species. With the tree being one of the slender-
Fig. 15 Xixi national water museum in Hangzhou. Structural design inspired by the water lily leaf. (Cervera & Pioz)
Table 2 Summary of the study

of the micro-vacuum composition
of hardwoods and softwoods.
(R. Cervera, I. Curiel)
Table 3 Hardwood case study.

(R. Cervera; I. Curiel)
Table 4 Softwood case study.

(R. Cervera; I. Curiel)
est natural shapes in the planet, of mighty resistance and lon-

gevity, this chapter opens up a line of investigation that
establishes bridges with nature towards creating the architec-
ture of building “as light as air”.
References
Box, F., Erlich, A., Guan, J. H., & Thorogood, C. (2022). Gigantic float-
ing leaves occupy a large surface area at an economical material
cost. Science Advances, 8(6), eabg3790. https://doi.org/10.1126/
sciadv.abg3790
Cepeda Gutiérrez, M., & Mardaras Larrañaga, I. (2004). Cuantificación
energética de la construcción de edificios y el proceso de
urbanización. Conarquitectura, 12, 65–80. Retrieved from http://
www.conarquitectura.com/articulos%20tecnicos%20pdf/12.pdf
Cervera, M. R. (2019). Biónica, biomimética y arquitectura:
Aprendiendo de la naturaleza = Bionics, biomimicry and architec-
ture: Learning from nature Barcelona: By Architect publications.
Granados, J. (2018). El ingeniero que eclipsó a los arquitectos: Pier
Luigi Nervi. Retrieved from https://arquitecturayempresa.es/
noticia/el-ingeniero-que-eclipso-los-arquitectos-pier-luigi-nervi
Juárez Chicote, A. (1996). El arte de construir con agujeros. reflexiones
en torno a Robert Le Ricolais. Madrid: E.T.S. Arquitectura (UPM).
Martínez, L. (2020). Creador de las cúpulas geodésicas, Buckminster
Fig. 16 Cellulose cell structure. (Cervera & Pioz) Fuller acuñó el término tensegrity. Retrieved from https://www.
revistaad.es/diseno/iconos/articulos/creador-cupulas-geodesicas-
buckminster-fuller-acuno-termino-tensegrity/25482
Pérez-Lombard, L., Ortiz, J., & Pout, C. (2008). A review on build-
ings energy consumption information. Energy and Buildings, 40(3),
394–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.03.007
Quispe Gamboa, C. N. (2016). Análisis de la energía incorporada y
emisiones de Co2 aplicado a viviendas unifamiliares de eficiencia
energética. Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Escuela Técnica
Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona.
Spicer, R. (2014). Symplasmic networks in secondary vascular tis-
sues: Parenchyma distribution and activity supporting long-distance
transport. Journal of Experimental Botany, 65(7), 1829–1848.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ert459
Vincent, J. (1997). Stealing ideas from nature. RSA Journal, 145(5482),
36–43. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/45402294
María Rosa Cervera

Sardá Ph.D. Architect, Professor and
former Dean of the School of
Architecture at the University of
Alcalá. Current director of the
Master’s degree in Advanced
Architecture and City Projects. She is
the author of writings and books on
architecture, among which we high-
light: Bionics, Biomimetics and
Architecture (2019); Space and Time
in Architectural Composition (2018);
Recycling Mumbai. Re-envisioning the Slum (2012); Madrid, Recycled
City (2011); Iron in 19th Century Madrid Architecture (2006). A regu-
lar speaker in professional and academic circles, she has given lectures
in Spain, China, India, USA, Bolivia, Peru, El Salvador, Venezuela,
Romania, Italy, etc.
Fig. 17 Torsion growth of the cellulose cell. (Cervera & Pioz)

As an architect, Rosa Cervera has received several awards – the Iván Curiel Martínez is an
“Antonio Maura” award, the “COAM” award, the “Golden Global Architect and Urban Planner from the
award”, the “Transfer of Knowledge” award – and has won several School of Architecture of the
international architecture competitions. University of Alcalá and graduated in
Rosa Cervera is a pioneer in the research of Bionics, Biomimetics the Master’s degree in Architecture in
and the application of biological structures to innovative and efficient 2022. He is currently studying the
architecture and urban design. A direct result of these studies is the Master in BioDigital Architecture at
Self-Sustainable Vertical Garden City, Bionic Tower. the International University of
Catalonia, Barcelona. Furthermore,
he has participated as support in a
couple of projects for the General
Foundation of the University of
Alcalá de Henares.
Bionics and the Future of Tall Building
Design
Mark P. Sarkisian
Abstract architecture (Fig. 1). Historically, natural growth patterns

have influenced art and useful products that use principles of
Research is essential for developing new ideas, creating assembly to create long-life durable goods. The concept of
resilient structures that have extended and predicted life interweaving structural elements is an appropriate approach
cycles. Through creative use of materials, construction to ideas of all scales whether in constructing a basket or an
techniques, and building performance, this research can ultra-tall building (Figs. 2 and 3).
address broad issues related to the life of structures start- Although optimization analysis techniques used to date
ing with urban planning and ending with health monitor- have been largely used to understand behavior rather than
ing. Awareness is key to solving complex issues and the provide results that can be used for final designs, the process
collaboration between academic study, research, and has been used to help define new structural system ideas for
practice is critical. major tower structures. These structures tend to be highly
This chapter will focus on how research has mani- customized with little repetition or mass application. Efforts
fested new approaches to design. Examples include the recently have been made to develop ideas with greater appli-
use of mechanized approaches to design, optimization cation and use on structures of all scales. In addition, the
theory, and machine learning. Ideas range from compo- process has led to even greater understanding of position
nents in buildings to entire cities, and the work includes structural elements that not only response to force flow but
projects from various places around the world. specific programmatic building requirements.
Efficient structural design leads to reduction in embodied
carbon. In addition to materials, construction processes and
time, and probabilistic damage of structural components or
systems, all contribute to full-life carbon. Enhanced struc-
Keywords tural engineering systems reduce construction time and
Carbon · Systems · Nature · Research · Resilience · improve performance during adverse conditions such as
Optimization · Seismic · Friction · Structural system · strong seismicity all leading to better solutions for the
Tower · Concrete · Steel · Building · Frame · Post- environment.
tensioning · Elastic · Ductile · Carbon · Pin-Fuse · Machine learning offers great potential for structures con-
Machine learning sidering quality control and perhaps future processes for
construction. This chapter illustrates inventions that use
machine learning to not only assess damage to structures but
Introduction compare in-place construction to design drawings (Fig. 4).
Recent research inspired by natural form and support by

advanced analysis tolls that utilize structural optimization Rational Structural Response to Force Flow
techniques has led to investigations of resilient structural
systems that are both efficient and influential in creating new The China Merchant competition submission was influenced
by natural force flow patterns and specific programmatic uses
M. P. Sarkisian (*) (Fig. 5). A reinforced concrete frame was designed to trans-
Structural Engineering Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, form over the building height and respond directly to internal
Chicago, IL, USA
uses. Sketches on the structural system were refined during the
e-mail: [email protected]

20 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 1 Natural plant formation
Fig. 2 Woven basket
Further refinement of the initial concept resulted in a

structural system that:
1. Included a wider perimeter, reinforced concrete column

spacing at the top of the tower where executive offices
would include greater unobstructed views and flexible
office spaces within
2. Incorporated concrete frame transitions and primary joint
public spaces approximately located at the 1/4 and 3/4
height elevations in the tower also corresponding to out-
rigger truss or wall interconnections with a central rein-
Fig. 3 Organic frame concept
forced concrete core well
3. Introduced closer perimeter, reinforced concrete column
process, finally resolving the structural solution with a frame spacing and the tower’s midsection where space would be
that could be used in combination with a central reinforced leased and any structural premium for perimeter span
concrete core interconnected with steel outrigger trusses or eliminated
concrete walls to resist lateral loads imposed from wind or 4. Included a wider perimeter, reinforced concrete frame
seismic conditions. These early sketches reflect a program- and the lower portion of the tower to accommodate large
matic change approximately 3/4 of the height of the tower. open tradition floor spaces
Bionics and the Future of Tall Building Design 21
Fig. 4 Optimization analysis and potential lateral load-resisting frames
Fig. 5 Conceptual drawings of structural system for the China Merchant Bank Tower, Shenzhen, China
Even though transitions of the frame were incorporated ptimized Slab Systems with Other Potential
O
over the height of the tower, the system allows for a continu- Applications
ous force flow without transfer of load (Fig. 6). Gravity load
in the perimeter frame offsets any potential uplift due to Post-tensioned slabs are commonly used worldwide in con-
typhoon wind or moderate seismic demands. crete structures of all scales. The slabs generally provide an
efficient solution to long-span conditions with relative thin
22 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 6 Concrete frame elevation, program description, final rendering of China Merchant Tower
slab thicknesses. Historically, the quantity of post-tensioning psf to 0.75 psf. This reduction not only represents a reduction
required to achieve usable spans in commercial and residen- of raw material required, but a reduction in construction time
tial construction has been 0.9 psf to 1.0 psf. Attempts to and carbon emitted into the atmosphere due to both the pro-
reduce the amount of post-tensioning has not been success- duction and placement.
ful even when considering banding and carefully placement Repetitive, equally spaced columns result in a particularly
of material. However, research has shown that placing ten- good application of optimized post-tensioning for the slab
dons on optimized load paths have resulted in reductions of framing. It should be noted that repetitive circular plan
post-tensioning of 25–30%. Therefore, the quantity of post- geometries emerge from this concept that allows for easy
tensioning historically required is now on the order of 0.65 markings on formwork for the layout of the tendons during
psf to 0.75 psf. This reduction not only represents a reduction construction (Figs. 9, 10, and 11).
of raw material required but a reduction in construction time
and carbon emitted into the atmosphere due to both the pro-
duction and placement. ynamic Responses of Structures: Creative
D
Even though the 1111 Sunset Boulevard Project in Los Use of Post-Tensioning
Angeles incorporates an unusual core only lateral system,
the post-tensioned floor system is regular, utilizing an opti- All structures are in motion. Natural dynamic responses of
mized post-tensioning layout for tendons (Figs.7 and 8). structures are sources of inspiration for new structural sys-
The tendons are mapped based on analyses considering tems. Free vibration of systems illustrates modal behavior,
the vertical wall elements in plan. Post-tensioned slabs are and in seismic events, structural demands are directly related
commonly used worldwide in concrete structures of all to site and superstructure characteristics (Fig. 12).
scales. The slabs generally provide an efficient solution to The use of post-tensioning in vertical structural elements
long-span conditions with relative thin slab thicknesses. will lead to better performance when subjected to seismic
Historically, the quantity of post-tensioning required to loadings. Reflecting on research performed for slab systems
achieve usable spans in commercial and residential construc- results in a geometric nonlinear placement of post-tensioning.
tion has been 0.9 psf to 1.0 psf. Attempts to reduce the When placed in this manner for vertical column elements,
amount of post-tensioning has not been successful even the post-tensioning creates both net compression on the
when considering banding and careful placement of mate- members but also provides resistance to lateral loads applied
rial. However, research has shown that placing tendons on in any direction. Post-tensioning could be placed three-
optimized load paths have resulted in reductions of post- dimensionally in columns subjected to biaxial bending.
tensioning of 25–30%. Therefore, the quantity of post- Similarly, geometric nonlinear post-tensioning could be
tensioning historically required is now on the order of 0.65 placed in frame beam members to resist lateral cyclic loads
Fig. 7 1111 Sunset Boulevard Towers, Los Angeles, CA
Fig. 8 Optimized post-tensioning layout in plan – 1111 Sunset Boulevard Towers, Los Angeles, CA
24 M. P. Sarkisian
applied in any direction. This placement of post-tensioning

in both columns and beams acts to achieve essentially elastic Fusing Tall Building Frames
behavior in a seismic event and creates elastic strain energy
in the overall system that helps to establish recentering after The challenge of braced framed tall building structures is
a significant seismic event (Figs. 13 and 14). that stiffness most be combined with softness. Stiffness is
typically required for controlling displacements during
service conditions (wind loadings and moderate seismicity).
However, these frames typically result in low ductility dur-
ing extreme seismic events. Therefore, the key to solving
both issues is to introduce fuses into the frames that allow for
the dissipation of energy only when needed.
The design of the structure for the super tall Shenzhen
Citic Financial Tower was optimized to achieve the maxi-
mum stiffness of the building with least material, by consid-
ering tip displacement of the building when subjected to
load. The resulting design is the stiffest structure that can be
obtained for the volume fraction of material considered and
satisfies the performance requirements under gravity and lat-
eral loads (wind and seismic) (Figs. 15 and 16).
The optimal geometry was derived for elastic material
behavior, which was accurate for wind loads and earthquakes
with a relatively low return period for the site. However,
when earthquakes with a longer return period were consid-
ered, the structure exceeded the elastic limit and ductile ele-
ments needed to be incorporated in the stiff lateral system to
ensure energy dissipation with consequent reduction of the
Fig. 9 Theoretical layout of completely symmetrical optimized post- inertial loads on the structure.
tensioning layout in plan – 1111 Sunset Boulevard Towers, Los Angeles, The seismic fuses could consider use of a conventional
CA
ductile steel link similar to those used with eccentric braced
Fig. 10 Overlay of potential lines of post-tensioning over optimized slab analysis

Fig. 11 Initial pass at post-tensioning layout (above) and the final interpretation of the layout (below)
frames or could use a modified link-fuse joint that is designed

to protect the base building structure from permanent dam-
age. The conventional ductile steel link is designed to yield
during a significant seismic event where the link-fuse uses a
clamped pin connection, dissipating energy through sliding
of the joint (Figs. 17 and 18).
Conceptually, the systems mimic plant behavior where
trunks carry water vertically to branches and leaves, with
active movements from the ground to the top. For this struc-
ture, the principles are the same; only forces replace water
and active flow from the ground is replaced with resistive
forces originating in the superstructure, the seismic mass of
floor framing systems, or winds applied to each floor d iagram
passing into the braced frame down to the foundations. Shear
and bending moments increase as these forces near the
ground and so does the density of the structure. The structure
could have multiple purposes and would be resilient, capable
of acting elastically with minimum damage in strong earth-
quakes with optimal performance for wind and frequent seis-
Fig. 12 Structural dynamics – mode shapes
mic events (Fig. 19). This frame system could be considered
26 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 13 Vertical post-

tensioning in columns
Fig. 14 Post-tensioning in moment-resisting frames subjected to seismic loading

Fig. 15 Citic Financial Tower
Fig. 16 Evolution of theory to concept for structural system

28 M. P. Sarkisian
Ductile
Moment Frame
Ductile Links
Optimized
Frame Geometry
Fig. 17 Braced frames interconnected with seismic fuses
as steel, concrete, or composite. For the Citic Tower, carbon emissions resulting in global warming and embrace
concrete-filled tubes will be used with a central shear wall the most advanced systems available, creating a holistic
core of reinforced concrete and lightweight structural steel awareness of their beneficial impact on performance,
framing for the floor system (Fig. 20). finances, damage, and environmental impact.
The majority of sustainability-related efforts in the build-
ing industry have focused on carbon emissions resulting
Embodied Carbon: Proposal for Change from building operation. To assist designers in quantifying
the embodied carbon of structural systems, the Environmental
Millions of metric tons of carbon are emitted into the atmo- Analysis Tool™ (EA Tool) has been released for public use.
sphere during the extraction, refinement, and installation of The EA Tool can assess probabilistic seismic damage using
structural materials such as steel, concrete, wood, and cold- the HAZUS methodology for conventional structures and an
formed metal framing. With the environment at risk, the empirical method for enhanced structural systems such as
structural engineering profession must carefully reconsider base isolation. Other efforts have considered different
design approaches to structures. Embodied carbon of struc- approaches to assessing the environmental impacts of proba-
tural systems in buildings has been established to be consid- bilistic seismic damage such as EnvISA and ATC 86.
erable in the overall environmental impact of buildings. By
some estimates, it could comprise 15–50% of the total life
cycle of carbon emission buildings (Fig. 21). Data and Embodied Carbon
One could envision that in the near future, international
building codes will not only address safety but also life cycle Over several decades, a database of over 200 designed and
performance, imposing limits on carbon emissions attribut- constructed buildings has been complied, and embodied car-
able to building construction and lifetime use. As a profes- bon levels have been assessed for each project using the EA
sion, we need to create greater awareness of damaging Tool™. Below, data subsets are graphically represented con-
Fig. 18 Ductile steel seismic

fuse, futuristic link-fuse
seismic joint
sidering key parameters such as building use and primary is provided in CO2eq. The average C02eq/m2 value of 586 kg/
structural material. These embodied carbon values include a m2 is provided in Fig. 22 alongside individual data points.
variety of structural materials, construction, and probable
seismic damage associated with foundations, substructure,
and superstructure. In the graphs below, “composite” refers Analytical Investigation
to a reinforced concrete core with steel gravity framing that
may or may not be combined with steel moment frames and/ As observed in Fig. 22, buildings above approximately 60
or braces. “Mixed” refers to a building with multiple occu- stories typically produce higher CO2eq intensities than those
pancy types such as office and residential. All emissions data below 60 stories. To better understand these and other per-
30 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 19 Rendering of Citic

Financial Towers – office,
hotel, and residential uses
ceived trends, Fig. 23 provides CO2eq averages across height salient parameters that influence embodied carbon levels is
and material categories. Potential relationships between key; those presented in this study and in other literature
parameters such as material and height with embodied car- should be considered.
bon are provided in the following correlation study. Embodied and operational carbon are correlated in many
ways. Although it has been shown that taller buildings have
higher levels of embodied carbon, high-rise mixed use build-
Correlation Study ings in dense urban settings greatly reduce transportation-
related carbon emissions of occupants. These types of
Some inferences can be made from the correlation matrices. relationships need to be quantified to understand their respec-
It is apparent that for buildings over 60 stories, structural tive and correlated impacts. Their synergetic relationships
material choice has a significant impact on embodied carbon should be encouraged and recognized by building codes and
as opposed to those under 60 stories where many factors con- incentive programs.
tribute relatively equally. Previously discussed case studies substantiated that sig-
nificant reductions in embodied carbon ranging from 20 to
50% can be realized, especially in regions of high seismicity
eveloping a Basis of Sustainable Structural
D using currently available tools. As an initial goal, a 15%
Design reduction, shown as a red line in Fig. 24, from the dataset
average of embodied carbon is proposed. This reduction can
What determines if a project is “sustainable”? What is an be realized in the construction industry immediately given
embodied carbon limit that results in an appreciable differ- the resources and expertise available. Potentially, a more sig-
ence in the environment? Should embodied carbon limits be nificant required reduction of 30% could be implemented in
absolute or relative to a baseline design? Should different as little as 10 years.
structural systems have different embodied carbon limits? As a means of beginning this process, the following
What should be included in the embodied carbon life cycle? CO2eq limits are proposed for a 15% embodied carbon
A basis of carbon-conscious design needs to be proposed reduction in Fig. 24. Here parameters are aggregated by
and developed. It should guide clients and designers to structural height category to illustrate a metric that can be
develop more sustainable structures while providing flexibil- used to facilitate tailored implementation. Furthermore, pro-
ity for project-specific conditions, encouraging synergy visions should be made for low and high seismic regions that
between building systems. Requirements should influence have been determined to exhibit −10% and +10% CO2eq lev-
design decisions but not be over burdensome on project bud- els, respectively.
gets, design teams, or contractors. Balancing these consider- The Transbay District of San Francisco is currently under
ations is important in successful systems implementation redevelopment. Several height limitations have been
and should be developed with the total environmental impact increased to encourage replacement of older, less efficient
of the built environment in mind. An identification of the buildings, and a large mass transit center is being replaced.
Fig. 20 Citic Financial Tower – floor framing system
Some parcels’ limits have been increased to over 220 meters; forms. As opposed to evaluating current building forms, the
currently, a single parcel with a 300-meter limit is under con- investigation will focus on the potential of each given parcel
struction and will become the tallest building in San extents and height limitations. A uniform offset of 15% from
Francisco. parcel edge to building form is assumed.
As a case study investigation, PCM will be employed to By knowing the parcel limits and height limitations, an
evaluate NFA and embodied carbon of potential building initial form extent can be realized. Viewing this form as a
32 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 21 Tool software user interface and EA tool components (left) and SF office tower (right), a project on which EA Tool™ was used to reduce
embodied carbon
Fig. 22 Environmental
Analysis Tool™ methodology
in assessing structural
embodied carbon EA
Fig. 23 C02eq correlations for structural materials and systems
GFA limit of the parcel, a study of the potential performance good while the opposite is true for the steel scenario. This
of the parcel can be conducted with PCM. The methodology could be due to the material and taller height limits.
can identify parcels that are well suited for their designated This environmental issue can be mitigated through
height limits as well as parcels not likely to develop their enhanced seismic performance. For low-rise buildings, this
desired potential. could be achieved with technologies now in use such as base
To investigate the potential impact planning and design isolation and in taller building with novel energy dissipating
decisions have at a district scale using PCM, a series of anal- elements such as the Pin-Fuse seismic systems.
yses are conducted considering building height, material,
and resiliency (Fig. 25). In Fig. 25, red indicates buildings
with low or poor NFA values and green indicates parcels Fused Timber Systems
with NFA values exceeding 75%. First, the current Transbay
District plan is evaluated using PCM. As can be observed, a The building community is challenged to improve the global
large number of small parcels that have been zoned with tall built environment, both reducing greenhouse gas emissions
height limits cannot reach their desired potential due to poor and addressing community resilience to earthquakes.
NFA values and corresponding financial performance. Next, Structural material selection is critical in limiting embodied
each parcel’s height limit is adjusted to produce an NFA carbon (the equivalent global warming potential created to
value of 75%. The resulting urban form is relatively uniform manufacture, fabricate, deliver, and construct structural
but can potentially facilitate nearly 50% more GFA – an materials). For this reason, mass timber has emerged as a
important consideration with the increasing densities of our viable alternative to concrete and steel. However, the perfor-
future cities. The effect of structural material selection is also mance of these timber systems in high seismic zones must be
considered; even taller buildings can be facilitated with steel improved to provide reliable lateral systems that guarantee
construction and yield a nearly 70% GFA increase. ductility at large magnitude seismic events. Alone, timber
Structural embodied carbon considerations are quantified does not possess the ductility of steel or reinforced concrete
for the three abovementioned cases. As presumed, tall build- and can experience more brittle failures.
ings often have higher embodied carbon values. Furthermore, Traditional wood-framed buildings are categorized as
for the optimization height limits with concrete as the struc- either light-framed buildings using stud walls and joists or
tural material, the overall environmental performance is very heavy timber buildings using large sawn timber elements.
34 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 24 Proposed embodied carbon limits (CO2eq)
Fig. 25 Results of PCM analysis at the district scale

Heavy timber has a higher fire rating than light-framed tainably managed forests. Wood is a natural carbon sink,
because the mass of timber elements forms protective char consisting of approximately 50% carbon.
layers during a fire. Contemporary timber buildings rarely Typical framing systems for residential mass timber
use heavy timbers for support and instead use “mass tim- buildings consist of CLT bearing/shear walls located at
ber” – framing elements incorporating small dimensional demising walls between units. CLT floor panels span between
lumber and adhesives to build up massive elements behaving the bearing walls that creates a flat soffit condition like a con-
like heavy timber in fire. Mass timber elements include crete flat plate. The floor panels bear directly on the wall
glued-laminated (glulam) timber columns and beams, cross- panels in a “platform” framing style where bearing walls are
laminated timber (CLT) floor and wall panels, laminated discontinuous. The lowest floor of mass timber buildings is
veneer lumber (LVL) floor and wall panels, and nail- often framed in concrete for ground floor flexibility and
laminated timber (NLT) floor panels. The wood materials in durability (Fig. 26).
mass timber have several key properties. The density of Wood elements have low to moderate ductility and typi-
wood is typically 482–561 kg/M3 that results in a light- cally rely on yielding of metal connectors for ductility. The
weight framing system. The weight and seismic mass of a most common connections for CLT shear walls are metal
mass timber building is typically 50 to 60% that of a concrete “L” brackets are attached to walls and floors. The ductility of
building, reducing foundation demands. this system is relatively low as most energy dissipation
Mass timber framing systems have several benefits in comes from the yielding of the fasteners and of the metal
multistory buildings. Elements are prefabricated and can be brackets in through-thickness bending. Steel connectors are
erected quickly on site. These construction and cost benefits relatively small compared to the size and strength of the
make mass timber buildings competitive, but their sustain- walls, resulting in a low amount of dissipated energy com-
ability benefits have arguably had the largest impact on their pared to the elastic energy stored in the CLT. The low ductil-
increasing share of the market. Wood is a renewable resource ity of CLT shear walls systems offsets the seismic mass
that promotes healthy ecosystems when sourced from sus- benefit of the material.
Fig. 26 Typical mass timber building with CLT walls and floors above a concrete podium
36 M. P. Sarkisian
Pin-Fuse Seismic Systems for Timber dowel-type connectors through the wood. These connections
could use self-tapping screws or timber rivets for low to
Even with these developments, barriers still exist to design- moderate seismic load applications or require epoxy-
ing timber tall buildings (~15 stories) with enhanced seismic connected steel plates embedded in the timber elements for
systems comparable in performance and construction to tra- highly loaded joints.
ditional high-rise materials:
• Feasibility of rectangular structural cores for increased Prototype Mass Timber Building
overturning stiffness
• Modular and rapid construction of prequalified moment The TMBR™ Minneapolis building is a 10-story mass tim-
frame systems ber condominium that is expected to start construction in
early 2020. The project is being developed by Todd Simning
For these reasons, ongoing analytical research is being of TMBR Development LLC and designed by Dwyer/
completed to incorporate the Pin-Fuse® collection of seis- Oglesbay Architects, with timber structural engineering by
mic systems, originally developed for steel and concrete sys- SOM. The project consists of nine stories of mass timber-
tems, into mass timber structures. framed condos over a one-story post-tensioned concrete
Timber Pin-Fuse® systems consist of mass timber podium and three concrete-framed basements. The project is
structural components combined with steel Pin-Fuse® 125 ft-tall and has approximately 160,000 square feet of
Joint or Link-Fuse Joint™ energy dissipating devices. above ground area.
Systems are designed such that the timber elements TMBRT™ is designed to be a luxury product for the local
remain elastic during a seismic event. The steel Pin-Fuse® market and priced to compete with conventional concrete
elements are expected to be prefabricated, shipped to the construction. The mass timber systems selected for the proj-
timber manufacturer, and preassembled before delivery to ect must satisfy the stringent performance demands of a con-
site. dominium project while also meeting the budget. The
The Pin-Fuse® Joint connects glulam beams and columns proposed structure consists of a timber-concrete composite
(Fig. 27). One implementation of the connection utilizes a floor system, glue-laminated timber beams and columns, and
notch in the timber beam at the steel plates to limit the total two cross-laminated timber shear wall cores. The cross-
width of the beam sandwich and provides opportunity for laminated timber cores are located at the central elevator and
architectural expression of the ball and socket joint inspira- service core and a remote stair at the northern exterior wall.
tion. For the timber Link-Fuse Joint™, the large single shear CLT link beams are made up of two separate segments, each
pin of the original Link-Fuse Joint™ is replaced with multi- a fully connected portion of adjacent larger panel segments,
ple bolts (Fig. 27). This design allows for a use of off-the- and span across core openings. Lapped screwed connections
shelf products and is feasible with the relatively lower link provide for shear transfer at the midspan of the link beams.
beam shear demands in timber structures. The details depict This placement of lateral load resisting systems allows for
Fig. 27 Timber Pin-Fuse®

joints at frame and shear wall
variable unit configurations over the height of the building parameters and develop new design options that may not
similar to concrete-framed buildings. This approach is have been thought of otherwise.
expected to be a competitive structural system in the residen-
tial market.
The success of this model will depend on the ability for ost-Earthquake Building Damage
P
CLT shear walls to satisfy seismic demands required else- Identification
where in the country. The ductility of the CLT shear wall
cores is highly dependent on the types of connections and One of the greatest economical losses associated with earth-
fasteners provided. Conventional CLT wall connections and quake events is due to downtime from repair and rebuilding.
fasteners have limited ductility, offsetting the lightweight Home and business owners of damaged buildings can wait
benefits of timber construction in seismically active regions. months for an inspection to be completed by an expert. In
The seismic performance of the mass timber system could be some cases, they cannot occupy their home or operate their
improved with the application of friction energy dissipating business until this inspection is complete. Photo recognition
devices in the CLT cores, as well as the perimeter glulam technology can be employed to expedite this evaluation pro-
framing. cess and mitigate this lost time. A comprehensive and vetted
machine learning-based application could provide users with
immediate feedback regarding the level of damage of their
achine Learning and Futuristic Approaches
M building, whether or not it can be occupied and whether or
to Resilient Structures not it requires major repairs (Diaz et al., 2017).
In addition, in the aftermath of a major earthquake, local
The concept of artificial intelligence (AI) has existed for and international reconnaissance teams upload hundreds of
decades, but the world is only now on the verge of an AI images to various databases, not all of which can be rapidly
revolution due to the following factors: (1) access to large evaluated by experts. Integrating machine learning into these
amounts of digital data and (2) access to powerful and afford- databases could make the photo cataloguing process not only
able cloud computing power. more uniform and efficient but also more comprehensive.
In parallel, the need for a technology revolution in the Following the 7.1 magnitude Central Mexico earthquake on
architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry Tuesday, September 19, 2017, SOM sent a team of engineers
is imminent. The current world population of 7.6 billion is to Mexico City to contribute to post-disaster recovery efforts
expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030. Infrastructure demands by documenting building damage and providing technical
will increase drastically, and projects will need to be deliv- support to local structural reconnaissance efforts. In an effort
ered more quickly to meet this rapid population growth. to enhance post-earthquake reconnaissance capabilities,
Design and construction processes need to be made expo- SOM performed tests using machine learning to identify and
nentially more efficient and sustainable in order to meet classify building damage from the photos taken by the SOM
these demands in a responsible manner. reconnaissance team. Some results from these tests are
There are many opportunities to enhance the built envi- shown in Fig. 28 below.
ronment through artificial intelligence. Incorporating AI into An object detection-based machine learning model was
construction verification and infrastructure health monitor- trained using approximately 40 annotated images in the
ing could improve quality control and decrease construction training set. The model was trained to differentiate between
time. AI-enabled infrastructure health monitoring tools could the following eight classes: (1) nonstructural light damage,
be used to improve maintenance and safety practices by eval- (2) nonstructural medium damage, (3) nonstructural heavy
uating the deterioration of both nonstructural components, damage, (4) nonstructural severe damage, (5) structural light
such as exterior walls and structural components. Photo damage, (6) structural medium damage, (7) structural heavy
recognition-based systems can be applied to continuously damage, and (8) structural severe damage. The model was
evaluate and monitor bridges and highlight potential mainte- based on a Faster RCNN (Ren et al., 2015) approach using
nance and safety issues in advance. AI damage assessment Resnet-101 (He et al., 2016). It was initialized with the pre-
tools could make recovery and rebuilding efforts more effi- trained weights from the MS COCO dataset. One model was
cient by rapidly and automatically evaluating structural trained using 3000 iterations, while the other was trained
integrity following major natural or man-made events. In using 10,000 iterations. The model trained to 10,000 itera-
addition to practical applications, AI can also be incorpo- tions most likely overfit the data. This means that it very
rated into current design processes to optimize for multiple accurately represents the training data, at the expense of
38 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 28 Examples of building damage identification and classification using machine learning
Fig. 29 Identification of gusset plates from site photos using object detection
Fig. 30 Identification of a
gusset plate from both a site
photo and shop drawings
(blue outline added manually
to highlight the steel shapes)
being as useful to novel data. Using a similar method with a fidence from photographs taken at various angles. For exam-
training set of at least 1000 images may yield a model that ple, in Fig. 29, the model detected not only the two gusset
generalizes well to new data. plates in the foreground facing the camera but also the gusset
plate in the background at an angle to the camera. The suc-
cess of this model may be due to the unique shape of gusset
Construction Verification plates, which makes them clearly distinguishable from other
elements on a construction site.
Machine learning models can be trained to identify gusset In order to compare objects identified from site photos to
plates from photographs using object detection. The model the construction documents, a machine learning model was
was able to identify gusset plates with a high degree of con- also trained to identify gusset plates from shop drawings.
40 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 31 Shear studs identified with object detection
Fig. 32 Bolts identified from

a site photo using object
detection
Figure 30 shows a gusset plate being detected both from a a large area, a digital single lens reflex (DSLR) camera was
site photo and a shop drawing using object detection. The used to take high-resolution photographs of large areas con-
machine learning model was able to identify gusset plates in taining shear studs. However, machine learning models are
shop drawings to a high degree of confidence. This perfor- very limited in terms of resolution. It is computationally
mance is likely due to both the distinguishable shape of gus- intractable to feed a full DSLR image into a typical machine
set plates and the consistency and precision of steel shop learning model on today’s hardware. To get around this limi-
drawings. tation, the images were divided into nine sub-images and
Using object detection, another machine learning model then each sub-image was processed independently.
was trained to recognize shear studs from site photos. Afterward, the photos were recombined. This allowed the
Because shear studs are small and are typically counted over onsite user to take a single photograph while enabling the
Fig. 33 Initial structural system concepts – Chengdu Tower, Chengdu, China
system to process the images at an effective resolution. A the combined effects of gravity and overturning forces
sample of a processed sub-image is shown in Fig. 31 below. (Fig. 33).
A sample of a recombined photo is shown in Fig. 31. Further development of the structural system led to design
Although some studs in far corners of the photo were not where segmented diagonal steel braces were introduced into
identified, the lack of false positives in these results indicates the building perimeter and linked together at perimeter, seg-
that a larger training set could produce a more robust model. mented linear reinforced concrete walls. These links would
In another application, a machine learning model was also provide ductility during a seismic event, design to fuse
trained to recognize bolts from site photos. Figure 32 illus- under significant seismic demand (Fig. 34).
trates that not all the bolts were successfully identified, The primary service elements including express elevators,
potentially due to the angle and lighting conditions of the stairs, and mechanical spaces were placed in the central core
photo. However, no false positives were identified in the with local elevator located at the outside of the tripod-shaped
photo. Therefore, a larger and more varied training set could floor plan. The floors were typically column-free with large
lead to improved results. Issues with identifying bolts in per- reinforced concrete elements used at the perimeter to accept
spective could also be controlled by limiting the machine the bracing system (Fig. 35).
learning model to head-on photos of bold groups.
Air Foil Concept

The Chengdu Tower
It is possible that the limitations on forming techniques are
A competition for a 600-meter-tall tower in Chengdu, China, the single greatest obstacle in creating concrete structures
created the opportunity to explore the use of natural growth that result in the most fluid and efficient response to load.
patterns into a structure that combined structural steel and Forming systems to date are largely limited by the material
reinforced concrete in a creative solution. Initial concepts type used that focuses on wood. Alternate systems including
were developed around a stable tripod form where a rein- those of synthetics such as plastics or fabrics will lead to
forced concrete central core would resist torsional effects of more fluid structures. Reinforcement limitations must also
wind and seismic loads with the legs of the tripod resisting be addressed, and the prefabrication of systems with com-
42 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 34 Chengdu Tower structural system description and typical floor plan
Fig. 35 Chengdu Tower rendering
plex geometries are also needed. Advancements in pumping applied to buildings at all scales. For example, the floor
systems will lead to greater flexibility on the placement of framing system could be used in a building with only a few
concrete and perhaps most importantly the use of pressur- floors or one that has 100 floors. Nature-based solutions emit
ized systems where concrete properties could be enhanced, far less carbon than conventional system and absorb carbon
concrete matrices densified, and advanced highly efficient over time. Materials could include Bio-Brick, hempcrete,
structures created. timber, and Biocrete that could reduce the carbon impact by
Structures designed and constructed with concrete sys- 50% compared to concrete and structural steel. The complete
tems provide opportunities for combined technology repre- system could reduce carbon by as much as 95% compared to
sent the future. Perforated concrete structural wall systems conventional buildings (Figs. 39, 40, and 41).
will not only create beautiful interior spaces but could pro-
vide spaces where power generation or even combined sys-
tems control structural behavior through aerodynamics and Conclusions
air foils (Figs. 36, 37, and 38).
Self-sufficiency and full resiliency are the goal buildings
with the best life cycle. Great advancements have been in
The Urban Sequoia Tower design and construction of structures, and China has been
important in these advancements. Ideas have fed on previous
Achieving net-zero carbon for building projects falls short of successes. Material fluidity, whether with the use of steel or
the need to heal the earth. If buildings could absorb carbon concrete, is important to exploring the next generation of
over time, significant advancements could be made to reduce structures.
carbon that has been emitted over time. Beyond the building, To achieve full resiliency and the best life cycle design,
if it was possible to integrate these ideas at a district of city structural components and systems must perform elasticity
scale, the impact would be far more significant. for all environmental conditions of the site. In regions of
The concept of the Urban Sequoia is one that combines high seismicity, particular consideration must be given to
optimized structural design with materials that use carbon components and systems where typical code compliant
capture technologies. The Sequoia includes ideas that can be design would result in plastic deformation of key elements
44 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 36 Concept for concrete tall buildings – circular holes in perimeter wall system
Fig. 37 Structural system

combined with air foil
concept
within the structure. This plastic deformation requires repair Braced-framed structural systems in tall buildings typi-
or replacement of these elements. A more resilient or per- cally lead to lower material quantities because lateral loads
haps fully resilient system could be one that introduces are resisted in tension and compression with minimal bend-
friction connections into these conditions with energy dissi- ing. This system is ideal for controlling building displace-
pated through the generation of friction/heat without plastic ments due to wind and moderate seismicity but could perform
deformation. All building material will remain elastic. poorly in major seismic event. The solution would be to cre-
Carbon dioxide that would be emitted for the repair or even ate a combination of stiffness and ductility. Seismic “fuses”
the reconstruction of a plastically damaged building after a introduced into key locations of the braced frames allow for
significant event would not occur. the dissipations of energy during strong ground motion. If
Fig. 38 Details of air foil

concept
46 M. P. Sarkisian
Fig. 39 Urban Sequoia in city context
Fig. 40 Overall system concept (axonometric and plan)

Fig. 41 Enlarged core axonometric/key operational characteristics
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) conference on computer vision and

these fuses used friction-type connections, then these ele- pattern recognition.
ments would remain elastic. Ren, S., Kaiming, H., Ross, G., & Jian, S. (2015). Faster R-CNN:
Towards real-time object detection with region proposal networks.
With the continued and perhaps increased use of timber in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 91–99.
major building structures especially in major seismic regions,
inherent ductility is essential. To optimize resiliency, this
ductility could be achieved with friction-type connectors Mark P. Sarkisian PE, SE, NAE,
LEED BD+C, Partner of Seismic and
integrating structural steel at key joints within the timber Structural Engineering in the San
system. Francisco office of Skidmore, Owings
Ultimately, machine learning will be an integral part of & Merrill LLP, has developed innova-
designing, building, and verifying structural systems. Using tive engineering solutions for over 100
major building projects around the
this process to compare as designed structures to built struc- world including some of the tallest and
tures will minimize errors. In the future, machine learning most complex. Mark holds ten US
could be used for construction, directly translating design to Patents and five International Patents
building. for high-performance seismic struc-
tural mechanisms designed to protect
buildings in areas of high seismicity
and for seismic and environmentally
References responsible structural systems. In
2021, Mark was elected to the prestigious United States’ National
Diaz, A., Murren, P., & Walker, S. (2017). Preliminary observations Academy of Engineering. He is the author of Designing Tall Buildings –
in the aftermath of the September 19, 2017 Puebla-Morelos earth- Structure as Architecture, and teaches at UC Berkeley, California
quake. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM). College of the Arts, Stanford University, Cal Poly, Northeastern
Freddi, F., Tubaldi, E., Zowa, A., & Dall’asta, A. (2020). Seismic per- University, NC State University, the Pratt Institute and Alcala University
formance of dual systems coupling moment-resisting and buckling- in Madrid. He has a BS-CE Degree from the University of Connecticut
restrained braced frames. Earthquake Engineering and Structural and is a Fellow of the Academy of Distinguished Engineers, an MS-SE
Dynamics, 50, 329–353. Degree from Lehigh University, an Honorary Doctorate Degree from
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016). Deep residual learning Clarkson University and an Honorary Master’s degree from the
for image recognition. Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Politecnico di Milano.
Frei Otto: Light Structures Inspired
by Nature. Experiments with Physical
Self-Forming Processes: Soap Solutions,
Viscous Fluids, Branching Structures
and Funicular Forms
Juan María Songel
Abstract Keywords
Frei Otto · Experiments · Models · Soap solutions ·
Frei Otto is well known for his pioneering contributions Viscous fluids · Branching structures · Funicular forms
to light structures. Observing natural structures and phys-
ical phenomena through experiments with different every-
day materials was a key tool in his work to pursue and Introduction
understand lightweight construction. His intention with
these experiments was not so much to find forms in nature Frei Otto is well known in the history of architecture and
to be imitated, as to understand the natural processes of structural engineering of the second half of the twentieth
form generation. His experiments focused therefore on century for his pioneering contributions to light struc-
materials and objects whose form is driven by physical tures (Nerdinger et al., 2005). The search for lightweight
self-forming processes, which involve maximum effi- construction and its governing principles has been a constant
ciency with minimum amount of material. feature throughout his career. A key focus of his research
The purpose of this chapter is to present a systematic was the relationship between form, force, and mass of physi-
overview of some of the experiments carried out by Frei cal objects, whether natural or artificial, analyzing their effi-
Otto and his collaborators, showing a close link between ciency in the transmission of maximum load to the maximum
form and its generating process: soap solutions, viscous distance with the least amount of mass or material.
fluids, branching structures, and funicular forms. His work can be understood within the tradition of lead-
Accordingly, the ordering or classifying criterion used to ing structural or civil engineers in their endeavor to develop
present this overview has been based on materials, gener- strength of materials with efficient structural forms. Robert
ating forces and resulting forms. Le Ricolais was a French civil engineer who worked and
An important conclusion concerns the validity of phys- taught in the USA, and was also a pioneer of light structures.
ical models nowadays in relation to computers and para- He expressed that unattainable goal or ideal towards light-
metric design software. When confronted with this issue, ness in a very eloquent way: “zero weight, infinite span.” He
Frei Otto argued that experiments with physical models also described the art of structural design in very significant
provide the chance to invent, the possibility of finding the terms: “The art of structure is how and where to put the
unsearched, as they contain the laws of nature, whereas holes, to build with holes, to use things which are hollow,
computers would not have that ability, as the laws govern- things which have no weight” (Le Ricolais, 1997).
ing them have been created or prescribed by man. Form Frei Otto defined lightweight construction as “a way of
generation through physical self-forming processes and building with a minimum consumption of material, ener-
careful observation of natural phenomena were indeed getic, and economic means” (Brinkmann, 1990, p. 273).
pivotal in Frei Otto’s experience for the invention of new Observing natural structures and physical phenomena
light structures. through experiments with different everyday materials was a
key tool in Frei Otto’s work to pursue and understand light-
weight construction. They reflect a principle of economy that
J. M. Songel (*) can be perceived in nature and the universe. The mathemati-
Centro de Investigación en Arquitectura, Patrimonio y Gestión para cian Matila C. Ghyka formulated it as the principle of least
el Desarrollo Sostenible (PEGASO) Universitat Politècnica de action for the inorganic world and the principle of economy
València, Valencia, Spain
e-mail: [email protected] of material for the organic world (Ghyka, 1977, p. 88).

50 J. M. Songel
Frei Otto’s intention with his experiments was not so Soap Films
much to find forms in nature to be imitated, as to understand
the natural processes of form generation, or self-forming Soap membranes generated when immersing a frame or a
processes governed by the laws of nature. He speaks of “nat- plaque in a soap solution develop minimal surfaces or a net-
ural structures,” also in engineering, “if their forms are not work of minimal ways.
manipulated by man, but simply develop, organize, form and
optimize themselves in accordance with requirements” Minimal Surfaces
(Bach et al., 1988, p. 7). His experimental methodology and Many different forms of minimal surfaces were obtained in
his ability to explore physical phenomena involves therefore Frei Otto’s experiments with soap films, playing with the
a conception of form not as a precondition, but as a result of rigidity, flexibility, shape, and positioning of boundaries and
a searching process, in which strength and lightness must be supports.
formally unveiled. Natural structures accordingly should not
derive from planned processes but should result from self- ithin Rigid Boundaries
W
forming or self-organizing processes. A frame made up of flat or spatial, rectilinear or curved, rigid
bending-resistant steel rods immersed in a soap solution gen-
erates, when lifted, a minimal soap film surface, which usu-
xperiments with Physical Self-Forming
E ally adopts doubly curved anticlastic, also called “saddle,”
Processes forms (Fig. 1).
The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of some ithin Flexible Boundaries
W
of the experiments carried out by Frei Otto and his collabora- If the edge is a thin flexible wire or a thread, the minimal
tors, always linking form to its generating process. His inten- surface develops from the equilibrium of forces between the
tion was to check whether objects of inanimate nature, of edge and the soap film. The edge curves are drawn in and
living and dead nature, as well as those coming from techni- concave, and have a constant curvature, due to the even dis-
cal production processes have a characteristic form that is an tribution of stresses within the membrane (Gass, 1990,
expression of its generating process. His experiments focused p. 2.54).
therefore on objects whose form is driven by physical self-
forming processes (Otto et al., 2017). Accordingly, the order- nticlastic Doubly Curved Four-Point Minimal
A
ing or classifying criterion used to present this overview of Surfaces
experiments has been based on materials, generating forces, They are saddle-shaped minimal surfaces developed between
and resulting forms. These are the experiments that will be two diagonally opposed high and low points (Fig. 2).
addressed in this overview: soap solutions, viscous fluids,
branching structures, and funicular forms. ave Minimal Surfaces with Ridges and Valleys
W
The main formal feature of this type is the alternating
sequence of high and low points along the membrane edges,
Soap Solutions generating a pattern of alternating ridges and valleys. The
surfaces between them are anticlastic. This sequence of
One of the best known physical self-forming processes are ridges and valleys creates an undulating longitudinal cross
the experiments carried out with soap films, bubbles, and section, and depending on their layout, the waves can be par-
foam. Very thin membranes can be obtained by inflating allel (Fig. 3) or radial (Fig. 4).
air or by dipping a frame in a solution of water with deter-
gent or Pustefix fluid. These membranes develop them- ointed, Humped, and High-and-Low-Point
P
selves a minimal surface within the boundary conditions Minimal Surfaces
provided, as they tend to contract to the smallest surface Prestressed anticlastic surfaces can be generated by inserting
possible, due to the surface tensioning. This minimal sur- internal high points, or low points, or a combination of both.
face is self-formed when all the points in the membrane A key problem here is the stress concentration at those inter-
are subject to the same tension in all directions, and a state nal points of the membrane. Frei Otto designed different
of equilibrium is reached, resulting from the lowest energy intermediate elements between these internal points and the
level (Roland, 1972). membrane to gradually reduce and distribute evenly these
high stresses within the membrane (Fig. 5).
Frei Otto: Light Structures Inspired by Nature. Experiments with Physical Self-Forming Processes: Soap Solutions, Viscous Fluids… 51
Fig. 1 Minimal surfaces developed with soap films within rigid boundaries. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Minimal Ways
There is an issue in Mathematics, called the “Steiner” prob-
lem, which is the search for a minimal way system connect-
ing a group of randomly distributed points in a plane. This
minimal network can be obtained experimentally by vertical
soap film strips stretched between a horizontal glass plate
and the surface of a soap solution, which can be lowered
slowly. The points are arranged by needles, pressed against
the glass plate from below, which are fixed at the end of fin-
gers that can be positioned from the edge of the basin.
Vertical soap film strips are then self-produced between the
needles and the space between the plate and the water sur-
face. Due to the surface tensioning of the soap film strips, the
overall length of the network of vertical film strips connect-
Fig. 2 Minimal surface developed between two diagonally opposed ing the needles is minimal (Fig. 6).
high and low points. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
52 J. M. Songel
Fig. 3 Minimal surfaces with alternating ridges and valleys forming a layout of parallel waves. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 4 Minimal surfaces with alternating ridges and valleys forming a layout of radial waves. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Soap Bubbles inear Addition of Spherical Bubbles

L
When bubbles come into contact, partitions develop, these
Soap membranes inflated with air generate bubbles, which being flat if the bubbles and their internal pressure are equal,
enclose a maximum volume with a minimum surface. Their or bulge from the smaller into the larger bubbles. If they
size and shape depend on the difference between the inner stand on a horizontal plane and have different sizes, parti-
and outer air pressures as well as on the surface tension of tions incline toward the smallest bubbles (Fig. 10).
the soap membrane (Bach et al., 1988, p. 222).
ubbles on Rigid Boundaries

B Soap Foam
It is possible to form bubbles with dome shapes above circu-
lar, triangular, quadrangular, polygonal, or free plan shapes Three-dimensional bubble clusters form polyhedral foams. If
(Fig. 7). spherical bubbles cluster from all sides, polyhedral foams
develop, and their partition walls behave as braces of the
ubbles on Rigid Circular Rings. Semi-torus
B overall cluster structure. Different structural forms can be
Different bubble forms can be obtained with an outer rigid generated, like flat and steep cones or arches (Fig. 11).
circular boundary and inner circular low points of various
sizes and positions. If a smaller inner ring is concentrically
placed in relation to an outer circular boundary, a semi-torus Viscous Fluids
develops (Fig. 8).
It is interesting to compare the self-generated forms of vis-
ubbles with Free Boundaries. Hemisphere
B cous fluids with those obtained with soap solutions, as they
When bubbles float on liquids or stand on a wet surface, behave, when subject to tensile stress, in a similar way.
hemispherical shapes with unconstrained round boundary Viscous fluids, such as honey or glue, also tend to develop
edges develop, always keeping the rule of minimum surface minimal ways and surfaces, but when viscosity increases, the
enclosing maximum volume (Fig. 9). internal friction prevents an even distribution of the material
over the entire membrane surface (Gass, 1990, p. 2.60).
Fig. 5 Different intermediate elements between membranes and internal support points. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 6 Minimal network of

ways connecting a group of
points in a plane, developed
by vertical soap film strips.
(Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto +
Partner)
Threads Membranes
Viscous fluids, in contrast with soap solutions, can generate The uneven distribution of material in membranes of viscous
both planar and space networks of branched threads, usually fluids leads to a concentration of material along ridges and
with three-armed nodes. When two plates smeared with a edges, needing no extra flexible or rigid elements for the
viscous fluid between them are separated, a thready spine membrane linear boundaries. Holes in the membranes of vis-
structure develops (Fig. 12). cous fluids are stabilized with a rearrangement of material,
54 J. M. Songel
Fig. 7 Dome-shaped soap membranes above circular, quadrangular, and free plan rigid boundaries. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 8 Soap membranes

above rigid circular rings.
Partner)
Fig. 9 Soap bubbles with

free boundaries and
hemispherical shapes.
Partner)
56 J. M. Songel
Fig. 10 Horizontal and vertical linear additions of spherical bubbles. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 11 Bubble clusters forming polyhedral foams. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 12 Branched threads and spine structure developed with viscous fluids. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto+Partner)
Fig. 13 Membranes
developed with viscous fluids.
Partner)
which concentrates along the hole edges, forming a cord. branching pattern. Its rectilinear members should be working
This would never happen in a soap film, where any hole in compression only, and therefore the danger of buckling
would lead to the immediate withdrawal of the membrane to made it necessary to develop a system of straight elements
the edge elements (Fig. 13). with a balance between their length, section, and
slenderness.
In the first suspension model, a horizontal flat thin plaque
Branching Structures was hung from a grid of evenly distributed threads converging
into four points. The threads were moistened with liquid poly-
Many natural and artificial objects resulting from physical ester, which bundled them through its surface tension, and
self-forming processes show branchings (Gass, 1990, developed a branching layout. Once dry and stiff, the model
p. 2.38). Minimal way networks developed with soap films was inverted, producing an open branching system of straight
are in fact branching patterns with three-armed nodes. Frei elements with reduced buckling lengths and thin sections in
Otto’s experiments in the field of branching structures are the upper part, and longer buckling lengths with thicker sec-
mostly made with threads. They are related to either hanging tions, due to thread bundles, in the lower part (Fig. 14).
models to produce an efficient load-bearing funicular layout Another branching hanging model was made with chains
made up of linear elements subject to compression, or opti- and springs, to determine the optimum branching angles and
mized path systems connecting a number of points with min- rod lengths of a three-layered branching structure with four-
imum detours. A basic distinction can be made between open armed nodes (Fig. 15).
and closed-mesh branching structures. Following the forms, angles, and rod lengths obtained in
the two previously mentioned suspension models, a model of
a tree structure was made with thin steel tubes (Bach et al.,
Open Branchings 1988, p. 66) to transmit gravity loads from an upper horizon-
tal plaque into four lower supporting points through a three-
The challenge of supporting large span roofs avoiding struc- layered branching layout (Fig. 16).
tural elements subject to bending, in favor of compressed or Other open branching models were made with free-
tensioned elements, led Frei Otto to experiment with differ- hanging threads, which bundled after dipping in water by the
ent types of hanging funicular models, developing an open capillary tension of the water film (Fig. 17).
58 J. M. Songel
Fig. 14 Branching structure developed with a plaque hanging from a grid of evenly distributed threads converging into four points, moistened
with liquid polyester, bundled, dried, and inverted. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 15 Branching hanging model made with chains and springs. (Source: author’s photograph)
Fig. 16 Model of a tree structure made with thin steel tubes. (Source: author’s photograph)
Closed-Mesh Branchings Funicular Forms
This type of branching comes up with an experiment Frei Otto Another important group of forms generated by self-forming
developed to investigate what he called “optimized path sys- processes are funicular forms. They were widely investi-
tems.” A number of points to be connected are marked around gated with Frei Otto’s experiments. Whether with hanging
a circular ring. Each point is connected to every other point by chains, nets, or cloths, he sought forms to avoid bending
a wool thread in a straight line, making a direct path system forces (therefore thick sections and heavy structures) and to
(Fig. 18a). This layout is ideal, because all points are con- develop axial forces only: either compression or tension
nected to each other with the shortest distance and no detours. along the longitudinal axis of the structural element. Axial
But the overall path length and the area covered are very large. forces involve minimum amount of material and are there-
If the threads are loosened and given an extra length of 8%, for fore a good way to achieve lightweight construction.
example, and the whole model is dipped in water, then the wet Funicular comes from the Latin funiculus, which means
threads will tend to stick together and make bundles due to the “string.” Funicular forms experience only axial forces. If the
capillary tension of water (Fig. 18b). The paths connecting form of a structure is not funicular, it will experience bend-
two points will be 8% longer, but the area covered and the ing forces. Chains, cables, nets, cloths, ropes, and strings
overall length is often only 30–50% of the direct path system adopt funicular forms because of their flexibility, which pre-
(Otto et al., 1995, p. 68). The result of this self-forming pro- vents them from resisting bending forces. Given a new set of
cess is a closed-mesh branching layout of a minimal detours loads, they always reshape themselves in such a way that
system, also called an “optimized path system.” they experience only axial tension (Allen et al., 2010, p. 22).
60 J. M. Songel
Fig. 17 Open branching models developed with hanging threads moistened in water and bundled by capillary tension. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto
+ Partner)
Fig. 18 (a, left) direct path system connecting all points to each other. (b, right) optimized path system with a reduced overall length and a mini-
mal detour layout. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner
Hanging Chains tic, or anticlastic. Series of chains can also be arranged in a

parallel or radial layout (Fig. 20).
A chain suspended between two fixed points with an evenly
distributed load along its length and subject to gravity adopts
the most suitable form to resist tension forces only: the cat- Compressive Inverted Arches
enary curve. This is a typical and classical self-forming pro-
cess extensively explored by Frei Otto with his experiments The famous English scientist Robert Hooke put forward in
(Otto, 1973, p. 18–23). the seventeenth century the so-called principle of inversion.
He found that a hanging chain is shaped by gravity to take
Simple Chains the form of a catenary. If this funicular form is stiffened and
A chain of constant length suspended between two points inverted, it will turn out to be the best form for an arch to
initially coincident and gradually separating horizontally at support the same set of loads: “As hangs the flexible line, so
equal stretches (Fig. 19a). Pattern developed by chains sus- but inverted will stand the rigid arch” (Fig. 21). He high-
pended with a constant span, gradually increasing length to lighted the relationship between the self-formed catenary
expand sagging at equal stretches (Fig. 19b). curve of a hanging chain working in tension only, and the
ideal shape of an arch with the same span, rise, and set of
reely Suspended Chains That Form Surfaces
F loads, to work in compression only, avoiding in both cases
Different types of surfaces can be obtained with a series of bending.
suspended chains at equal distances. Depending on the lines Frei Otto built in 1952 a “standing chain” or “multi-
of suspension points (rigid or flexible, straight or curved, hinged arch,” an arch model able to take different lines of
concave or convex), and on the sagging of suspended chains thrust or arch outlines with varying patterns of loads. Its
(constant or variable, with largest sag inside or outside), the voussoirs had convex contacting faces, and could roll over
surfaces developed can be singly or doubly curved, synclas- each other, and were also secured against slipping by threads.
Fig. 19 (a, left) Hanging chain of constant length with supports separating gradually. (b, right) Hanging chains with a constant span gradually
increasing length. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
62 J. M. Songel
Fig. 20 Parallel and radial series of hanging chains developing different types of surfaces. (Source: ©Atelier Frei Otto + Partner)
The contact points between the voussoirs mark the line of

thrust (or the inverted catenary). Their position changes in
accordance with the acting loads, and the overall line of
thrust is reshaped, developing a self-forming arch similar to
a freely suspended chain (Graefe, 2021, p. 96) (Fig. 22).
Hanging Chain Nets
When chains are interlaced to form a net, they behave in a

different way than when grouped in a series of independent
parallel or radial elements. Hanging chain nets develop
funicular models of surfaces made up of linear elements
working in tension only. When inverted, they provide the
form of gridshells, made up of a grid of continuous linear
Fig. 21 Principle of inversion (Robert Hooke): “As hangs the flexible elements working mostly in compression. The most suitable
line, so but inverted will stand the rigid arch.” (Source: author’s
chain nets to produce funicular models for gridshells are
photograph)
those with a flat horizontal pattern of square meshes. When
pierced with large holes, since it is generated by linear ele-

ments, instead of continuous and opaque surface elements.
Gridshells are doubly curved surface thin vaults made up of
a lattice of thin wooden slats, intended to work mainly in
compression. Their form is therefore antifunicular and must
be defined by hanging chain net models.
Another important feature is their building process
(Songel, 2020, p. 238). A flat planar orthogonal square-mesh
slat grid lying on the floor, with loose bolts at every slat
crossing, is hoisted up at some points in the central area and
is gradually deformed into a doubly curved surface. During
this process, the thin slats or laths are slightly bent, and rotate
at each grid crossing or node, changing the original right
angles into oblique ones, and the initial mesh squares into
rhombi. Once the flexible slat grid has reached the funicular
Fig. 22 Standing chain or multi-hinged arch designed by Frei Otto in shape obtained through the hanging chain net model, it is
1952. (Source: author’s photograph)
stiffened by fixing the angles and tightening the bolts at each
grid crossing (Fig. 25).
these chain nets are hung, a self-forming process generates, As gridshells and hanging chain nets are so closely
whereby the squares transform into rhombi with gradually related, there are also two similar different types of grid-
varying sharp angles, to develop a curved surface. Its form shells, in accordance with the already mentioned types of
depends on the type of boundary meshes and the type and hanging chain nets.
layout of suspension. Two basic categories can be identified
(Hennicke, 1974): pen Mesh Arch Boundary Gridshells
O
The edges of the gridshell coincide with the peripheral grid
omplete Mesh Chain Nets
C lines. All the meshes of the grid are closed and complete. The
All the meshes of the net are closed and complete, and the outline of the flat grid is a square or a rectangle. Supports are
net boundaries are net lines. The outline of the flat net is a punctual (Fig. 26).
square or a rectangle. Supports are punctual and coincide
with net nodes. The net edges are flexible and coincide with C losed Flat Boundary Gridshells
net lines between two supporting points. They develop self- The edges of the gridshell do not coincide with any grid line.
forming funicular arches (Fig. 23). The boundary edges can have any form, and the ends of the
laths are fastened to them. The peripheral meshes of the grid
Incomplete Mesh Chain Nets are cut, open, and incomplete. Supports are linear (Fig. 27).
The edge of the net can take any form and does not coincide
with any net line. The peripheral meshes of the net are cut,
open, and incomplete. Supports are linear and rigid, and can Hanging Cloths
be external to the net, like a wire or a board trimmed with an
inner hollow. The final overall pattern of this type of chain net Frei Otto knew inverted forms since he was a child, when he
must be defined on the basis of the suspended form, by stretch- used to play in his father’s sculptor workshop with hanging
ing or shortening gradually the loose ends of the incomplete cloths soaked in plaster, dried and inverted, to produce dif-
edge meshes until a uniform and continuous curvature of the ferent funicular forms (Otto & Songel, 2010, p. 30). He also
whole net is reached, avoiding any local sagging (Fig. 24). experimented with hanging rubber membranes loaded with
evenly distributed nails (Fig. 28a) and with models made
from medical plaster bandages dipped in water or sprayed
Gridshells with it (Fig. 28b). Folding patterns developed by hanging
cloths were also explored in his experiments (Fig. 28c).
Frei Otto developed a new type of light thin shells, which he Heinz Isler, a Swiss engineer and one of the last shell build-
named Gitterschalen, usually translated in English as “grid- ers of the twentieth century, also used hanging cloth models
shells.” They are vaults whose surface is openwork, as a skin to design his shell structures (Fig. 28d).
64 J. M. Songel
Fig. 23 Complete mesh hanging chain net. (Source: author’s photographs)
Fig. 24 Incomplete mesh hanging chain net. (Source: author’s photographs)
Compressive Inverted Shells Concluding Remark
Experience gained by the author in workshops to build funic- It could be argued that computers and parametric design
ular models of shells shows the importance of cutting the software have superseded physical models, as tools to simu-
cloth pattern correctly, in order to ensure that flat cloth sur- late material behavior to generate light structures or optimal
faces can unfold into three-dimensional forms, in accordance and minimal tensile surfaces. When confronted with this
with the intended design, generating an even and seamless issue in a conversation with the author in 2004, Frei Otto
surface, where no wrinkles should come up (Songel, 2015, said:
p. 623). It is also worth noting the difference between the The computer can only calculate what is already conceptually
form of the hanging cloth before and after soaking in plaster. inside of it; you can only find what you look for in computers.
It is only when the cloth is loaded with plaster that gravity Nevertheless, you can find what you haven’t searched for with
springs into action and develops a smooth and continuous free experimentation.” […] “The truly important things [arose]
largely from fortuitous or casual observations made during
funicular surface (Fig. 29). Many different funicular com- experiments, some of which were planned in a completely sys-
pressive shell forms can be obtained: either concave or con- tematic style. I have always combined systematic experimenta-
vex, synclastic, or anticlastic. Folds can be generated by tion with the fortuitous or casual, where chance plays a role; if
inserting strings in the piece of cloth, or by splitting the cloth something is accidentally discovered, it would be stupid to reject
it simply because it doesn’t fit within the systematization. (Otto
pattern in different pieces, which will later be sewn together & Songel, 2010, p. 38 and 32)
(Fig. 30).
Fig. 25 Deformation of an
orthogonal flat slat grid,
hoisted to generate a
gridshell. (Source: ©Atelier
Frei Otto + Partner)
Fig. 26 Open mesh arch boundary gridshell. (Source: author’s Fig. 27 Closed flat boundary gridshell. (Source: author’s photograph)
photograph)
66 J. M. Songel
Fig. 28 (a, Above left) Hanging rubber membrane loaded with nails. right) Heinz Isler’s hanging cloth model of a shell. (Source: ©Atelier
(b, Above right) Hanging medical plaster bandages moistened in water. Frei Otto + Partner (a,c), author’s photograph (b), Heinz Isler gta Archiv
(c, Below left) Folding patterns developed by hanging cloths. (d, Below ETH Zürich (d))
Fig. 29 Difference between the form of the hanging cloth before (left) and after (right) soaking in plaster. (Source: author’s photographs)
Experiments with physical models, according to Frei Otto, them have been created or prescribed by man. Form generation
provide the chance to invent, the possibility of finding the through physical self-forming processes and careful observa-
unsearched, as they contain the laws of nature. Computers, tion of natural phenomena have indeed been pivotal in Frei
however, would not have that ability, as the laws governing Otto’s experience for the invention of new light structures.
Fig. 30 Different funicular compressive shell forms. (Source: author’s photographs)
Songel, J. M. (2015). Form follows forces. Building funicular models

References to show how gravity shapes form. In EDULEARN15 proceedings
(pp. 621–626). IATED.
Allen, E., Zalewski, W., & Michel, N. (2010). Form and forces: Songel, J. M. (2020). Sustainability lessons from vernacular architec-
Designing efficient, expressive structures. John Wiley & Sons. ture in Frei Otto’s work: Tents and gridshells. The International
Bach, K., Otto, F., & Burkhardt, B. (1988). IL 18. Seifenblasen. Forming Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
bubbles. Krämer. Information Sciences, XLIV-M-1-2020, 233–240. https://doi.
Brinkmann, G. (Ed.). (1990). Leicht und Weit. VCH. org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIV-M-1-2020-233-2020
Gass, S. (1990). IL 25. Experimente. Experiments. Institut für Leichte
Flächentragwerke.
Ghyka, M. C. (1977). The geometry of art and life. Dover. Juan María Songel is a
Graefe, R. (2021). The catenary and the line of thrust as a means for Ph.D. Architect and an Associate
shaping arches and vaults. In B. Addis (Ed.), Physical models. Their Professor at the Technical University of
historical and current use in civil and building engineering design. Valencia (UPV), where he has taught
Ernst & Sohn. courses on Architectural Composition,
Hennicke, J. (Ed.). (1974). IL 10. Gitterschalen. Grid shells. Institut für History of Architecture, and Art and
Leichte Flächentragwerke. Aesthetics in Civil Engineering. His
Le Ricolais, R. (1997). Visiones y paradojas. Visions and paradox. research areas include different topics
Fundación Cultural COAM. such as Theory and History of
Nerdinger, W., Meissner, I., Möller, E., & Grdanjski, M. (2005). Frei Architecture, Aesthetics in Civil
Otto: Complete works: Lightweight construction natural design. Engineering, and Frei Otto and Light
Birkhäuser. Structures. He has been a member of the
Otto, F. (1973). Tensile structures. MIT Press. research projects “Living & virtual vis-
Otto, F., & Songel, J. M. (2010). A conversation with Frei Otto. iting European World Heritage” and
Princeton Architectural Press. “Roman theatres in Hispania. Conservation, restoration criteria and use
Otto, F., Rasch, B., & Schanz, S. (1995). Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch: enhancement”, among others. He held a position as an assistant director
Finding form, towards an architecture of the minimal. Axel for Research at the School of Architecture at UPV, and was also the editor-
Menges. in-chief of VLC Arquitectura Research Journal, published by the School
Otto, F., Vrachliotis, G., Kleinmanns, J., Kunz, M., & Kurz, P. (2017). of Architecture. He has also taken part as a jury member in research
Frei Otto. Thinking by modeling. Spector books. assessment panels for the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
Roland, C. (1972). Frei Otto: Structures. Longman. of the Portuguese Government and for the State Research Agency (AEI)
of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
Categories of Natural Principles
and Their Adaptation to Bionic Design
Abstract architecture, or object design), in terms of general think-

ing, form, elected materials, and efficient functioning.
The relation between nature and design has a millennial The easiest way to be ecologically sustainable is by cor-
history. While art found aesthetic inspiration and propor- rectly understanding and applying the lesson of nature.
tion in nature, technique used natural principles for inven-
tions, adaptable to everyday life or industrial production.
Design pushed further the research in terms of ergonom-
ics, dynamics, functionality and efficacy. Therefore, the
aim to define and order the categories of inspiration Keywords
sources taken from nature may appear as useful. Form, Nature · Morphology · Natural mechanism · Bionic
geometry, and proportion may appear as the easiest way design · Ecologically sustainable design · Network-
to study and transmit the principles of nature (an approach inspired design
used in biomimicry). However, the dynamic study of nat-
ural mechanisms may change the perspective. A different
approach is brought by understanding natural substance as Introduction
composed of interconnected small elements, creating per-
fectly functional networks. And last but not least, let us We are accustomed to see technique and art as two com-
not forget about the beauty of nature, about its inner pro- pletely distinct fields – one aimed by the power of rational
portion and mathematical composition that bring absolute thinking, logic, and calculation and the other one based on
harmony. inspiration, harmony, and aesthetics. There are disciplines
The present ecologic crisis obliges us to be smart and (such as architecture) that demonstrate the inaccuracy of this
resilient and bionics appeared to be one of the solutions to reasonment. There are spirits that have perfectly melted the
this crisis. The strategic concept of sustainable develop- two branches usually dedicated to science/technique and art/
ment, consecrated by the Summit from Rio in 1992, pro- artistic creation. Maybe the best example is Leonardo da
duced the vision of sustainable design. Later on, it was Vinci, usually considered to be an artist but recognized as
refined and turned into the notion of ecologically sustain- well as engineer, architect, and scientist. We can wonder
able development (and design), such as formulated by which element produced the nucleus of such an amazing
R. Harding in 2006. The present discourse produces a career. There is an easy answer: The study of nature is the
concrete onset for this concept and illustrates each defined deepest school that has formed Leonardo as an artist and a
category with a specific design project inspired by nature, scientist. In nature, he has discovered in the same time the
presented as a study case. The final purpose is to approach laws of harmony and the scientific principles for his inven-
the study of nature in a conscient way, using a series of tions: parachute, flying machine, submerging costume, a
effective tools. This may lead to a more intelligent and type of robot, different types of weapons, etc. (Laurenza &
efficient design conception at any scale (from urbanism Taddei, 2006). Considering the field of architecture, we may
and landscape design to conception of buildings, interior observe that nature, represented both by plants and animals,
has always been a constant inspiration source, both in ver-
nacular architecture and in creations of some famous archi-
E.-C. Dușoiu (*) tects: Antoni Gaudí, Renzo Piano, Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid,
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning,
etc. However, these names are just a reference to the modern
Bucharest, Romania

70 E.-C. Dușoiu
and contemporary era. In fact, I wonder if there is any period ambience, ergonomics has defined itself through the use of
in architecture history when architecture had no relation with geometric dimensions and shapes. However, natural geome-
nature (in terms of proportion, details, constructive logic, try is by far more adaptive to the human body, since it uses
etc.). We can observe the long-lasting relation between archi- the same system of proportions and measures, based on the
tecture and nature in the huge papyriform Egyptian columns golden ratio and not on the artificial metric system. Any kid
or in the perfect proportion of the Greek orders, reproducing may discover that the branch of his favorite tree can be more
the human body. Nature is present as well in the logic of the ergonomic than any sofa or bench. Design is as well associ-
Gothic structure, reproducing the fractal growth of trees, in ated with comfort – meaning soft, dense surfaces, with a
the precision and serenity of the Renaissance space, or in the smooth touch and a perfect ambience for the environment –
richness of the modern Art Nouveau decoration, endowed in terms of temperature, humidity, and air ventilation. Let us
with a multitude of vegetal elements. count how many aesthetic and technologic efforts are neces-
Nowadays, one century after the abstract and minimalist sary in order to complete all these requests and compare
Vanguard, design is walking through a deep and conscious everything with the chance of lying on the grass in a flowered
oncoming on nature, which seeks inspiration and scientific meadow, on a sunny spring day. Can we invent something
justification in bionics and its components (biomimicry, bio- more adaptable than the skin of chameleon or more flexible
philia, etc.). Today, the ecologically sustainable design is an than the body of a caterpillar? Efficacy in living organisms
aim, in search of intelligent and technically controlled mod- has inspired a lot of technological inventions, such as hulls of
els for the life frame of tomorrow (Harding, 2006). boats imitating the thick skin of dolphins, medical ultra-
Nevertheless, seldom we do not observe that solutions for sound technology imitating animal echolocation, prototypes
our problems are closer than we expect. Janine Benyus was for a dispositive for carrying water inspired by the Namib
the first author to formulate the difference between “learning desert beetle, etc. Moving the study to an architectural scale,
about the natural world” and “learning from the natural we may observe that the most efficient building structures
world,” which is the process applied in bionic design created by architects and engineers are (consciously or not)
(Benyus, 2002). copies of natural structures: shells, trees, mushrooms, honey-
In this sense, a sequence of directions to approach the combs, organic membranes, etc.
study of nature are presented, materialized in four main cat- Speaking about aesthetics, nature gives us nothing less
egories. Though bionic architecture and design inspired by than the geometric formula of beauty, contained in the golden
nature have been treated and largely explained in various spiral, the golden ratio (the famous number Phi
occasions (Benyus, 2002; Tanov, 2018; Yeang, 2006; Keller, 1.6180339887…), and the 137.5° angle, which generates the
2018), the idea of defining which part of natural laws is stud- movement of the golden spiral. So far, the importance of
ied exactly for a certain design and how this study works has studying nature in order to produce quality design is evident.
not been defined clearly yet. The four proposed categories The only remaining problem is how to approach the huge
are illustrated with personal design studies dedicated to fur- diversity of natural patterns in order to find specific solutions
niture objects and with projects realized by students in to design problems.
Product Design (“Ion Mincu” University) who participated
in the course “Ecology,” taught in the academic year 2018–
2019. These studies constitute concrete examples illustrating our Categories for Approaching Nature
F
the four categories proposed and described below. In this in Design Research
moment, the study is formulated in a general frame, how-
ever it can be adapted to mathematic models of calculation Form/Morphology
and behavior.
Maybe the most obvious contact with nature is the study of
form. The observation of volumes, including their compos-
ome Key Concepts in Design and Their
S ing elements and their envelopes functioning as skins and
Correspondence in Nature membranes, is the first type of study that comes into mind.
We can make a deep study on the geometric form of the natu-
From the beginning, design has constituted a combination ral object, its generative law, its texture and material proper-
between aesthetics and efficacy, in terms of form, processed ties, and its color and shape. We should study the micro-tissue
materials, and employed technology. Design has consecrated of the envelope, as well as the inside surface. There is no
concepts such as ergonomics, comfort, efficacy, and later on need to translate all the discovered properties to the designed
adaptability and flexibility, in order to adapt to spaces that object, just the ones considered as more significant. The final
are in a constant functional evolution. Conceived as the sci- object should be a clear reference of the chosen model with-
ence of conciliating the human body with the surrounding out being a direct imitation.
Categories of Natural Principles and Their Adaptation to Bionic Design 71
tudy Cases (Form/Morphology)

S designer Simone Micheli has an interesting interpretation as
The sketches below constitute the idea for a project for a well. In this case, the purpose is to push further the study of
furniture piece based on the deep study of the shape of the natural form and tissue by using a multitude of senses (sight,
egg (Fig. 1). The challenge is to realize a continuous shell in touch, acoustics, smell, etc.)
one material (laminated plastic could be an option). The A project realized in 2018–2019 by a student in Product
geometry of the egg form is important to be studied and Design (Sara Vahdani) is presented as well, in order to illus-
understood (the sculptor Constantin Brâncuşi called the egg trate the mentioned category. The project proposes the design
“the beginning of the world”). The inside material of the of a lamp inspired by the form of the nest of a weaver,
shell should be different and comfortable (as the membrane observing the details and imitating the texture of the tissue
that strengthens the egg shell). The sitting part should be a created by the bird (Fig. 2). The resulted surface is flexible
soft cushion with a round form. The armchair is proposed to and resistant, due to the multitude of irregular nodes and
be realized imitating the natural colors of the yolk and albu- joints, allowing the lamp to change its form according to the
men. A functional purpose leads to the proposal of setting the design conception of the space and providing a protection
object both on the ground and hanging it. The egg form will envelope against a too big quantity of light. The material pro-
lead to similitudes with consecrated design objects (for posed for the realization of the lamp is recycled metallic wire
instance, with the Ovalia Egg Chair created by Thor Larsen that allows the morphologic change of the lamp according to
or the Egg Chair realized by Arne Jacobsen). The Italian the concept of atmosphere generated in the conceived space.
Fig. 1 Sketches of a chair inspired by the form and properties of an egg, by the author
72 E.-C. Dușoiu
Fig. 2 The project of a lamp inspired by a weaver nest, by Sara Vahdani, Faculty of Product Design, IMUAU (University project, 2018–2019,
illustration of the category Form/Morphology)
Fig. 3 Sketches of a flexible chair inspired by the mechanism of a peacock tail, by the author
Dynamics/Function ventilation through respiration, humidity through the per-

missivity of their skin). The envelope of a vegetal or an ani-
A more dynamic perspective on the study of nature can be mal organism (the covering membrane constituted by the
achieved by focusing on the natural mechanisms and their skin) should be studied as a dynamic system, in relation with
laws of functioning. Life itself means movement and change, local climate conditions – wind, temperature, and humidity.
properties that are inherent to living substance. We can both Mechanical functioning of living organisms can be a rich
observe the mechanical and thermodynamic functioning of source of inspiration as well, easy to translate to structural
living organisms (thermal insulation from the environment, problems that we need to solve in engineering and design.
Fig. 4 (a, b) The project of a lamp inspired by the way of producing light of fireflies, university project (Faculty of Product Design IMUAU,
illustration of the category Dynamics/Function)
Special attention should be paid to mechanic details, easy to tic and public spaces (Fig. 4a, b). The model belongs to the
transpose in a technical thinking, such as articulations, joints, series of studies created by the students of the Faculty of
and embedments. Product Design at the “Ion Mincu” University (2018–2019).
In this case, the focus is on dynamics and functioning. The
tudy Cases (Dynamics/Function)
S lamp imitates the relation with light of a firefly, who actually
Here is a proposal of a flexible transformable armchair, controls the beginning and end of the light emission (due to
inspired by the functioning of a peacock tail (Fig. 3). The a chemical reaction based on the addition of oxygen in its
essence of the object is the opening and closing of the back- case, property called bioluminescence). The project pro-
rest, which also allows its transformation into a chaise poses a lamp conceived to control the quantity of light
longue. In this sense, the study of its articulation with the according to the specific needs of a certain space and the
sitting volume is important to be realized. The project weather conditions outside.
revealed that an extra element (metal stem) is needed for the
support of the backrest in horizontal position. Special atten-
tion should be paid to textures and colors that imitate the Aesthetics/Proportion
feathers of the peacock. The concept is to be as close as pos-
sible to the inspiration source, using biomimicry, because the Some natural organisms or details of their body have the
genuine colors of the peacock have a specific role in nature property to be just beautiful, above all. If we can find the
(ensuring communication between the fellows of this spe- geometric key of beauty in proportion and the golden ratio, it
cies, reproduction, and, of course, a magnificent appearance is hard to define what makes a color or texture beautiful. By
of the male in the surrounding environment). A survey studying nature, one may discover the laws of harmony are
through the examples of armchairs inspired by the peacock quite simple and the same golden spiral generated by the
tail revealed that they all have a formal inspiration in the Fibonacci series, the golden ratio 1.618…, as well as the
shape of the bird, with no deep study on the opening mecha- 137.5° angle, appears everywhere. However, sometimes we
nism of the tail, so the creation of such a piece of furniture cannot explain why things are beautiful; we just feel like it.
would be quite an invention. In this situation, to imitate nature by drawing and under-
Another project for this category is the one of a lamp, standing it may be the correct solution, as the great Leonardo
entitled “Firefly lamp,” possible to be used equally in domes- demonstrated.
74 E.-C. Dușoiu
Fig. 5 The project of a coffee table inspired by the form and textures of the details of the peacock tail, by the author
tudy Cases (Aesthetics/Proportion)

S trast should be perceived between the translucence of the
A proposal of inspiration source is to study “eyes” and other table and the opaque soft chairs (velvet could be a good
details of the peacock tail. The project of a series of furniture option for them).
pieces focuses on material properties (translucence, color) The next project based on aesthetics, realized by Ilinca
and form, which is inspired by the one of the “eyes” that Jitaru, student in Product Design at the Ion Mincu University
decorate the peacock tail (ellipsis). Some sketches for a dec- (2018–2019), is illustrated by another proposal of lamp
orative table conceived for the living room or for the ambi- design, based just on the wood texture of a tree trunk (acacia).
ence of a cafeteria are presented below (Fig. 5). The height In this case, the intention of the project is to put into value the
of the table is low (maximum 55 centimeters), being proper aesthetics of the growing rings of the tree, which mark the age
for serving coffee and discussions between friends. A con- of the trunk, in a metaphoric and artistic way (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 The project of a lamp inspired by the growing rings of an acacia trunk, by Ilinca Jitariu, university project (Faculty of Product Design
IMUAU, illustration of the category Aesthetics/Proportion)
Interrelation/Network interior of the hexagons is furnished with sofas, allowing

intimate discussions in small groups and ensuring soft sur-
Some natural organisms or habitats are mainly defined by faces (Fig. 7). A 3D interpretation of the concept is also pos-
being a net, consisting in a multitude of similar elements in sible, considering the ceiling, hanging elements, etc. Another
continuous interrelation, interdependence, and cohesion and use of similar modules could be as playground for children,
constituting a complex system based on simple elements since it is proved that children are fond of exploring and dis-
(modules). In such cases, the necessary approach is to under- covering nature. Natural warm materials are proposed
stand the morphology of the basic modular element and the (wood, soft tissues, etc.).
categories of relationships between basic elements. The The second design proposal is an uncommon shelf with a
scale of the study is also an approach to be retraced, consid- free form. The modules could be light elements in some
ering networks of micro-elements or macro-elements, adaptive plastic material, with a round organic form, fixed on
ensembled in an efficient way. several central metallic axes with circular section (Fig. 8).
Stability on the ground should be studied and solved, as well
tudy Cases (Interrelation/Network)
S as the transformability of the ensemble. The proposed color
The honeycomb is one of the most common networks pres- respects the natural tone of the coral.
ent in nature and largely applied in architecture and design. The next project illustrates this fourth and last category,
The first example proposes modular sitting spaces intercon- imagining a separating panel, or mobile wall (Fig. 9). The
nected between each other, inspired by a honeycomb. The structure of the panel is inspired by the micro-texture of a
76 E.-C. Dușoiu
Fig. 7 The project of a flexible multifunctional furniture for a public space or home, inspired by the honeycomb, by the author
Fig. 8 The project of a flexible multifunctional structure, to be used as a shelf, inspired by the coral, by the author
Fig. 9 The project of a wall panel inspired by the texture of a dragonfly wing, by Mădălina Ursu and Eduard Sohan, university project (Faculty of
Product Design IMUAU, illustration of the category Interrelation/Network)
78 E.-C. Dușoiu
dragonfly wing, which generates a resistant irregular net- Elena-Codina Duşoiu is an architect
(graduated in 2000, IMUAU) and pro-
work with outstanding stability and special aesthetics. As a
fessor within the Ion Mincu University
general conclusion of the study, the assumed option for one of Architecture and Urban Planning
of the four mentioned categories, or the gesture to c onsciously from Bucharest, Romania. She also
combine several of them, may lead to a valuable method to accomplished study periods within the
Polytechnic University of Catalonia,
be applied in design thinking. Though illustrated with furni-
Barcelona (Master in Restoration of
ture design examples, this method can be translated to sev- Monuments, 2001) and Venice
eral scales, from urbanism to architecture and interior design, International University (Dottorato di
being open for further exploration. Eccelenza. Storia della Città,
dell’Architettura e del Restauro,
2004). Her main fields of research are:
rehabilitation and conversion of build-
References ings (published books: The Dynamics
of the Sacred Space. The Influence of Function, 3 Breweries and Their
Benyus, J. (2002). Biomimicry: Innovation inspired by nature. William Destiny, Ion Mincu Publishing House, 2009), vernacular architecture
Morrow & Company. and ecology (organizer of 12 editions of Spanish-Romanian workshops
Harding, R. (2006). Ecologically sustainable development: Origins, on vernacular architecture 2006–2018), design and bionics (research
implementation and challenges. Desalination, 187(1–3), 229–239. studies realized within the IMUAU and the Alcalá University, 2021–
Keller, R. S. (2018). Nature by design. The practice of biophilic design. 2022). She received various research grants and published about 100
Yale University Press. scientific articles and 8 authored and co-authored books in the men-
Laurenza, D., & Taddei, M. (2006). Leonardo’s machines: Da Vinci’s tioned research fields. Outstanding activity as visiting professor in
inventions revealed. David & Charles. Spain, Italy, Greece, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Argentina etc.
Tanov, E. (2018). Design by nature: Creating layered, lived-in spaces Several national and international prizes and nominations in architec-
inspired by the natural world. Ten Speed Press. tural research and architectural design, owner of a personal architecture
Yeang, K. (2006). Ecodesign: A manual for ecological design. studio since 2003.
Wiley-Academy.
The Bionic Paradigm of Light
in Architecture and Design:
From Animal Vision to Architectural
Conception
Judgment is … the mediate cognition of an object, hence the representation of a representation of it.
Plato
Abstract This chapter presents as well three study cases of well-

known buildings inspired by the anatomy and physiology
The capacity for a multi-sensorial perception is one of the of the eye, leading to a comparative multi-criterial analy-
most significant tools in defining the relation of living sis. The last section of this chapter presents some experi-
organisms with the surrounding environment. Studying mental results of architectural projects, searching an
the world of senses gives constant sources of inspiration improved and more complex perception of light. The pre-
in architecture and design, defining space creation and its sented projects are selected from the author’s academic
perception. Going deeper into the study of the mecha- activity developed with the students of the “Ion Mincu”
nisms of senses, we may discover unexpected instruments University of Architecture and Urban Planning from
for creating aesthetic, efficient and bioclimatic Bucharest and the University from Alcalá de Henares,
architecture. Spain, in the last years (2021, 2022).
The study of animal vision, the relationship of living
beings, from the simplest species to the most developed
ones, with light and color during their whole life, pro-
vides solid knowledge, applicable to architecture, design
and construction. Taking into account that many species Keywords
of animals have much more accurate vision than human
beings (night vision, underwater perception, 180° or 360° Vision system · Light perception · Design with light ·
vision, perception of light polarization, etc.), we can Architectural space · Architectural conception ·
investigate how such a relation with light could be applied Environment perception
in the conception of architectural space. A classification
of vision systems from the animal world is leading to con-
clusions that may transform in departure points for future I ntroduction. Perceiving Space – The World
architectural visions, considering light to be compulsory of Senses
for a correct understanding of space. Original results
appear as well while realizing the connection between This chapter was born out of some simple questions: Which
vision accuracy and life duration of living beings, which is the relationship between animals and light? Does this rela-
seem to be proportional. In a future phase, a study on tion influence their quality and duration of life? Can the vari-
improved human perception of surrounding space may ous possibilities of light perception inspire new technological
bring direct applicability into architectural thinking. details for our buildings or influence their architectural vol-
ume? A parallel can be drawn between the famous definition
given to architecture by Le Corbusier: “Architecture is the
learned game, correct and magnificent, of forms assembled
E.-C. Dușoiu (*) in the light” (Le Corbusier, 1925, p. 16) and the sense of
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning ,
vision of the living creatures, which for the humans is the

80 E.-C. Dușoiu
sense that brings the majority of information and knowledge. eye structure at all, due to the visual cells spread all over
However, perception of architecture is not only about seeing. their body. A unique example is the lobster, provided with
As Peter Zumthor observed: “Architecture needs to be exe- so-called “X-ray vision.” This type of vision is due to square
cuted. Then the body can come into being. Moreover, the tubes – natural mirrors that reflect the incoming light, com-
body is always sensuous. To experience architecture in a con- posed of entirely straight walls and right angles, as opposed
crete way means to touch, see, hear and smell it” (Zumthor, to the human eye’s curved rods and cones (each eye, set on a
1999, p. 58). It is the same concrete experience that animals movable stalk, has up to 10,000 facets that operate like many
have in their complex relationship with the surrounding tiny eyes). This provides the lobster with a 180° field of view.
world. Some have outstanding capacities in dealing with All these examples prove how complex this sense that we
light perception and not only through their eyes. Can these generally call “sight” is in fact, even if many times there is a
abilities inspire us in the conception on our artificial environ- slight difference between it and other senses, as for example
ment? Because, unfortunately, us, the humans can only imag- the sense of “touch” (Higgins, 2021).
ine “the body as a refuge in a world which would appear to This morphological diversity produces a huge variety in
be flooded by artificial signs of life and in which philoso- perceiving the world. It is amazing to think how reality can
phers ponder on virtual reality” (Zumthor, 1999, p. 52). change according to the specificities of visual perception of
The present study is bringing together concepts from biol- the various species. The study of the functioning of these
ogy, physics, and architecture, with the purpose of helping a various types of systems may lead to the understanding of
deeper understanding of the surrounding world and translat- complex technical principles, possible to translate to archi-
ing the knowledge to the construction of our future surround- tecture and design thinking.
ing environment. The basic bibliography of the study is
composed of recent studies referring to the sight mechanisms
of various species of animals and their classification. Perception of Color
However, architectural interpretations are present as well. A
comparative analysis of the species with most longevity from The most evident presence of light in the animal world is
the terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial environment is included as color, an element that is crucial for life: in recognizing their
a valuable tool in discovering the most relevant principles of own species, in communicating and being in relation with
light detection, possible to be translated to the constructed the environment, in reproducing, in fight for domination
environment. In the end, we present study cases referring to between males, or in thermal interaction with the environ-
an application of animal vision (horse) to architectural space ment. The sight and perception of a variety of colors define,
and to an experiment of “building with light,” providing actually, the diversity of the world and life, consisting in a
sources of inspiration for future design studies. matter of survival. “Groups of animals, for example, can
communicate with one another using colours or patterns of
light that are invisible to rivals or dangerous predators”
Perceiving Through and Without the Eye. (Stevens, 2021a, b, p. 12). Therefore, the perception of color
Particularities of the Animal Eye varies a lot, from a very sensitive and deep capacity of defin-
ing it (parrots, chameleons, certain types of fishes, etc.) to an
The sight in the animal world covers an enormous diversity infrared vision (snakes), ultraviolet perception (bees),
of patterns. The most common one is the classical camera- extraordinary sharp night vision (night gecko, cat) and to a
type eye common to humans and other vertebrates. We can rather uncolored (horse, butterfly) or even black-and-white
still discover the composed eyes of insects, made of a great or blue-green vision (sharks, mice). It is also interesting to
quantity of tiny lenses, projecting small parts of images and compare the skin patterns of the animals with their life envi-
recreating some blurry effects. That is nothing more amazing ronment and the accuracy of their sight. Actually, the prop-
than the thousands of ocelli spread over the shell of the mol- erty of color in the animal body is given by several categories
luscs (e.g., the clam or the jellyfish), whose way of function- of natural pigments (melanin for dark colors; carotenoids for
ing is rather difficult for our understanding. Some insects vivid yellow, orange, and red; psittacofulvin for vivid colors
have as well their eyes split in various ocelli that help in parrots) and by specific types of structures that allow only
responding to light changes (the tree weta, a sort of spider short-length light to be seen (green, blue, etc.). Some ani-
belonging to the family of Anostostomatidae). Some reptiles mals even “borrow” colors from the surrounding environ-
are provided with a pineal gland with thermoregulation func- ment (the most spectacular case is the one of chameleons,
tion called “the third eye” (as is the case of the tuatara, a who can change within seconds from a bright green or blue
reptile from New Zealand). Other are famous for their out- to dull brown, according to their habitat and their domi-
standing vision at night (salamander). There are even ani- nance). Other species vary their color more slowly from one
mals that are able to perceive the presence of light with no season to other (arctic lemming, fox, squirrel, etc.)
The Bionic Paradigm of Light in Architecture and Design: From Animal Vision to Architectural Conception 81
It may not be hard to understand that the most colored

animals have the most developed sense of perceiving color.
This fact generates a strong relationship between their physi-
ology, communication with the environment, and their abil-
ity to perceive the surrounding reality. For example, the
mandrill (an old-world primate), the most colored mammal
in the world, has four types of light-sensitive cells in the eye,
being able to detect the whole color spectrum, from ultravio-
let to red. It seems that the oldest (prehistoric) species devel-
oped the most accurate vision of color, much better than the
one of humans. However, an outstanding vision of color, due
to a great quantity of cone cells, reduces the number of rod
cells present in the eye and therefore provokes less night
vision, underwater vision, etc. (Stevens, 2021a, b). That
explains the fact that contemporary mammals, whose family
developed and diversified after the evolution of dinosaurs,
usually have less color vision (just two types of cone cells)
but better night or gloom vision (this is the case of the horse,
which will be further studied in detail) (Kelber et al., 2003).
The quality of eyesight is in a constant relationship with
the appearance of the animal. Parrots are enabled with an out-
standing capacity of perceiving colors and are extremely col- Fig. 1 The opened peacock tail. (Watercolor by the author)
ored themselves (e.g., the cockatoo, who is as well provided
with the capacity of seeing much more images per second
than the humans). The eye of the peacock contains four types mals, which has the effect of allowing in more light without
of cone cells, allowing it to perceive the entire spectrum from causing as much refraction. There is a reflective layer within
ultraviolet to red. The aesthetic dimension of color (such in the eye, which redirects incoming light back through the
the case of the peacock) seems to be useless. However, in the retina, creating double reflection. The obtained result is a
end, it proves to play an important role in reproduction and clearer image. While coming to surface, above the water, the
sexual selection, in the continuity of the species, even if whale’s pupil naturally shrinks, allowing just a small propor-
sometimes it seems to prove uncomfortable, disturbing cam- tion of the light inside. Whales have far more rod cells than
ouflage and providing extra-extensions of the body, as is the cone cells, helping them just to see a bigger quantity of light.
case of the peacock tail (Figs. 1 and 2). “The true splendour A very special example of animal living in water is the
of his plumage is only revealed in sunlight, and the luckiest mantis shrimps. Species living in deeper water tend to be
(or perhaps more vigorous) male will hold court in the bright- bluer and have a vision that developed better to perceive the
est morning sunshine, leaving many of the other males, quite blue color; the ones living closer to surface see a wider range
literally, in the shade” (Stevens, 2021a, b, p. 65). of colors. An interesting property of their vision is to perceive
The role of color in recognizing members of the same circular polarized light. The oscillation of the wave of light
species and their reproduction is widely spread in the world creates a certain angle of polarization, possible to be distin-
of: insects (e.g., peacock spider), birds (flamingo, whose guished by certain animals (from dragonfly to fish) (Stevens,
color is influenced by their diet), fish (clown fish), reptiles, 2021a, b). Mantis shrimps can detect even more complex
etc. Many males, especially birds, attract their mates by con- direction of polarization (circular polarized light patterns),
scientiously using the effects of light irisation on their plum- due to the extreme flexibility in moving their eyes. This fact
age, even getting to hypnotic effect (the case of the increases their capacity to perceive color underwater.
bird-of-paradise). Some butterfly females are able to detect Other species have a specific property in relation to the
males belonging to the same species due to ultraviolet per- light – their bodies’ fluorescence (many of them species of
ception of the colors and patterns of their wings. fish). This property functions in darker environments, rich in
ultraviolet and blue light, in which fluorescence provides
extra signals of the living world.
nderwater Vision. Perception of Polarized
U Some animals benefit of both underwater and sharp
Light above-water vision, due to their vertical pupils, as well as
night vision (alligators), and others are able to adapt their
Water organisms have a different relationship with light and sharp vision from water to land as well, being rather terres-
color. The cornea of a whale is less curved than in land mam- trial animals (the turtle) (Fig. 3).
82 E.-C. Dușoiu
Fig. 2 The amassed peacock

tail. (Watercolor by the
author)
facets (having the role of many tiny eyes) are found on mov-
able stalks sustaing each eye. This could inspire some amaz-
ing architecture installation able to increase the quantity of
natural light penetrating interior space.
uman Sight Versus Animal Sight. Does

H
a Better View Provide a Longer Life?
The basis of human sight is the detection of different wave-

lengths of light using three receptors from our eyes (cone
cells), shortwave “blue” light, mediumwave “green” light,
and longwave “red” light. The specific stimulation of these
Fig. 3 Chameleon: eye with 360° view. (Source: https://unsplash.com types of receptors provokes the colored ambience we per-
(Photo by S.N. Pattenden on Unsplash)) ceive. This has been the basis of the digital, computer-
controlled image (RGB spectrum). That makes a diverse
Angle of Perception. Optics and Geometry perception of the majority of colors, but human sight is not
able to perceive very short wavelengths provoked by ultra-
Another aspect of animal vision is the visibility angle and the violet light, that many species of animals see.
sharpness of the vision. There are species who see up to 360 Another ability of seeing that humans lack completely
degrees (the macaw, who has as well the capability to move (which is rather common to animals) is the perception of
the eye bulb inside its socket (Fig. 4), and there are species polarized light. This means the way a wave of light travels
with an outstanding 3D vision and depth perception (the cha- and oscillates in a certain direction, with its specific angle.
meleon, who uses this type of view for recognizing and Ants, dragonflies, cuttlefish, or mantis shrimp are able to
catching its pride (Fig. 3) (Stevens, 2021a, b). Besides, the perceive polarization angles (Stevens, 2021a, b). Some
majority of species keep their eyes in constant movement for animals create patterns of polarization with their own
keeping the accuracy of their sight (Land, 1999). One of the body surfaces (e.g., butterflies living in deep forest areas).
most interesting cases is the lobster, provided with so-called The properties of light polarization, referring to angle,
“X-ray vision.” The eye of the lobster is a multitude of square intensity, or proportion of light, offer an extended spec-
tubes, natural mirrors that reflect the incoming light, com- trum of vision that is at least as rich as the color
posed of entirely straight walls and right angles. Up to 10,000 spectrum.
well in anatomy for denominating the crossing of the optic

nerves at the basis of the brain (Fig. 5). The form of the
building reinterpreted this concept in a large scale, proposing
an intersection of two linear volumes. Adaptation to the con-
text and volumetric expression, in addition with light effects,
are common features for the creation of Steven Holl, who
had designed several museums before and considers abstract
interpretation to be “a critical architectural idea” (Carso
et al., 2018).
This time, the architectural vision came out through deep
scientific research, transferring to the building the property
of the anatomic process of sight: the realization of the con-
nection between the stimulation and the knowledge produced
in the brain. The input transmitted through the optic nerves is
Fig. 4 Macaw: eye with 360° view. (Source: https://unsplash.com
(Photo by David Clode on Unsplash)) a direct parallel with the dynamic flow generated through the
building (Maro Kiris, 2018). The main access is on the south-
ern side, just between the two crossed volumes, beginning an
However, human sight is consistently clearer than the one endless virtual axis that connects the building with other cul-
of the majority of mammals. The human eye can focus on a tural poles of the city (Finlandia Hall, by Alvaar Aalto and
detail due to the muscles that hold the flexible lens of the eye. Töölö Bay). The building is a sensitive insertion in the urban
This allows focusing on objects of near-so-called visual tissue of Helsinki, based on the idea of a spatial and cultural
accommodation, a sense that many mammals lack. connection, at the same time.
One may study the average period of life of species
according to their sight performances, considering view and
relation with light in general as the main sense of the living Eye Film Museum in Amsterdam
environment. It is amazing to discover a proportional rela-
tionship between their life span and the accurate capacities The new building of the Eye Museum in Amsterdam has
of their eyesight. We can conclude without being wrong that been opened about 10 years ago, in 2012, and consists of an
the species endowed with the most efficient view in relation extension of the film museum of the city, inaugurated in
with their living environment are the ones with greatest lon- 1946 (Maro Kiris, 2018). Even if the Viennese architects
gevity. The majority live much longer than humankind. (Delugan Meissl Associated Architects – DMAA) had the
Table 1 is a synthetic analysis leading to this conclusion. same idea to inspire the building in an anatomic concept
related to human vision, the approach is different this time.
The architects realized a volumetric essentialization of the
rchitecture Inspired by the Eye – Some
A form of an eye surrounded by its upper and lower lids
Existing Examples (Fig. 6). The resulted space is strongly redirected through the
river, building a strong relationship with the urban and natu-
The parallel between the mechanism of vision and architec- ral context. The originality of the approach consists of styl-
tural space is an inborn approach, light being a sine qua non izing in strong snapped lines the form of the eye, giving a
condition for the existence of architecture. The most com- geometric, abstract dimension to the volume.
mon approach observed was the inspiration in the form and
mechanism of the human eye. Three examples of famous
buildings generated by this concept are presented below. L’Hemisferic from Valencia
Whoever visits today the Spanish city of Valencia is guided

Kiasma Museum of Contemporary Art, Helsinki to the huge City of Arts and Sciences, a recovered area in the
peripheric southeastern part of the city, resulted after the
In 1993, the architect Steven Holl was winning the interna- deviation of the river Turia, as an effect of the catastrophe
tional competition for the construction of the new museum generated by its flood in 1957. The scale of the intervention
of contemporary art in Helsinki. The design of the building is impressive, the ensemble consisting in several buildings
was strongly related with biology from the beginning (Maro with a cultural function: Palace of Arts Reina Sofia,
Kiris, 2018). Even the name of the proposal comes from the L’umbracle (open-air structure covering a multifunctional
Greek letter “chi” (Χ) meaning “cross,” a concept used as space, L’Hemisferic (sheltering an IMAX, a planetarium,
Table 1 Synthetic comparison between the vision systems of the most longevity species
84
No Animal Image Habitat Expected life duration Specific property of view

1. Mantis shrimps Aquatic environment 20 years (long for a Perception of circular polarized light, increased capacity to
crustacean) perceive color under the water
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Amber
Wolfe on Unsplash)
2. Alligator Aquatic/terrestrial >80 years Vertical pupils, sharp vision above water
environment Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Samuel
scrimshaw on Unsplash)
3. Elephant Terrestrial environment >80 years Third eyelid, peripheral vision, vision similar to humans
but with less color perception
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Inbetween
Architects Jerome Charignon on Unsplash)
4. Condor Aerial environment >80 years Precision of sight from distance

Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Marc Grove
on Unsplash)
5. Flamingo Aerial/aquatic >80 years Well-developed color perception, in relation with their
environment plumage
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Bruno
Miranda on Unsplash)
E.-C. Dușoiu
6. Cockatoo Aerial environment >80 years Four light-sensitive pigments (types of cone cells)
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by David Clode
on Unsplash)
7. Salamander Aquatic/terrestrial >100 years Adaptation to water view (farsighted) and aerial view
environment (nearsighted), sharp vision at night
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Joshua
J. Cotten on Unsplash)
8. Macaw Aerial environment >115 years 360° view, great movement of the eye bulb
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by David Clode
on Unsplash)
9. Tuatara Terrestrial environment >120 years Sensitivity for infrared radiation, pineal gland with role of
thermoregulation (third eye)
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Luca
Calderone on Unsplash)
10. Lobster Aquatic/terrestrial >140 years Straight walls and right angles structure of the eye
environment (reflection), “X-ray” vision
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by blackieshoot
The Bionic Paradigm of Light in Architecture and Design: From Animal Vision to Architectural Conception
on Unsplash)
(continued)
85
Table 1 (continued)
86

11. Whale Aquatic environment >200 years Rod cells more developed than cone cells, enlarged pupil
and reflecting layer allowing light to be reflected twice,
reduction of light quantity in above-water view
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Mendar
Bouchali on Unsplash)
12. Turtle Aquatic/terrestrial >255 years Adaptation of view from water to land, ability to
environment distinguish patterns, shapes, and colors
Image source: https://unsplash.com (photo by Jakob
Owens on Unsplash)
13. Clam (bivalve Aquatic environment >500 years Hundred small pinhole eyes, detecting changes in light
molluscs) levels
Image source: https://unsplash.com/photos/
14. The tree weta Aerial/terrestrial Freezes several winters The two eyes located in front are completed with several
Environment ocelli
Image source: https://depositphotos.com/352834558/
stock-photo-tree-weta-endemic-cricket-new.html
15. Tardigrades Aquatic environment Practically immortal Inverse pigment-cup ocelli, which are located in the outer
lobe of the brain, a single pigment cup cell, one or two
microvillous (rhabdomeric) sensory cells and ciliary
sensory cell(s)
Image source: https://depositphotos.com/132045218/
stock-photo-tardigrade-water-bear.html
E.-C. Dușoiu
Fig. 7 L’Hemisferic, Valencia. (Watercolor by the author)

Fig. 5 Kiasma Museum, Helsinki: interior view. (Watercolor by the
author)
inside (the media performance) and the outside (an artificial
lake consisting in a vast surface of water reflects the whole
building).
The comparison between the architectural concepts of the
three analyzed buildings brings a survey of multiple possi-
bilities of investigation of the sense of vision, of the mor-
phology of the eye and the visual system in their relation
with architecture. It is not casual that the three buildings have
a cultural function, being conceived to educate and to inspire.
It is hard to define the buildings as “bionic,” from a scientific
perspective, but all are definitely original and iconic. The
first example (Kiasma Museum) is a subtle interpretation of
an anatomic mechanism (the transition of the sense of view
from the optic nerves to the brain) translated to a building,
conceived as a dynamic system orientated through its inte-
rior and toward the city. The second one (Eye Film Museum)
is a courageous abstractized interpretation of the form of the
human eye, with a clear orientation toward the natural land-
scape. The third building (L’Hemisferic) is the result of the
adaptation of the morphology of the eye to an architectural
Fig. 6 Eye Film Museum, Amsterdam. (Watercolor by the author) volume, from a kinetic perspective. These three examples
may constitute the basis for further architectural approach,
the challenge being the transition from the formal study to
and several cultural and educational spaces), Museum of the understanding of view as a complex mechanism, directly
Sciences Principe Felipe, L’Oceanográfic (the greatest applicable to the art of conceiving containers for life.
museum in Europe dedicated to species living in the oceans)
(Luther, 2011). This architectural ensemble is conceived by
two architects, well known for their work based on the study Characteristics of the Animal Vision –
of natural structures: Santiago Calatrava and Felix Candela. Translations to Architectural Thinking. Some
L’Hemisferic (Fig. 7), probably the most iconic building Architectural Experiments
within the City of Arts and Sciences, clearly imitates the
form of a human eye and even the process of opening and First Study Case. The Horse’s Vision
closing of the lids (the envelope is conceived in a kinetic
facade with moving elements that open and close following Guiding a complex interior architecture diploma project
the necessities). In the center of the building, the volume of (created by student Georgiana Voinescu) at the beginning of
the IMAX forms a huge eyeball connected as well with the 2022 lead us toward a detailed study of the horse view. This
88 E.-C. Dușoiu
was because the project was referring to the transformation sides of the head determines the visual field and the depth
of a historical manor house into a horsemanship center and a perception and gives the capacity to identify even the small-
club for people affectionate to horses. Little by little, the con- est movements from a very long distance, a property that
cept of the project evolved into exploring the senses of the human eye misses.
horse and of the couple horse-equestrian. The horse’s sight is dichromatic (based on blue and green)
Humans and other similar primates have forward-facing compared to trichromatic vision (the primary colors of the
eyes and thus have a relatively narrow field of view (about human color spectrum) (Osorio & Vorobyev, 2008). This fact
120° binocular horizontal view and 200° in total). This is is due to having only two types of cone cells, in comparison
completely different for a horse, who has the eyes located on with the human eye that has three.
both sides of its forehead. The area seen by both eyes simul- The interior architecture diploma project I tutored pro-
taneously, named the binocular field of vision, is quite nar- posed experimental spaces, offering the experience of a
row in comparison with the one seen by each eye separately, horse’s vision and of the relationship between a horse and its
the monocular field, and covering in total almost 360°. rider. The project proposed an installation consisting of sev-
Accommodation is a specific property, similar to visual acu- eral cylinders, conceived to reproduce the vision of the horse
ity, meaning the eye’s ability to change its focal length so and the sensations of the rider. The cylinder is a type of sur-
that objects at varying distances may come into focus. This face that allows to experiment the 360° vision of the horse
happens by changing the shape of the lens. Thus, as a rule, (Fig. 8). Actually, a circular movement brings serenity to the
larger eyes have a greater range of accommodation than horse and helps him take control of the whole surrounding
smaller ones, which is the case of the horse. “Large eyes pro- area. The installation was included as an interest point in the
vide long focal lengths and space for a larger lens which in visit circuit of the horsemanship center.
combination gives an ability for higher resolution over a The approach proposed by the project – to offer an inter-
greater range of distances” (Smith, 2020, p. 70). However, active understanding of the senses of the horse and of the
this fact is not clearly present in the horse vision. Horses equestrian – opens the way toward a deeper understanding of
have trouble focusing on objects, especially those that are the space as experimentation of the surrounding world and
near to them. In order to improve this blurred vision, the toward rediscovering the potential of design as a key in the
horse completes its information from its other very well complex process of human knowledge.
developed senses.
As the majority of the mammals, the horse had to adapt to
the living conditions in the open, exposing too numerous Second Study Case. Building with Light
risks. For these reasons, the horse is in a constant state of
wakefulness, carefully monitoring the surroundings and In November 2021, I proposed to the students of the
relying on the panoramic view for its safety. The field of MUPAAC (Master Universitario en Arquitectura Avanzada
view of the horses is almost complete, with a 360° panoramic del Proyecto y de la Ciudad) from the University of Alcalá,
view in the horizontal plane. The position of the eyes on both Spain, a study of interior space, considering a more accurate
Fig. 8 Experimental
installation for experiencing
horse vision, by Georgiana
Voinescu (diploma project
IMUAU, 2022)
Fig. 9 Eyes of light, a study by Maria de Fátima Ugarte Joya and

Bernardo Cuellar Medina, MUPAAC, University of Alcalá, 2021
Fig. 10 The Cave, a study by Gabriel Palamariu and Lorena Mergea,
perception of light than the normal human one. The results of MUPAAC, University of Alcalá, 2021
the brief workshop proposed were amazing. Some proposals
departed from the study of the inner consistence of light and 1. Generally, the relationship with light is fundamental for
from the study of the change of its properties according to living species. However, there is a huge diversity in the
the environments and surfaces with whom it interacts possibilities of visual interaction with the surrounding
(Fig. 9). Others interpreted light as a dynamic membrane or world. Vision of species is perfectly adapted to their life
skin, while others attempted to catch and include the ineffa- environment and their own physical characteristics. For
ble effects of natural light in consistent architectural ele- instance, colored birds and insects have an extremely
ments. Another idea was to work with special filters that accurate vision of color, ensured by their four types of
transform light in completely dark spaces, in a photographic cone cells, while water organisms have specific skills in
manner. Materials used in interior space can change the focusing on a sharp, clear image. Many animals are able
wavelengths and can absorb or reflect light (Fig. 10). to perceive polarized light, the infrared and the ultraviolet
Shadows can generate space by their own, realizing comple- spectrum, inaccessible to the humans, which gives them a
mentary, abstract volumes. The relation of the skin of living completely different perception of the world etc.
organisms with light and their adaptation to environment can 2. The relation with light is undoubtedly fundamental for all
inspire kinetic envelopes (facades) for new buildings. The living organisms. The table presented in this chapter
list is endless, practically. brings together the species with most longevity from the
aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial environment (whale, bivalve
molluscs, lobster, species of reptiles, elephant, turtle, spe-
Conclusions cies of parrots, flamingo, condor, the tree weta spider,
etc.). The majority of them own a prolific vision, devel-
Let us consider again the questions that generated the study oped in diverse senses, much better than the one of the
included in this chapter: Which is the relationship between humans. However, there are species whose sense of per-
animals and light? Does this relation influence their quality ceiving light has not been studied enough (such as the
and duration of life? Can the various possibilities of light tardigrades, which are known for their extraordinary
perception inspire new technological details for our build- capacity of adaptation and resilience). It seems that some
ings or influence their architectural volume? We have now of the tardigrades may even be indifferent or bothered by
come across several answers: light. They compensate this fact with other special capac-
90 E.-C. Dușoiu
ities of adapting to environmental conditions (in hot con- Higgins, J. (2021). Sentient. What animals reveal about our senses.
Picador.
ditions, they produce heat-shock proteins, which prevent
Kelber, A., Vorobyev, M., & Osorio, D. (2003). Animal colour vision –
other proteins from warping). Some tardigrades can form Behavioural tests and physiological concepts. Biological Reviews,
bubbly cysts around their bodies that allow them to sur- 78(1), 81–118.
vive in harsh climates without having to revert into full Land, M. F. (1999). Motion and vision: Why animals move their eyes.
Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 341–352.
tun mode. A deep understanding of the sight mechanisms
Luther, E. (2011). Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències. Acu Publishing.
of the most long-living species can undoubtedly help Maro Kiris, I. (2018). Biology of architecture: Two buildings inspired
humans in creating instruments and mechanisms for their by the anatomy of the visual system. Turkish Neurosurgery, 1–5.
better adaptation at the surrounding world. Osorio, D., & Vorobyev, M. (2008). A review of the evolution of animal
colour vision and visual communication signals. Vision Research,
3. As for the relationship between the biological study pre-
48, 2042–2051.
sented below and the design conception applied to archi- Smith, A. (2020). Animal vision. In V. Melfi, N. Dorey, & S. Ward
tecture, the analysis of three well-known buildings whose (Eds.), Zoo animal learning and training. Wiley.
concept bases on the study of the eye and its way of func- Stevens, M. (2021a). Life in colour. How animals see the world. Witness
Books.
tioning is presented. It seems that by now architects and
Stevens, M. (2021b). Secret worlds. The extraordinary senses of ani-
designers are only considering the study of the human mals. Oxford University Press.
eye, which is not much in comparison with the enormous Zumthor, P. (1999). Thinking architecture. Birkhäuser-Publishers for
variety offered by the animal world. This chapter presents Architecture.
as well the study case of a project experimenting the
visual sensation of the horse and an experiment of design- Elena-Codina Duşoiu is An archi-
ing interior space with light, which demonstrates a direct tect (graduated in 2000, IMUAU) and
application of biological and optical principles into archi- Professor within the “Ion Mincu”
University of Architecture and
tectural space.
Urban Planning from Bucharest,
Romania. She also accomplished
The present work is just a small starting point that could study periods within the Polytechnic
move the avalanche of a new interpretation of space by using University of Catalonia, Barcelona
(Master in Restoration of Monuments,
new tools inspired from the special skills of animals. This
2001) and Venice International
may not lead us to a longer life, as the one of the species University (Dottorato di Eccelenza.
presented above, but it will surely help us to obtain a better Storia della Città, dell’Architettura e
adaptation to our living environment and a better and deeper del Restauro, 2004). Her main fields of
research are: rehabilitation and con-
understanding of our planet.
version of buildings (published books: The Dynamics of the Sacred
Space. The Influence of Function, 3 Breweries and Their Destiny, Ion
Mincu Publishing House, 2009), vernacular architecture and ecology
References (organizer of 12 editions of Spanish-Romanian workshops on vernacu-
lar architecture 2006–2018), design and bionics (research studies real-
ized within the IMUAU and the Alcalá University, 2021–2022). She
Carso, K. D., Holl, S., Strizler-Levine, N., Olhavsky, P., Pasti, S., &
received various research grants and published about 100 scientific
Swan, K. (2018). Steven Holl: Making architecture. Samuel Dorsky
articles and 8 authored and co-authored books in the mentioned research
Museum of Art.
fields. Outstanding activity as visiting professor in Spain, Italy, Greece,
Corbusier, L. (1925). Vers une Architecture. Les Editions G.Crès et
Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Argentina etc. Several national and
Companie.
international prizes and nominations in architectural research and archi-
tectural design, owner of a personal architecture studio since 2003.
Part II
Establishing the Tools: Parametric and Biodigital
Architectural Design
Generative Biodigital Architecture
and Design: From the DNA to the Planet
Alberto T. Estévez and Yomna K. Abdallah
Abstract the main element in the realization of architectural design,

the form that is compatible with the material capacities as
In current times, digital design tools and methods are rap- well as its functional application and the technology that
idly evolving continuously introducing deeper integration enables the physical transition of form to reality through
of Artificial Intelligence and machine learning dominance materials. The analytical descriptive methodology
over the architectural design and construction realm, employed in the current study adopts a case-study analy-
stressing practitioners and theorists to master these sis approach to exhibit the full experience and the included
emerging new tools whenever they exist. This acute time- know-how of the form, material, and technology applied
tool equation leads the focus of the architectural design in each case (project). These case studies are manifesting
community to the know-how of these technologies what- each of these generative biodigital phases. The Biodigital
ever their application would be, indication, and justifica- Barcelona Pavilion and the Hyperboloid and Radiolaria
tion in an open-end experimental methodology. Despite Barcelona Furniture Series correspond to the generative
the significant role of experimental open-end methodol- forms phase. The Genetic Barcelona Project corresponds
ogy in general and particularly in the design process being to generative behavioral design. The 3D-Printed Biodigital
defined mainly as a creative process, a rational regulator Clay Bricks and the Remote 3D-Printed Clay-Based
is needed to guide these modern technological tools to a Façade Unit correspond to the generative materials phase.
real sustainable application in the built environment. In And the Genetic Barcelona Pavilion and the Biowalls cor-
the present work, the authors categorize the generative respond to the generative tissues phase. The generative
design methods and tools through different biodigital biocybernetics phase includes a current developing proj-
design phases, in a progressive order, from the simplest ect that will be revealed and published in following
level of application as only form generation to the most studies.
complex interdisciplinary as bioengineered biodigital tis-
sues. These phases include the generative forms phase, Keywords
the generative behavioral design phase, the generative Generative design · Biodigital architecture · Biodigital
biomaterials phase, the generative tissues phase, and the design · Digital architecture · Digital design · Digital
generative biocybernetics phase. These various phases organicism · Genetic architectures
mainly focus on the tertiary relation between materials, as
Introduction
A. T. Estévez (*)
ESARQ-UIC Barcelona School of Architecture / iBAG-UIC
The evolution in technology has affected architectural design
Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital Architecture & Genetics),
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain and construction as did in all other aspects of life. And as it
e-mail: [email protected] is said in the modern architecture movement paradigm of the
Y. K. Abdallah twentieth century, about the need to design “from the spoon
ESARQ-UIC Barcelona School of Architecture / iBAG-UIC to the city,” this has now expanded in our twenty-first century
Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital Architecture & Genetics), with the possibility to design from the DNA and the BIT to
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
the entire planet, either biological or digital (Estévez, 2021).
Faculty of Applied Arts/Interior Design and Architecture Within this, questions emerge, almost related to what and
Department, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
how are these new technological advances reflected in the

94 A. T. Estévez and Y. K. Abdallah
design process as methods and tools and how to master their authors opt to detect the reason behind the involvement of
application. And whenever a new method or tool is intro- most technical advancement in design to construction pro-
duced to design practice, it imposes stress over practitioners cess in every period. Therefore, the authors propose two
and theorists equally, putting all design practitioners and twinned branches of advancement, the biological Natural
theorists in a competition of time-tool equation, yielding Intelligence + the digital Artificial Intelligence. Hence, the
their mental flexibility to the maximum as well as stressing following sections will include these biodigital design
their capacity of learning while partially neglecting the ratio- phases: generative forms, generative behavioral design/bio-
nal implementation of the results of these new tools in the manufacturing (materials and systems), generative biobased
built environment. “How” must not be the first concern in materials, generative tissues, and generative biocybernetics.
any design case. The right question is “why,” to identify Figure 1 exhibits a diagram of these five phases and their
objectives before experimentation. This is not to deny the subcategories exhibiting their interconnected relations.
role of an open-end experimental methodology in informing,
optimizing, and leading the design process but to organize
this experimental practice in the right course. It is not deni- Generative Forms
able that without the experimental physical models of Antoni
Gaudí, we would not have structurally optimized minimal Digital design tools emerged as tools of form-making, lead-
surfaces and minimal materials of architectural marvels as ing the transition of the design process to digitalization. This
the Sagrada Familia, though accurately tracking this experi- involved the integration of CAD technologies as digital draft-
mental methodology of Gaudí, and others, it is clear that ing tool as well as the BIM (Building Information Modeling)
these methods emerged as an answer for “why,” not for as a design to production workflow methodology and tool
“how.” However, “why” and “how” are closely related in a (British Standards Institution, 2019). In order to facilitate the
consecutive relation in the design process. In the current translation of design to construction with high accuracy and
work, “why” is to organize, to categorize, to put the “aim” flexibility in the formal aspects. These form-making tools
before eyes and minds, to wisely balance what is for human were informed by the data of the design case or the digital
and what is for a machine, and to reidentify the design pro- DNA that is comprehended by computers as permutations
cess in terms of “what is a tool” and “what is the methodol- and combinations of binary code “01.” Presenting the concept
ogy.” Thus, this work aims to identify through each design of “what can be drawn can be built” (Estévez, 2015) accom-
epoch why use special technical tools and methods and panied in the same moment with digital fabrication advance-
“what is next.” ment in CAD/CAM technologies and digital strategies of
In this work, we focus on materials in the design process subtractive and additive fabrication methods. Consequently,
as being the only channel of realizing it into tangible reality. this fact has opened immense possibilities in the formal com-
And through the “method” of the generative design, the plexity and continuity in the architectural design.
Fig. 1 The five phases of the generative biodigital design. (By authors)
Generative Biodigital Architecture and Design: From the DNA to the Planet 95
Upon the collaboration between computational program- the resulting data into feeding the form-finding process
mers and designers, the “parametric design” concept, meth- marked the birth of the “biodigital” design era where a bio-
ods, and tools were presented to the design field to attain digital transition occurs from natural DNA to DBC (Digital
maximum control and infinite possibility of modification dur- Binary Code), translated into formal phenotypic identifica-
ing all the design to production process, thus saving time and tion of biodigitally generated architectural designs in identi-
money and optimizing the design process and product. This cal formal and functional similarity with their biological
optimization is based on the algorithmic interpretation of the peers or DNA twins.
analog physical form-finding rules as, for example, the hanged Figure 2 exhibits the manifestation project of the
chains models of Gaudí or soap membranes of Frei Otto, but Biodigital Barcelona Pavilion (2008–2009). The project was
rather in the cyberspace in a digital simulation process to opti- informed by the data of the imaging study of a pollen (and
mize the diverse aspects of design including structural, radiolarian) under a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
mechanical, material, and behavioral efficiency in terms of that enabled the identification of its functional/formal pheno-
interactive and responsive simulation. Each simulation pro- typic traits and their corresponding DNA, being one of the
cess of the aforementioned optimizes its corresponding aspect most mechanically resistant, flexible lightweight structures
in the design case, thus optimizing the design all together in on earth (Seddon et al., 2019). The sporopollenin, the poly-
the “form-finding” process based on the genetic optimization mer comprising the exine (outer solid shell) of pollen, is rec-
process employing genetic algorithms (GA) that are meta- ognized as one of the most chemically and mechanically
heuristics inspired by the process of natural selection and is a stable naturally occurring organic substances (Qu & Carson
group of the larger class of evolutionary algorithms (EA) Meredith, 2018). Similarly, these phenotypic functional
(Mitchell, 1996). Expanding the design possibilities to the traits were achieved in the Biodigital Barcelona Pavilion.
“generative design” is an iterative design process that involves This biodigital generative forms phase was boosted in
a program that generates a certain number of outputs that meet terms of formal complexity and fractality, provided by the
certain constraints and a designer to fine-tune the feasible advancement in additive digital fabrication technologies.
region by selecting specific output or changing input values. In The advancement in scaling the 3D printing machines and
this case, the generative designer does not need to be a human; the development of environmentally friendly filament such
it can be an Artificial Intelligence operator, for example, a gen- as PLA enabled 3D printing of full-scale architectural ele-
erative adversarial network (GAN) (Meintjes, 2018). ments. Figure 3 exhibits the 3D-printed full-scale
Coupling the generative design process of form-finding Hyperboloid and Radiolaria Barcelona Furniture Series,
with the biolearning process, through applying analytic chair and stools, developed from generative form complexity
study of biological systems and bioactive behaviors, to use of hyperboloids.
Fig. 2 (a, d) Pollen structure, 6.000× and 20.000×, taken with electron and CAD/CAM technologies. (c) Alberto T. Estévez, Biodigital
microscope, exhibiting pollen structures for extracting (also from radio- Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, 2008–2009 (col. Daniel Wunsch, com-
larian structures) the genetic rules and the structural parameters for putational designer), manifesting the integration of biolearning with
application with digital tools. (b) The digital model generated by the generative design tools to achieve the phonotypical physiology of archi-
algorithmic translation of the natural DNA responsible for the structural tectural design informed by natural DNA. (e) Detail of the digitally
efficiency of a pollen grain (elasticity, lightweight, resistance, and manufactured pavilion. (Photos: A. Estévez)
material efficiency): this was generated by using algorithmic scripting
Fig. 3 Hyperboloid and Radiolaria Barcelona Furniture Series, 2019– Hyperboloid Barcelona Table, Seat, and Chair, and Radiolaria
2020 (col. Pablo Baquero, computational designer), 3D printed at 1:1 Barcelona Stools, Benches, and Chair. (Photos: A. Estévez)
scale by Noumena, by Alberto T. Estévez. From left to right,
Fig. 4 Genetic Barcelona Project, first phase, 2003–2006 (cols. Agustí light of bioluminescent trees, and comparison between a real lemon tree
Fontarnau and Leandro Peña, geneticists), by Alberto T. Estévez. The leaf genetically modified with GFP and another without GFP from the
project employs genetic modification of natural lemon trees by insert- same lemon tree type. Photos taken with conventional reflex camera
ing the GFP gene into their DNA. From left to right, urban landscape (right, above) and with special UV camera (right, below). (Images and
image with a possible application of bioluminescent trees, the magical photos: A. Estévez)
enerative Behavioral Design/

G digital code to inform the design forms, and the second
Biomanufacturing method, to use this genetic material as the bioactive operator
for achieving different ecologic functions in sustainable
The generative design tools integration with biolearning architecture. This biodigital generative behavioral design
methods have triggered the ambition to integrate biological was based on two levels of implementation in the architec-
behavioral performance in real time. The objective here was tural built environment: by materials in natural replica
to extend the limits of biolearning to physiological behav- method and by systems in a controlled replica method.
iors of biodigital architecture, aiming to achieve maximum Figure 4 exhibits the generative behavioral materials
autonomous sustainability in the built environment, thus achieved by a real genetic modification of lemon trees, by
developing systems and materials through exploiting natu- inserting the GFP gene (responsible for the green fluores-
ral biological processes to achieve sustainability by bring- cence protein production), ensuing their natural biolumines-
ing these bioactive agents into action by themselves. The cence by natural replica on the natural fractal scale for a
design practice here is coupled with biotechnological exper- bioengineered urban design, as these genetically modified
imentation, especially genetic modification. Thus, the natu- lemon trees will function as urban lighting units for the
ral DNA here was processed two times by two different streets of Barcelona at night reducing the power demand
methods: first, in a generative formal method, translated into from conventional nonrenewable sources.
Fig. 5 Genetic Barcelona Project, second phase, 2007–2010 (col. without the need of electricity or installations. (b) Biolamp bioreactor
Agustí Fontarnau and Aranzazu Balfagón, geneticists), by Alberto of A. fischeri bioluminescent strain. (c) Biolamp design. (d) Biolamps
T. Estévez. The project employs Aliivibrio fischeri bioluminescent integration in walls and roofs. (Photos taken with a conventional reflex
strain to produce natural light in architectural spaces, inside bioreactors camera as eye would normally perceive: A. Estévez)
that are used as biolamps. (a) Biolamps illuminating a full apartment
The generative behavioral systems in their controlled rep- tium of materials composing the biobased material + the bio-
lica are exhibited in the second phase of the Genetic active agent extracellular matrix. This aspect opens infinite
Barcelona Project (Fig. 5), where bioluminescent bacterial applications of self-healing materials and morphogenetic
strain was used inside bioreactors as biolamps that success- architecture in real performance.
fully were able to light a full apartment without any conven- Composing a biobased material requires concrete knowl-
tional nonrenewable electrical supply, only requiring the edge of what should be the base and what should be the fila-
recharging of these systems with fresh media on a weekly ment and in between them what can enhance their coherency
basis to continue to grow and to increase the intensity and and total physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. One
duration of their bioluminescence. However, this method is of the most prominent candidates for serving as a base mate-
less autonomous, as the population of the bioactive agents rial is clay. Clay represents the most available mineral, and
(the bioluminescent bacteria) is physically constrained by the small size of its particles and their unique crystal struc-
their container or bioreactor that encompass them and their tures give clay materials special properties, including cation
media, as well as the chemical constraints of their growth exchange capabilities, plastic behavior when wet, catalytic
media constituents and conditions (temperature, pH, etc.), abilities, swelling behavior, and low permeability, enabling
indicating that if the population has stretched over the maxi- higher application in many industries and processes of clay
mum physical and chemical capacity of this bioreactor, any and clay-based materials (Christine et al., 2017). Building
further replication will not be possible resulting in the declinewith clay was always a sustainable cost-effective method, due
of the growth rates of the bioactive agents and thus decline in to its very low environmental impact, its availability in nature,
the resulting light intensity. easy excavation, and simple processing and p roduction meth-
ods (La Noce et al., 2021). However, building with clay
according to vernacular methods is not easy or standardized
Generative Biomaterials/3D-Printed for application on large scale. For example, despite that, the
Architecture/Fractality/Clay Architecture Mousgoum building technique in Africa is a sustainable
example of clay buildings having very solid construction.
Achieving sustainability through material physiology shaped However, these Mousgoum structures require frequent main-
the new biodigital design phase. This phase focused on tenance of the coating, and it is incompatible for application
developing biobased materials that open both possibilities of in rainy climates (https://architectureindevelopment.org).
integrating biodigital generative forms of digital DNA and Given this clay architecture in biodigital age and by bio-
hosting bioactive agents in an autonomous and sustainable digital means aims to achieve two points: geometrical physi-
way to attain generative behavioral systems and materials as ological sufficiency of biobased materials following a
well. These biobased materials also facilitate the shape- biolearning method and the ease of implementation, mass
shifting of the architectural element, enabling the design pro- production, and standardization.
cess to include real-time morphogenesis, either by integrating This was achieved in the design of the Biodigital
a bioactive agent that grows and interacts with the consor- Barcelona Bricks Series (2021) as a fractal scale application
Fig. 6 (a) Architectural scale clay printer. (b) Remote 3D-printing pro- Yomna K. Abdallah, computational designer), achieving the creation of
cess of the clay façade unit. (c) Fully printed façade unit extracted from the first ceramic brick with elastic properties. (Yomna K. Abdallah,
the growth logic of corals. (d, e) Details of the 3D clay unit showing the Secil Afsar, Alberto T. Estévez, and Oleg Popov, Remote 3D-Printed
coherence and shape fidelity of the print. (Photos by the authors). (f) Clay-based Façade Unit, 2021, Photos: A. Estévez)
Alberto T. Estévez, Biodigital Barcelona Bricks Series, 2021 (col.
and Biodigital Clay Bench as a larger-scale application. This called biomanufacturing. The biomanufacturing phase of
Biodigital Clay Bench is generatively designed following a biodigital generative tissues has been developing over years
form-finding process utilizing branching and reaction diffu- from a mere concept into a tangible reality. When developing
sion algorithms, which in the same time describes a growth living tissues for bioengineering and regenerative medical
behavioral pattern found in nature. The Biodigital Clay applications was still in its infancy, the “Biodigital Bioactive
Bench (Fig. 6) was designed using rhinoceros 3D + grass- Tissues” emerged as a futuristic interdisciplinary research
hopper + anemone + kangaroo and fabricated by 3D printing field that promises to fulfill a real living architecture and
by 3DPlodder. built environment ambition. In 2007, the project of the
The project explores two different aspects: one in architec- Genetic Barcelona Pavilion was proposed as a manifestation
tural design and the other in fabrication and material. On the of a real soft and eatable architecture, as a genetic reform of
architectural scale, this implementation of biobased materials the Mies Barcelona Pavilion (Fig. 7), proposing an auto-
in 3D-printed architecture was through a remote 3D-printing somes bioactive tissue in the built environment that is capa-
process in collaboration with industrial entities. This remote ble of growth and morphogenesis independently and in real
3D-printing process is one category of cyber manufacturing time to achieve various ecological benefits. (The Mies
or 4.0 industry. Cyber manufacturing proposes an emergent Barcelona Pavilion is a paradigmatic building in the history
solution by monitoring and managing the manufacturing proof modern architecture, located precisely in the same
cess in real time and advancing the feedback/decision-mak- Barcelona where we are. Therefore, in order to propose a
ing using digital tools to optimize the sensitive calibrations. “building-manifesto” of genetic architecture, which grows
Remote 3D printing includes three parameters: the printing on its own, configured with real living tissues, it was a good
material, the printer, and the print design, which are all inter- opportunity to propose it as a genetic reform project of the
connected. Remote 3D printing gets sophisticated when same Mies Barcelona Pavilion.)
applied on the architectural scale, experimenting with Enduring on this path, the “biodigital tissues” that were
advanced geometries and new material compositions that are first introduced as a concept in 2000, through the Genetic
clay/adobe based (Abdallah et al., 2022). Architectures Manifesto (Estévez, 2015) (Fig. 8), in 2021,
they turned into real experimentation and action, forced for-
ward by the advancement of 3D-printing technologies, giv-
Generative Tissues ing the ability to print with living cells from various types to
attain various materials to be used in the built environment
The integration of bioactive agents (cells) into compatible for achieving sustainability through its not contaminating
biobased materials, in one bioink through 3D bioprinting, construction process, self-healing properties, and functional
aimed to develop autonomous bioactive tissues that can be and structural efficiency. A current advancement in this
applied on architectural and urban scale. This process is research is being conducted in a multidisciplinary collabora-
Fig. 7 Left: Mies van der Rohe, Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, 1929 grow as a building material, cellular masses that become alive walls that
(reconstructed 1986). Right: Alberto T. Estévez, Genetic Barcelona emerge alone, soft and furry architecture that grows. (Photos:
Pavilion, Barcelona, 2007 (model, as “manifesto-image,” col. Marina A. Estévez)
Serer): research into genetic control of cell growth, making living tissue
Fig. 8 Biowall systems, 2007 (by Alberto T. Estévez): research into genetic control of cell growth, making living tissue grow as a building mate-
rial, cellular masses that become alive walls that emerge alone, soft and furry architecture that grows. (Photos: A. Estévez)
tion between academic and industrial entities (Estevez & and shape-shifting (Goodfellow et al., 2014). It is composed
Abdallah, 2022), combining algorithmic form-finding, biole- of two neural networks that contest with each other in a
arning, architectural design, bioengineering, and bioprinting game, where one agent’s gain is another agent’s loss. Given
to develop these tissues and study their future application in a training set, this technique learns to generate new data with
full-scale architectural built environment. For example, the same statistics as the training set. The core idea of a GAN
developing biotissues from osteoblast cells, these are the is based on the “indirect” training through the discriminator,
cells that are responsible for the bone tissue formation in which is updated dynamically. Thus, in this case, the GAN
human and other mammals. does not only recognize different patterns from two different
input sources, but it is able to combine them in different vari-
ations to produce new results. This is one aspect that is
Generative Biocybernetics involved in the future research of the biodigital generative
biocybernetics. The other aspect is identified by the source
AI integration in the design process have gained much atten- and type of these image data sets that are used as an input for
tion lately, due to the possibility of atomization of the design the GAN. In this case, the images are from a biological
generative process that sufficiently matches the form with source as scanning electron microscope images or fluores-
the function while evaluating a network of multi-objective/ cence microscope images. This is the static stage of this gen-
multi-interdependencies in order to reach to the optimized erative process. The dynamic stage is still under investigation
design solution. Pattern recognition is one branch of Artificial examining the ability of using dynamic biological micros-
Intelligence, which is the first frontier in integrating AI copy in real time as data sets to feed the GAN for the form-
machine learning in the design process. Pattern recognition finding generative process, with high expectations of the
is the automated recognition of patterns and regularities in amount of resulting design iterations and variation that
data (Bishop, 2006). Consequently, it is employed as a gen- depicts in real time the combinations of biological behaviors.
erative design tool that is trained to select the optimum solu- These results are designated to application in hybrid material
tion based on the feeding data set. Generative adversarial formation through differential 3D printing (printing with
network (GAN) is a class of machine learning frameworks multiple materials, textures, and topologies) that holds infi-
that is employed in further processing of pattern recognition nite functional possibilities.
Conclusions Bishop, M. C. (2006). Pattern recognition and machine learning.

Springer.
British Standards Institution. (2019). BS EN ISO 19650: Organization
The integration of digital design and production tools in the and digitization of information about buildings and civil engineer-
architectural design process is intended for different objec- ing works, including building information modelling – Information
tives emerging according to each epoch. These objectives management using building information modelling. BSI.
Christine, S., Mana, A., Hanafiah, M. M., & Chowdhury, A. J. K.
are resulting from the need for integral sustainable solu- (2017). Environmental characteristics of clay and clay-based miner-
tions for architectural design at each epoch while also als. Geology, Ecology and Landscapes, 1(3).
depending on the available technologies and material Estévez, A. T. (2015). Biodigital architecture & genetics: Escritos/writ-
advancement to be realized. The present work has identi- ings. ESARQ-UIC.
Estévez, A. T. (2021). Interscalar fluidity fascinations. In VV.AA.,
fied these objectives according to different five main bio- Informed interscalar fluidity. European Cultural Centre – Venice
digital architectural design phases: starting with the Biennale / New York Institute of Technology, School of Architecture
generative forms phase, mainly employing form-making & Design.
mechanisms through generative design digital tools such as Estevez, A. T., & Abdallah, Y. K. (2022). Biomaterials & architecture,
a possible future: Bio printing architecture. Journal of Regenerative
scripting and CAD, and rhino/CAM technologies for digi- Medicine, 11(2), 1000210, 1–16.
tal fabrication, while depending on biolearning from the Goodfellow, I., Pouget-Abadie, J., Mirza, M., Xu, B., Warde-Farley,
SEM microscopy images as the source of the biological D., Ozair, S., Courville, A., & Bengio, Y. (2014). Generative
DNA to inspire the digital DNA as the form code or script. adversarial networks (PDF). Proceedings of the International
Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS
The generative behavioral design/biomanufacturing phase 2014), (pp. 2672–2680).
went further by integrating physically the biological DNA https://architectureindevelopment.org/project.php?id=68.
into the built environment through urban biolamps and bio- La Noce, M., Faro, A. L., & Sciuto, G. (2021). Clay-based products
batteries biolamps by genetic engineering and biotechnol- sustainable development: Some applications. Sustainability, 13(3),
1364.
ogy as tools in the generative design and production Meintjes, K. (2018). “Generative design” – What’s that? – CIMdata.
process. Similarly, the generative biobased materials phase Retrieved 2018-06-15.
went to search for the combination and coupling of form, Mitchell, M. (1996). An introduction to genetic algorithms. MIT Press.
material, and function by employing form-finding tools Qu, Z., & Carson Meredith, J. (2018). The atypically high modulus
of pollen exine. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 15(146),
informed by the biobehavioral biomathematical modeling, 20180533.
as well as the structural and physical simulation based on Seddon, A. W. R., Festi, D., Matthew Robson, T., & Zimmermann,
the material properties, as well as using 3D printing in a B. (2019). Fossil pollen and spores as a tool for reconstructing
cyber remote manufacturing mode to produce the generated ancient solar-ultraviolet irradiance received by plants: An assess-
ment of prospects and challenges using proxy-system modelling.
designs. The generative tissues phase has further developed Photochemical and Photobiological Science, 18, 275–294.
the aspects and limits of bioengineered materials to develop
full tissues that will contribute as autonomously living,
morphogenetic, and adaptive bioactive materials that will Alberto T. Estévez Architect (UPC,
1983), Doctor of Science (Architecture,
compose the built environment. Finally, the generative bio-
UPC, 1990), Art Historian (UB, 1994),
cybernetics phase combines the maximum capacity of gen- Doctor of Arts (History of Art, UB,
erative design tools by employing Artificial Intelligence in 2008), with architecture and design
form generation through its accurate machine learning gen- office in Barcelona (1983-present).
Forty years teaching and researching at
erative models as generative adversarial networks (GAN)
various universities. Founder and first
that can learn the logical patterns of bioagents and predict director of ESARQ (School of
and generate new creative results while facilitating the Architecture-UIC Barcelona, 1996),
futural integration between robotics and bioengineering where he works as chairman-professor
of Architecture. Creator of the research
developing the ultimate combination of biological intelli-
group, Master’s degree and doctorate
gence and Artificial Intelligence. These pages have also “History, Architecture and Design”
presented the significant impact of the biolearning process (UIC, 1998-present), and later of the
as the main methodology for biodigital design through its research group, Master’s degree and doctorate “Genetic Architectures”
(UIC, 2000-present), currently Master of Architecture Biodigital. As well
various phases.
as creator of the Master of International Cooperation with Alex Levi and
Amanda Schachter (UIC, 2004-present). With more than 200 publica-
tions, dozens of exhibitions, conferences and committees, and invited to
References give more than 100 international conferences on his ideas and work. He
has been director of 25 doctoral theses, and more than 100 master’s and
degree theses. With six officially recognized six-year research periods.
Abdallah, Y. K., Afsar, S., Estévez, A. T., & Popov, O. (2022). Remote
Founder-director of iBAG-UIC Barcelona (Institute for Biodigital
3D printing efficiency in clay-based materials integration in sus-
Architecture & Genetics) and founder of the Doctorate in Architecture at
tainable architectural design to production. In J. A. Stagner &
UIC Barcelona, of which he was its first director. Lately he was also vice-
D. S.-K. Ting (Eds.), Renewable energy for mitigating climate
rector-manager of the UIC Barcelona (Universitat Internacional de
change (pp. 133–152). CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group.
Catalunya).
Yomna K. Abdallah is the Deputy

Director of the iBAG-UIC Barcelona
(Institute for Biodigital Architecture &
Genetics), of the GENARQ
(Consolidated and Competitive
Genetic Architectures Research
Group) and of the Master of Biodigital
Architecture. She has a doctorate in
Architecture (2020), Master in
Engineering Science and Technology
(2016), Master in Applied Arts-
Parametric Design (2016), graduated
in Applied Arts (2012). She is also a
professor at the Faculty of Applied
Arts, Helwan University, Egypt. She
has directed multidisciplinary research projects at numerous universi-
ties. She has received multiple grants, funds and fellowships, and she
has numerous articles published in prestigious scientific journals and
publishers.
Bionic Approaches and the Cyborg
Culture: Human’s Phenotypic
and Cognitive Extensions
Mauro Costa Couceiro
Abstract developing foresight exercises on how cultural dissemina-

tion will be done and how bionic XR will be used in the
Architecture, like all human activities, is related to biol- perpetuation of memory as well as in progress of human
ogy. However, architects approach biological analogies in knowledge.
many different ways, often focusing on morphological
imitations without bearing in mind the origin of biologi-
cal processes, although it is common that architects also
fail to recognize their “bio-logic,” that is, their idiosyncra-
sies as individual living beings, their role in social and Keywords
cultural structures, or even the impact of their work on Generative Algorithms (GA) · Bionic technology · Lost
ecosystems. heritage · Extended reality (XR) · Cognitive revolution ·
Under the pretext of the latest research, where digital Cyborg culture
and analog realities are integrated, this chapter presents
some less common aspects of bionic research, the connec-
tion of our senses with extended realities (XR), a disrup- Introduction to the Cyborg Shock
tive approach to perceptions of reality, that has its origins
in the Cyborg Culture. This research is only a modest At least since the 1970s, intellectuals and philosophers have
attempt to test technological developments and make been warning us that human beings are becoming victims of
them compatible with the slower pace of human’s bio- their own evolutionary success. For example, in the book
logical adaptation. These are the first steps on a long road Future Shock, the American futurist Alvin Toffler and
we have to travel to hybridize specific characteristics of Adelaide Farrell (1970) define the term “future shock” as a
silicon units from the digital world with the carbon-based certain psychological state, both for individuals and entire
human beings. societies. The shortest definition of the term might be the
We are currently developing method, content, and even perception of too much change in a too short period of time.
technology for the dissemination of UNESCO-classified Exponential technological development makes the human
architectural and artistic heritage, exploring the intersec- being feeling increasingly out of place and obsolete in the
tions of natural and artificial intelligence. This research artificial environment he creates for himself. Architects and
aims to create and evaluate digital contents for cultural urbanists – massively responsible for the artificial environ-
dissemination, within the scope of Architectural and ment that surrounds us – use to approach biological analo-
Urban History, History of Science, and other, supported gies without understanding the origin of biological processes.
by significant studies already developed in these fields. To On the other hand, it is common to witness that architects
do it, we use cutting edge extended reality technologies to and urbanists also fail to recognize their own biologic idio-
promote universal and democratic access to the architec- syncrasies as living beings, their impact on ecosystems, or
tural history – the history of the most extended and per- even their role in the cyber-accelerated social and cultural
petuated phenotype of human civilization. We are also evolution (Fig. 1).
The rule known as Moore’s law (Moore, 1965) that states
M. C. Couceiro (*) the exponential development of the processing capacity of
Centre for Social Studies (CES) of the University of Coimbra (UC), computers can also be verified in other fields of the techno-
Coimbra, Portugal
logical development of Homo sapiens. We observe that the
104 M. C. Couceiro
Fig. 1 Exponential growth observed in a Generative Algorithmic City. de Madrid. This particular simulation is a courtesy of Jessica Martins,
This software was developed for the first time by Professor Mauro former student of architecture at the UC 2014
Costa Couceiro in 2012, for a Workshop at the Universitad Complutense
human being achieves exponential results in any of the direc- planet. Those signals would only take 100,000 years to reach
tions that engages in scientific exploration (Figs. 2 and 3). from one end to the other of our galaxy. Despite the fact that
The graphical representation of these exponential devel- we have the means to listen them for more than a century,
opments are asymptotes, and these make the human being nothing has been heard so far. Are aliens silent for fear of
more and more skillful and simultaneously more manipula- being preyed? Are we the incautious ones in a dreadful uni-
tive and destructive. It is because of this destructive charac- verse? Or do advanced civilizations simply not last long
ter, typical of an asymptotic exploitation of the resources enough to communicate? Do advanced civilizations have a
available to human beings, that contemporary philosophers “natural” tendency for self-destruction? It is not too difficult
and scientists warn that our civilization may collapse (Hotz, to imagine a scenario in which, long time ago, in other cor-
2020). Thus, we can even hypothesize that these cyclical ners of the universe, advanced civilizations have had their
processes of rise and decline of civilizations may have an moment of glory followed by their extinction.
increasing amplitude and that our biological elasticity may
not be able to withstand the increasing variations.
Consequently, we run the risk of civilizational breakdown or Where Do We Come From and Where Are We?
even extinction.
We may not even have been the first beings in this galaxy Less than 30 years ago, we were approaching the year 2000.
to encounter these complex survival problems (Fig. 4). Today’s giants like Amazon and Google were taking their
According to the Astrobiology Copernican Principle, there first steps as booksellers or developing search engines on a
should be at least 36 advanced civilizations in our galaxy that neural-inspired network – the Internet. They were tiny and
should therefore communicate with us. However, no electro- they were struggling to prove their usefulness. A decade
magnetic signal from our galaxy reveals any kind of intelli- later, social networks were also underestimated in their
gence – no intelligent signals are currently reaching our power. Suddenly, it arises the Arab Spring and the surgical
Bionic Approaches and the Cyborg Culture: Human’s Phenotypic and Cognitive Extensions 105
Fig. 2 The exponential and disruptive impact of elevator design on there is tension on the cable holding the elevator, keeping the brakes
urban ecosystems – a small but revolutionary change in the internal away from the elevator shaft. Otis founded the “E. G. Otis Elevator
structure of elevators that enabled the high-rise growth of urbanism. On Company” in Yonkers, New York; nevertheless, he had received only
the left: patent US31128A on Google Patents, “Elevator” by Elisha one order in his first 7 months of business. Orders began to come in only
Graves Otis on the safety stop, 1861. At right: photo of Toronto by Yeshi after his very showy demonstrations of the brake at the 1854 World’s
Kangrang on Unsplash, 2017. Otis invented a safety system for the top Fair in New York
of the elevator shaft. This ingeniously simple system works as long as
Fig. 3 The impact of car design on the horizontal exponential growth travel within reach of middle-class Americans. At right: photograph of
of urban suburbia. Left: the Model T, a vehicle produced by Ford Motor a suburb of Herriman, a city in southwestern Salt Lake County, Utah,
Company from October 1, 1908 to May 26, 1927. It is generally United States, by Michael Tuszynski on Unsplash, 2019
regarded as the first affordable automobile, which brought automobile
manipulation of Western democracies – metadata knowledge and will be able to manipulate or guide us more effectively
to control the masses, their behaviors, and their ideas. We are than ever before (Fig. 5).
moving by leaps and bounds toward the creation of intelli- Today, in this third decade of the millennium, we are fac-
gent algorithms that know more about each of us than we do ing new challenges and creating new socioeconomic struc-
106 M. C. Couceiro
Fig. 4 Photocomposed by the author. We can observe the Homo sapi- Versions differ whether the inventor becomes a high-ranking advisor or
ens’ difficulty in the comprehension of the majority of the exponential is executed. As with Moore’s law, the difficulty we have in understand-
processes. This has been told ancestrally since the story of the creation ing exponential growth is exemplified quite well in this story. Moore’s
of chess: a millinery story that tells that the inventor of chess (Sessa, an law is Moore’s observation that the number of transistors on an inte-
ancient Indian minister) asks his king to give him some wheat, agreeing grated circuit doubles approximately every 2 years. Moore’s law is a
to the principle of squaring the number of grains for each square of the projection of a historical trend. Rather than a physical law, it is an
chessboard. The ruler laughs imagining the meager reward for that bril- empirical relationship linked to the exponential benefits of production
liant invention. Lately, he is informed by the court treasurers that the experience
unexpected amount of wheat grains would exceed the worlds resources.
Fig. 5 Illustration title: “Embodying Ideas” – digitally generated and photocomposed by the author for the University of Coimbra (https://www.
uc.pt/cultura/ideias)
tures, developed at the pace of artificial intelligence. Global sive as these intimacies between the silicon and the carbon
networks are constantly evaluating and testing the potential worlds may seem, this category of research began more than
of prospective futures. It is in these contexts that first attempts half a century ago, with sturdy advances and also some ethi-
to explore intimate connections between diverse i ntelligences cal setbacks. The most emblematic example is already
are observed. Human intelligence (HI) and artificial intelli- decades old and consists of the bionic application of
gence (AI) are merging into a cognitive bionic whole. These implants – the direct introduction into the neocortex of fila-
interactions or hybridizations are being carried out by private ments to carry incredibly light electrical impulses. These
companies. For instance, microchips are inserted into the impulses are then absorbed by the neural network to be inter-
human neocortex for subsequent connection with computing preted as sounds by the human brain. This method, widely
devices extrinsic to the user’s body (Musk, 2020). As impres- explored in audiology surgeries in children up to 4 years of
age, is taking its first steps in the visual field. Considering the sense, step by step, we digitally reconstruct the vanished
amount of information processed by the brain in the interpre- architectural heritage, recreating, through multisensory and
tation of light signals from the world around us, we are still interactive contents, the way other human beings inhabited
quite far from achieving a system that provides blind people this planet and how cultures developed, transformed, and/or
with vision, at least, something similar to the average vision perished. Similarly, Noam Chomsky (2019) asserts that there
of a human being or a video camera. Scientists in the various is a human predisposition to symbolic complexities such as
traditional fields of knowledge who develop systems of language and that there are incredible advantages that only
exchange between the digital world and the analog world are language provides. However, he denotes that this evolution
confronted with various levels of incompatibility. Therefore, can also be a limitation. Thus, knowledge of built cultural
approaches become carefully intrusive, attempting revers- heritage is difficult to convey through oral or literary descrip-
ibility whenever possible. For the same reason, the content tions. In contrast, the understanding of that same heritage,
domain also tends to use a balanced mix of externally derived along with its evolution throughout history, is almost imme-
information and amplified interpretations – extended diate when the heritage is reconstructed and realistically
realities. depicted in its historical context.
Technology is becoming more and more intimate with the We focus on recovering examples of architectural design –
human body. The cyberpunk culture already glimpsed the some of the most tangible and oldest human-extended phe-
cyborg concept with invasive medical procedures, inserting dif- notypes – in which combinations of art and technologies can
ferent prostheses, and interacting more and more with our ner- manifest scientific and aesthetic principles, stimulating the
vous system. There seems to be an unconscious drive behind the culture of bio-logic. To this end, we test and propose meth-
technological development. Certainly, there is something ods to elevate our physical, cognitive, and emotional apti-
because the “restless ape” goes on and on (Bryson, 2004). tudes, envisioning (r)evolutions in the learning/teaching
Apparently, there is something pushing humans to create fields (Couceiro, 2014). Supported by significant studies
and adopt new technologies. We are beginning to mix and/or already developed to UNESCO, cutting-edge extended real-
transfer our living being carbon structural base to a computer- ity technologies were used to promote universal and demo-
like silicon base as if humans were a kind of caterpillar, cratic access to culture and world’s heritage (Milgram &
building a technological cocoon from which a binary butter- Kishino, 1994, pp. 1321–1329).
fly will emerge, lighter than biological, almost metaphysical,
yet more complex and adaptive life form (Rogan & Fridman,
2018). The Tele-Anthropos and the Cognitive
In the same way that Darwin detected natural selection Revolution (Conclusions)
and Lynn Margulies detected symbiogenesis (Gatti, 2006),
we could propose that there are some forces that drive all As is the case in many other fields, the artificial barrier cre-
living things through complexity in an anti-entropic drive, ated by academics between leisure technologies and archi-
and somehow, digital evolution is connected to that. tectural practices is collapsing. It is almost impossible to be
sure that the type of education we promote today will be
valid 20 or 30 years from now. We can only assure that the
“Sentio, ergo sum” (Damasio, 1994) interaction between human beings and digital systems will
be increasingly intimate. Biotechnology, associated with
The latest accelerated transformations based on the intimate digital development, will pose the greatest challenges and
connection between digital information and our perceptual opportunities in the coming decades. Consequently, creative
capabilities connect us with realities that go far beyond our technologies will provide interactive experiences in which
natural senses. We are giving way to new and prolific fields contemporary events will be nourished by digital informa-
such as augmented and virtual reality (AR and VR). The tion, in order to emphasize certain aspects of present, past,
integration of these two emerging fields of development gave and prospective realities.
rise to what has been called mixed reality (MR) or, more Egyptians worshiped the human eye because they knew the eye
broadly, extended reality (XR). Together with accurate 3D was the thing that paid attention.’ (...) ‘You’re gaining access to
surveys, this allows us to capture and simulate architecture the real information that’s in the world, it’s not prepackaged
as well as other tangible art at unprecedented resolutions. We information - that can be false – it’s the real information flowing
out from the ground of being and if you pay attention to that it
are reconstructing and delivering experiences that at first will help you move towards the goals that you’ve already estab-
glance were impossible to conceive, bringing to life all kinds lished’ (...) ‘by absorbing that information – which is learning
of architectural experiments in a profoundly unforgettable essentially - you build yourself into a different person’ (...) ‘The
way, creating new narratives and intimacies (Fig. 6). We learning that you do along the way transforms you and it trans-
forms the nature of your goals. (Peterson, 2013)
allow ourselves to travel virtually in space and time. In this
108 M. C. Couceiro
Fig. 6 Author’s photographs. Recreation of Hobart’s Last Supper sculptural context and the demolished architectonic scenario. All hard-
Sculptural ensemble through stereoscopic 3D projection and video- ware was designed and built for this specific space. The techniques used
mapping (This work was financed by FEDER – Fundo Europeu de by the author were developed experimentally in successive stages. The
Desenvolvimento Regional funds through the COMPETE 2020 – first mixed reality experiments were done with virtual reality glasses in
Operacional Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalisation previously surveyed spaces, promoting interactions of the observers
(POCI), and by Portuguese funds through FCT – Fundação para a with the space and the virtual figures. The attempts to overcome the
Ciência e a Tecnologia in the framework of the project SANTACRUZ Turing Test for virtual reality (Renshaw et al., 2016, pp. 2113–2117)
with reference POCI-01-0145-FEDER-030704 – PTDC/ART- were partially or momentarily achieved in several occasions
DAQ/30704/2017). A work of digital reconstitution of the vanished
Digital technologies are therefore primarily responsible knowledge support to embrace our lives with an ultimately
for a change in our educational paradigm. We are ending higher level of sensitivity.
the industrial era of education and making the transition to The Homo sapiens thus becomes the Tele-Anthropos
a different educational system based on tacit (Polanyi, (Pimenta, 1999, pp. 323–359), capable of experientially
1966) representations of reality, where virtual and tangible knowing things beyond his direct reach, as well as under-
interactions are conceived. Soon, extended reality might be standing realities through the interpretation provided by
more and more a bionic form of interaction with innumer- his cybernetic cognitive extensions – extensions of his
ous contexts, in which communication can only be devel- phenotype (Dawkins, 1982). Their existence finds
oped through the fusion of tangible realities – coming from increasing meaning in the scope of accumulated knowl-
the physical world – and codified elements that expand the edge and experience common to all human beings. In the
sensory experience. It is pretended that the observer per- very near future, architecture, virtual and real, will sup-
ceives the integration of several subjects in a tacitly appre- port our interaction with our environments, ordering the
hensible whole. Here, the physical environment is mediated apparent chaos behind our extended phenotypes
by our brain and gives rise to actions, feelings, and (Couceiro, 2006).
emotions. To conclude, it can be considered that we are still at the
Computer extended realities can create environments beginning of a new era, defined by radical changes in the
related to our personality. In that possible near future, artifi- way we teach and learn. Moreover, it is urgent to find ways
cial neural connections could allow us to play brain games, to democratize knowledge and involve all citizens of the
being tuned to activate our personal fears and/or our psycho- world in a participatory way through this accelerated para-
logical reward systems in order to simulate hypothetical psy- digm shift.
chological realities or stages, as well as giving all the artificial
References Pimenta, E. (1999). Teleantropos, a desmaterialização da cultura mate-

rial, arquitetura enquanto inteligência e metamorphose planetária.
(pp. 323–359). Editorial Estampa.
Bryson, B. (2004). A short history of nearly everything (pp. 453–458).
Polanyi, M. (1966). The tacit dimension (p. 4). University of Chicago
Anchor Canada.
Press.
Chomsky, N. (2019, November 29). Noam Chomsky: Language,
Renshaw, T., Sonnenfeld, N., & Meyers, M. (2016). Fundamentals for
cognition, and deep learning | Lex Fridman Podcast #53[Video].
a turing test of virtual reality. In Proceedings of the Human Factors
YouTube. https://youtu.be/cMscNuSUy0I
and Ergonomics Society 2016 Annual Meeting, SAGE Journals,
Couceiro, M. C. (2006). Architecture as human phenotypic extension –
pp. 2113–2117.
An approach based on computational explorations. SIGRADI 2006:
Rogan, J., & Fridman, L. (2018, October 24). Joe Rogan Experience
Post digital: el factor humano. (pp. 56–60). Santiago de Chile,
#1188 – Lex Fridman [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/
University of Chile: SIGRADI 2006.
j5FOumrXyww
Couceiro, M. C. (2014). Learning (r) evolution – Achieving up consis-
Toffler, A. (1970). Future shock. Bantam Books.
tency between the real and virtual world. Session 4. ISCTE IUL,
Lisbon: Aproged – associação dos professores de desenho e geo-
metria descritiva.
Mauro Costa Couceiro received his
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason and the human
Doctor Europaeus degree from UIC’s
brain. Ed. Crítica.
School of Architecture, Barcelona, in
Dawkins, R. (1982). The extended phenotype: The gene as the unit of
2009. His extensive Ph.D. research
selection. Freeman.
was conducted in European and
Gatti, R. C. (2006). A conceptual model of new hypothesis on the evo-
American countries, where he studied
lution of biodiversity. Biologia, 71(3), 343–351.
biological processes to develop algo-
Hotz, G. (2020, October 22). George Hotz: Hacking the simulation &
rithmic analogies for architecture,
learning to drive with neural nets | Lex Fridman Podcast #132 [Video].
urbanism and industrial design.
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_L3gNaAVjQ4
Previously, he completed two master’s
Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual
degrees, one in the World History of
displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-
Architecture, Urbanism and Design
D(12), 1321–1329.
and the other in Cybernetics and
Moore, G. (1965). Cramming more components onto integrated cir-
Sustainability in Architecture. Several institutions in Europe, America
cuits. Electronics, 38(8), 114–117.
and Asia have requested his expertise in using biomimetics to make
Musk, E. (2020, August 29). Neuralink: Elon Musk’s entire brain chip
adaptive and sustainable designs. Research interests include Artificial
presentation in 14 minutes. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.you-
Intelligence (AI), Generative Design, Building Information Modeling
tube.com/watch?v=CLUWDLKAF1M
for Heritage (BIM/HBIM), digital fabrication (CAD/CAM) and
Peterson, J. (2013, July 18). Potential: Jordan Peterson at TEDxUofT
Extended Reality (XR). Aside from design, architecture and urbanism
| Public University of Toronto, Canada [Video]. YouTube. https://
competitions, he has won awards for doing extended reality (XR/VFX)
youtu.be/tLteWutitFM
installations. He has also worked for Sonae, developing and coordinat-
ing construction projects for ICT departments and revitalizing indus-
trial heritage.
The Potential of Architectural Forms
Derived from the Conoid: Ruled
Surfaces in Parametric Design
and Construction
Joseph Cabeza-Lainez
Abstract Introduction
The conoidal form was grasped in Guarini’s treatises The first polymath in history to introduce the conoidal figure
around 1660, but due to its elusive nature that is partly was Camillo Guarino Guarini (Guarini, 2009) in his famous
based in elliptic curves, adequate knowledge on the sur- treatise Euclides Adauctus et Methodicus (Fig. 1).
face’s properties has not been made available even with He claimed to be the sole person in discovering the form
the advent of modern mathematics. Fragments of the and also described that it is a sort of cone that ends in a line.
conoid have occasionally appeared in modern and con- (In the ensuing pages of his book, he comes to use the word
temporary architecture, but its use had been discontinued, hyperbolic conoid but for a different body, the paraboloid
mainly due to the uncertainties that such construction (Guarini, 2009).)
type posed. The aim of this chapter is to orient the evolu- In another formidable treatise entitled Architettura Civile,
tion of new architectural forms based on the conoid, offer- from 1671, he again refers to this unusual cone, stating that
ing up-to-date scientific support. The lateral area of such it has limited applicability for the corners of chamber vaults;
forms has not yet been obtained by differential geometry we surmise that as a kind of squinch, or perhaps he was
procedures. As this shape is frequently used in architec- thinking of some of the imposing vaults in Granada’s cathe-
tural engineering, the inability to determine its surface dral that he happened to visit. He goes so far as to calculate
area represents a serious hindrance to solving several the volume of the figure accurately by triangulation, obtain-
problems that arise in radiative transfer and building con- ing that it is 1.5 (3/2) times the volume of the equivalent cone
struction among others. To address such drawback, we (see Fig. 1).
conceived a new approach dividing the surface into infini- Following these brief appearances, the form remains
tesimal elliptic strips of which the area can be easily nearly dormant in architecture until, at the beginning of the
obtained by means of Ramanujan’s second formula. In twentieth century, it receives a significant impulse by the
this complex mathematical process, an evolving set of mastery of art nouveau architects such as Antonio Gaudi,
novel shapes has been derived. The authors demonstrate who designed a roof with serially alternated conoids for a
that the properties of these new surfaces have relevant school building in front of his celebrated Sagrada Familia
implications for technology, especially in building sci- Cathedral in Barcelona (Fig. 2).
ence and sustainability, under realms such as structures, Around the 1930s, the advent of concrete shell construc-
radiation, and acoustics. The new knowledge provided by tion favored a revolution of engineering forms and the conoid
the author, including his own proposals, may help to revi- surface was the recipient of much interest, especially for
talize and expand such interesting configurations in the building hangars, factories, and warehouses (Ramswamy,
search for architectural advances. 2004).
One of the best extant examples is the work of the
Keywords Bulgarian Engineer Ilja Doganoff who, in 1956–1957,
Conoid · Ellipse · Quadrature · Calculus of surface areas erected a repair workshop for Bulgarian Railways featuring
· Number Pi · Parametric design · Structural design a hundred conoid skylights (Fig. 3).
The shapes were prefabricated in situ and then put on the
roof with the help of a crane. They are an example of the
J. Cabeza-Lainez (*) extreme feasibility of the surfaces dealt with. Thanks to our
University of Sevilla, ES, Sevilla, Spain recent discoveries, we are able to calculate the daylighting
112 J. Cabeza-Lainez
From the structural point of view, as a ruled surface, it can

be built directly through straight lines (beams or poles); this
fact greatly facilitates the construction and scaffolding, as
more natural materials such as bricks or bamboo rods and
canes can be used without difficulty, even for reinforcement
or repair.
Carbon-fiber coating has become a recent alternative for
strengthening even again earthquakes, although moderately
expensive for the time being. The arched section of the
straight conoid, whether circular or elliptic, presents a verti-
Fig. 1 Comparison between point-cone and the cone that ends in a line cal tangent. Therefore, if adequately constructed, it is free
according to Guarini
from horizontal thrusts that might compromise the support-
ing frame. In other words, it transmits all the loads of the
structure vertically and avoids the use of buttresses (Fig. 4).
These consistent and dwindling arches function as girths
for most parts of the surface (Dzwierzynska & Prokopska,
2018) and provide increased resistance to a significant
degree. It is true that calculation of hyper-static arches is not
widely treated in the literature, but we suggest the column
analogy method proposed by H. Cross (Cabeza-Lainez,
2009) as a helpful and programming-friendly procedure to
solve the problem.
Due to its curvature, the aerodynamics of the roof is
excellent for bearing wind loads and other meteorological
phenomena such as rain, drizzle, or snow. At the same time,
because of the former, it enhances airflow either from the
outside or from the internal stack effect with appropriate
Fig. 2 The Sagrada Familia Schools, rebuilt in 2002. (A. Gaudi) vents.
Regarding lighting properties, if, as usual, the glazed
transmission of similar shapes, an undertaking neither apertures lie in the curvilinear extremes of the forms, they
Doganoff nor Ramaswamy (Ramswamy, 2004) were able to bring diffused luminance, as we calculated for diverse proj-
perform. ects (Fig. 3), and can be easily shaded by eaves protruding
Ramaswamy (2004) and Doganoff (1962) report that from the same brim of the surface.
owing to the want of knowledge about the surface, structural Acoustic properties stem from the circumstance that the
calculations turn out to be cumbersome, yet engineers still inside surface of the conoid is mostly convex as it can be
cherish the form because of its many advantageous proper- checked mathematically (Cabeza-Lainez, 2022). Sound
ties and elegance, citing lighting and economy of construc- waves are diffused in this kind of screen, and consequently,
tion (Cabeza-Lainez et al., 1997; Cross, 1930) as potential noise and reverberation become dampened. If, through
reasons to explain their predilection. Another interesting appropriate design, the conoid covers a trapeze or fan-shaped
example of architecture based on this kind of ruled surface is plan (Fig. 4), the effect of an even sound pressure is manifest
the Atlantida Church (1959) by the Uruguayan Eladio Dieste. (Cabeza-Lainez, J, 1997). (In this last case, the surface is not
a proper conoid as the forming lines are not parallel to a
common plane.)
rojects of Conoids Contributed by
P The aforementioned acoustic benefits are extensive to
the Author interior illumination for the same reason of convexity of
forms.
The present author has been working in several conoid The cover in Fig. 11, strictly speaking, is not a conoid
shapes for more than 25 years, and his experience has ignited because its equation differs from what we have explained in
in part the present article. Modeling of the characteristic the references. The forming straight lines are not parallel to
structural, acoustic and lighting properties of conoids has a plane, but they all coincide along a central vertical axis.
encompassed a significant amount of his career as However, topping of a fan-shaped plan with this kind of sur-
a researcher. Based on that, he can attest to its sustainability face offers a very interesting structural property: the larger
and endurance (Cabeza-Lainez, 2022). spans between pillars are covered by arches, while the
The Potential of Architectural Forms Derived from the Conoid: Ruled Surfaces in Parametric Design and Construction 113
Fig. 3 Ilja Doganoff. current state of the railway depot. (Source: Author)
Fig. 4 Three rotated quasi-conoidal roofs designed for a musicians’ family. Sanlucar (Seville)
tapered end of the trapeze features a conventional slab or The new skylights are more impervious, break-proof,
planar beam, which is logical from the constructive point of safer, and cleaner in the absence of maintenance, as dust col-
view (Cabeza-Lainez, 2019). lection is diminished with the curvature.
In this way, the shells’ materials can be lighter and The second form consists of an innovative proposal for an
smoother. In Fig. 5, we present three vaults consisting of thin amphitheater, music, or sports venue (Fig. 7).
layers of hollow brick with steel mesh as a reinforcement. In this case, being a double conoid, the advantages previ-
The result has proven to provide increased insulation and ously elucidated are even increased. The sections are closed
adds a variety of light effects. curves, such as the ellipse and the circumference in the brim.
Thus, they work as tension rings or girdles to hold the struc-
ture together without severe deformations. The bearing
Future Proposals capacity of the shape is extreme. The tiers of the amphithe-
ater are the obverse of the external façade; there is no need to
As a corollary to the theories elucidated, we will discuss two superimpose a conical structure inside a cylinder such as in
project forms that we have created with conoids, taking into the colosseum or in Spanish bullrings. Among other prob-
account evolving technologies. The first one is a system of lems, the ancient structures were forced to erect giant offload
skylights similar to the one depicted in Fig. 5, but in this vaults and galleries, which transferred severe thrusts to the
case, the glazed parts instead of being planar are also conoids outer façade. As a result, we have calculated that savings in
(Fig. 6). Bearing in mind the necessary smoothness on heat building materials of this proposed facility could be
and light transfer, this feature presents undoubted advantages massive.
(Cabeza-Lainez, 2022). Firstly, the glazing is better shaded Still, the structure can be easily constructed with straight
and protected by the opaque upper conoid. Secondly, sun- beam elements and reinforcements. The foundations point to
light and heat transmission are modulated by the smooth the soil as a kind of arrow, which means that it will be stable,
curves conjoined to the innovative glass properties. In this safe, and simple to develop.
way, the glass surface becomes load-bearing and collabo- The outer surface of the conoid is not vertical but inclined,
rates with the general structure. The form can be easily and so the surroundings of the amphitheater would be self-
adapted to arrays of skylights as shown in Fig. 6. shaded—an interesting feature in warm or rainy climates.
Fig. 5 Detail of pseudo-conoid roofs in which the sun-path produces intriguing variations through the day
Fig. 6 A suggested array of

six conoidal skylights
Fig. 7 The amphitheater with

proposed retractable shade
As for the grandstands, it is not difficult to adapt awnings cant volumetric space with a comparatively small enveloping
or other shading systems to the inside area in order to protect surface; the key is that they offer a high spatial compactness,
the tiers from the rain or the sun (Fig. 7). which is usually an added value in terms of heat exchange,
As mentioned above, the effect of concentration of sound, costs reduction, and sustainability, in general.
rather annoying in conventional stadiums, will be almost
completely avoided due to the convexity of the surface. In
reference [10], we have demonstrated such effect by acoustic Mathematical Formulation
ray-tracing procedures. These rely on the finding of the nor-
mal to the conoid surface at each point. If we make L = R, the regulating equation for Fig. 8 turns out
The procedure to extract the normal is first-order differen-
R2 z2
tiation of the equation of the surface defined as F(x, y, z). The y2 R2 (1)
R x
2
normal vector is obtained as N = (Fx, Fy, Fz).
We can trace a vector field with the reflected sound rays
from an emission point to check that they are effectively dis-
persed in the air and not concentrated [10].
The only remaining questions would be those of selecting eneration of New Figures Based
G
the relative heights of the stages and platforms and other on the Previous Findings
design issues such as ambulation in the venue. Nonetheless,
we believe that our proposal could be another good example We defined the symmetrical figure composed of four conoids,
of how the conoid-based bodies are able to create a signifi- namely, the Antisphera (Fig. 9).
Fig. 8 Explanation of the

parts of a straight conoid with
circular directrix, in this case
R=L=4
This body is tubular in nature. Being internally connected

in its entirety, it is apt for conducting all kinds of fluids in an
advantageous manner since, for instance, it can reduce the
velocity and, at the same time, the noise of transporting the
required fluids. Unlike Antisphera, it is self-standing and
well balanced, which renders it suitable for elongation in the
manner of a tower.
Repercussions for Technology
So far, we have presented scientific design developments that

we hope will find a myriad of applications in technological
areas such as aerospace, building, heritage, and associated
industries. Such facts attest to the versatility and feasibility
of the solutions presented, which derive from our mathemati-
cal investigation. In the last part of the research, due to their
complexity, the surfaces have been materialized with the
help of 3D fabrication procedures to help decide about some
Fig. 9 Depiction of the Antisphera for R = 5. View from below difficult points of the equations or to reflect on future realiza-
tions of the proposals. It is undeniable for us that the results
attain to the domains of art and design (Fig. 12).
Nevertheless, we have conceived that by altering the sym- We believe that the implications of this geometrical
metry and parts of the previous figure, a series of other inter- advance are far-reaching. Due to its internal logic, it would
esting bodies is derived, maintaining initially the ratio R = L. be suitable for biotechnology. Especially the latest develop-
The first one is opposed geometrically to the Antisphera ment, the Pterasphera, being of a tubular nature, would be
because the edge straight lines intersect at its center plane, prone to fluid transportation. As a springlike configuration, it
which is void. Due to this elusive, and somewhat dual, nature conjoins flexibility and balance. In Figs. 13 and 14, we pres-
we have coined the name Dyosphera© for this shape ent examples of possible association and growth in parallel
(Fig. 10). or opposed patterns.
In total, the Dyosphera features eight conoidal sections, If we analyze the internal section of the tubules (Fig. 14),
organized in groups of four, rotated π/2 degrees. it is composed of two semi-ellipses of varying sizes, but the
The open cavities and sinuous receptacles of this figure span is constant at R; the extreme one is a semicircumference
make it particularly suitable for aerodynamic architectural of radius R and the middle horizontal section is a complete
creations, monuments, fountains, and so forth. It is also a ellipse of minor axis R and major axis 2R.
very stable form because it has four circular bases. The dimensions of the section are constant, but its shape
Finally, a very important antisymmetric finding is the is not; thus, the velocity of the fluid inside the tubule can be
Pterasphera® (Fig. 11). deftly regulated from the same form. This would offer a clear
Fig. 10 Distorted depiction

of the complete Dyosphera
Fig. 11 Initial section of the

Pterasphera
We decided to explain this finding because of the possi-

bilities that it showcases, for instance, in tower buildings.
Vertical connections are always feasible at the middle plane
of the column, but the external envelop will benefit from the
sun-tracking or shading properties already elucidated, com-
bined with new photic materials of variable transparency. In
consequence, lighting, thermal, and acoustic features will
considerably improve the existing conditions.
The structure of the so-conceived tower can be as light-
weight as desired due to its inner balance and counterweight.
Fig. 12 Antisphera in bronze by the artist Sergio Portela and in plastic
3D print (green) As we have explained previously, alone or better in groups, it
should perform adequately under earthquakes, extreme wind
conditions, or other unpredictable circumstances (Cabeza-
Lainez, 2019).
alternative to reduce the noise level in the ducts or to decant Conversely, the author, by design operations, has achieved
particles in suspension. the form of a straight tubule of reversed sections.
In Fig. 14, we present examples of vertical growth of the Diverse technological fields could have a keen interest in
tubules, resembling vegetal pillars. Such form connects with the new forms that we have found, both for the macro- and
the art tradition of Coloana Infinitului by Constantin Brâncuşi microscales. It is indeed a leap into a sustainable future,
and with the architectural orders of classical architecture. which we hope goes beyond.
Fig. 13 The same tubules

opposed
scendental number has been obtained as a surprisingly accu-

rate approximation of π. Thanks to Ramanujan’s conjecture,
we have been able to find the lateral area of the conoid, a
recurrent form in organic structures whose scientific and
technical knowledge was insufficient, although much desired
for the benefit of art and architecture.
With such a procedure, we have created no less than four
new types of figures that present high potential in many
realms, such as aerospace, transport, communication and
fluid, light, and sound-conducting devices.
Consequently, we have developed a vast array of revolu-
tionary forms that showcases their utility for the design of
sundry elements. Due to their particular geometric proper-
ties, they can work, both for heat storage or dissipation, as
the case may be. They perform aptly in thermal, luminous,
and acoustic radiation domains.
References
Cabeza-Lainez, J. (1997). Rehabilitación del pabellón Plaza de
América de la Exposición Universal de 1992. Rev Edificación
Ecoconstrucción, 27. Available online: https://hdl.handle.
net/10171/16978. Accessed 1 May 2021.
Cabeza-Lainez, J. M. (2009). The key-role of Eladio Dieste, Spain and
the Americas in the evolution from brickwork to architectural form.
Fig. 14 A symmetric array of twin tubules Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 8, 355–
362. https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.8.355
Cabeza-Lainez, J. M., Rodriguez-Cunill, I. (2019). The Problem
of Lighting in Underground Domes, Vaults, and Tunnel-Like
Structures of Antiquity; An Application to the Sustainability of
Conclusions and Future Aims Prominent Asian Heritage (India, Korea, China). Sustainability, 11,
5865. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205865
We believe to have demonstrated that only science gives Cabeza-Lainez, J. (2022). Architectural characteristics of different con-
figurations based on new geometric determinations for the conoid.
form to the formless. That is why some compare it to art or Buildings, 12, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12010010
even magic. In the first part of this chapter, we have identi- Cabeza-Lainez, J., et al. (1997). Rehabilitación del pabellón Plaza de
fied mathematical procedures which greatly enhance our América de la Exposición Universal de 1992. Revista de Edificación.
understanding of conoidal shapes. In the process, a new tran- Ecoconstrucción, 27. https://hdl.handle.net/10171/16978
Cross, H. (1930). The column analogy (Vol. XXVIII October 14, Joseph Cabeza-Lainez (https://
No.7). University of Illinois Bulletin. Available online: https:// orcid.org/0000-0003-1763-9452)
www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/4229/engineering- holds a Ph.D. in Architecture from
experv00000i00215.pdf?sequence=3. Accessed 20 Sept 2021. the University of Seville (Spain),
Doganoff, I. (1962). Berechnung von Kugelschalen über Rechteckigem where he is a tenured Professor of
Grundriß. Mit Berechnungsdiagrammen. Mitteilungen aus dem Architectural Composition and
Institut für Massivbau Hannover: Düsseldorf. Environmentally Oriented Projects.
Dzwierzynska, J., & Prokopska, A. (2018). Pre-rationalized parametric He obtained a Chair-Professorship in
designing of roof shells formed by repetitive modules of catalan 2010. He is a graduate in Oriental
surfaces. Symmetry, 10, 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym10040105 Studies and Japanese Language. He
Guarini, C. G. (2009). Euclides Adauctus et Methodicus Mathematicaque speaks more than ten languages,
Universalis. 1671. Torino (Italy). including Chinese and Arabic. He
Ramswamy, S. G. (2004). Design and construction of concrete shell has travelled extensively in Asia,
roofs. CBS Publishers. completing a significant research
project on bioclimatic architecture.
He served as a Research Fellow for the Japan Foundation at Kobe
Design University (2004), to whom he is associated, as well as to other
Japanese Universities. He has worked in European Research Projects
and in cooperation projects with South America. He has collaborated in
Architectural Projects with a combined budget of over 90 million
Euros, featuring the energy-conscious Retrofit of the Archaeological
Museum of Seville, the new Faculty of Engineering at the University of
Seville (1998) and the sustainable Railway Hub for El Prat del Llobregat
(Barcelona 2009). His activities range from Architecture, Art and
Global Culture to Environmental Sciences. He has directed 12 Doctoral
Theses. As academic of Fine Arts, he has taught at different universities
for over 20 years. He has lectured in the five continents, over 25 coun-
tries and published over 100 academic papers and several articles and
books including translations from Japanese and Chinese.
The Challenge of Next-Generation
Machine Learning Algorithms
for Architecture Design and Living
Environment
Anca Vitcu
Abstract architecture design is algorithmic; it starts with a good idea

and gradually evolves from a thorough description of the
In a world powered by an advanced technology relying on problem that needs to be solved. If the problem is fuzzily
stunning machine learning algorithms, with a strong stated, if wrong questions are asked, improper outputs are
mathematical foundation, integrating its scientific innova- delivered: “When men misunderstand their own work, they
tions in architecture design process is undoubtedly a cannot understand the work of others” (Bronowski, 1956).
requirement for the development of the field, but without
obedient surrender, without missing the outstanding his-
torical lessons of built architecture, without losing the When Good Science Joins Good Architecture
essence of architectural thought, and without compromis-
ing or neglecting the value of its human content. A blind Algorithms designed to create emerging geometries or gen-
approach can turn machine learning technology from a erative approaches for topology-driven form-finding pro-
valuable tool into a trap by generating solutions to a prob- cesses have in their turn a success history in built architecture
lem that is essentially ill-defined. when they are founded on arguments, ideas, and logic.
Examples of algorithms developed on simple original rules,
Keywords inspired by Mandelbrot fractal geometry or Robert Ammann
Genetic algorithms · Generative adversarial networks · tiling discoveries, that generated sound patterns reflected in a
Architecture design light structural complexity can be found in the works of
Cecil Balmond: “V & A Spiral Extension” (1996) worked
with Daniel Libeskind and “Serpentine Pavilion” (2002)
Introduction designed in collaboration with Toyo Ito, respectively.
Balmond uses in an inimitable style a broad source of
While science confronts works, approaches, and results inspiration from mathematics for conceiving novel algo-
achieved by researchers in different fields, mainly spread rithms to generate forms and search for opportunities of
over long periods of time, in search of new ways to bridge complexity. His advanced thinking system relies on a combi-
the gaps, carry forward a particular theory, or formulate a nation of nonparametric and parametric modeling to trans-
completely new one, art is looking for uniqueness. Both have late nature’s patterns in a unique way. The emergent forms
rhizomatic liaisons with nature and draw their springs in we discover in Balmond’s projects are the outcomes of an
imagination, desire, curiosity, and hard work alike. enhanced knowledge based on numbers and simple vector
Architecture design is an amazing confluence between art rules, on a good understanding of non-orientable surfaces as
and science, a remarkable adventure in real life, a collection Klein bottle, on stochastic processes such as random walk, in
of human stories and emotions, a mirror of society changes search to generate a form of order. The accomplishment of
with solid connections in contextual environments, and a his work in collaboration with renowned artists and archi-
redoubtable mediator among light, ventilation, material tects is not due only to the knowledge of complex explora-
performance, and structural behavior. In addition to these, tion of mathematics but to the way it was integrated into a
multidisciplinary architectural program. In 2000, with a
group of architects and engineers, a quantum physicist, and a
A. Vitcu (*)
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning, game theorist, Balmond created at ARUP the Advanced
Bucharest, RO, Romania Geometry Unit, laying the foundations of a cross-disciplinary
122 A. Vitcu
research group on complex structural geometry, as support When the process begins, the generator’s outputs are
for new thinking spaces in architectural vision (Nordenson, noisy images and the discriminator predictions are ran-
2008). dom. The central part of GANs lies in the training of the
two networks so that the generator becomes more skillful
at confusing the discriminator, by maximizing the latter’s
hen Architecture Must Discern Before
W probability to make a mistake; the discriminator must
Engaging a Partnership with Science adapt to get better at classifying a forged distribution
from a real one (Foster, 2019). The two networks are in a
The presence of a game theorist in Balmond’s team was situation of a zero-sum game. The generator learns
undoubtedly a wise decision. As well as nowadays, the through the feedback received from the discriminator’s
absence of this knowledge in using generative adversarial classifications. The training procedure drives the genera-
networks (GANs) as support for form finding in architectural tor to find new ways to outwit the discriminator, and the
design is an error, if not an accident. process continues. In an ideal scenario, the model should
Scraping the architectural news and going through some reach convergence, an optimal solution or Nash
academic architectural research articles related to the equilibrium.
employment of machine learning algorithms, especially 3. Networks refers to the neural networks, a biological-
GANs, in architecture design, published since 2014 to now, I inspired architecture, which can be simple feed-forward
noticed a gray assumption, almost a statement, regarding the neural networks or more complex variants.
future of architecture design and architecture as a profession,
which is mainly due to a sequence of misunderstandings. In The idea underlying of a GAN is sketched in the diagram
the following lines, I’ll briefly remind what generative adver- below (Fig. 1).
sarial networks are and the reason for which they are unable, An important observation is that the images a GAN will
at least the operational versions available, to create architec- learn to generate depend on the choice of the training set. For
tural designs but can be reliable partners if are appropriately instance, if we want a GAN to synthesize images whose con-
used. tent looks like Jean Nouvel’s buildings, we have to use a
training dataset with images and sketches of Jean Nouvel’s
works. The two networks are continually trying to cheat each
What Is a GAN? other: the better the generator gets at creating convincing
images of Nouvel’s complex and complicated buildings, the
Created by Ian Goodfellow, a generative adversarial network better the discriminator needs to be at distinguishing real
(GAN) is composed of two neural networks trained in a zero- images from false ones.
sum noncooperative game. As the author described, it is a
“framework for estimating generative models through adver-
sarial nets” (Goodfellow, 2014). In a general overview, we How We Decide When to Stop?
have the following scenario: a generative model is trained to
turn random noise into synthetic (false) data; a discriminator As we previously mentioned, in a GAN, the two networks,
model is trained to make the difference between the false generator and discriminator, have competing objectives act-
data from real examples in a problem known as supervised ing as a zero-sum game, a situation in which one player’s
classification; the generator and the discriminator are param- gains equal the other player’s losses (in other words, when
etrized using deep neural networks; and the neural networks one player improves by a certain quantity, the other player
learn using the adversarial loss that is a minimax optimiza- worsens by the same quantity). In generative adversarial net-
tion problem. The name of the framework is suggestive works when one network gets better, the other network gets
regarding the architecture and goals of networks. The three worse. Zero-sum games have a Nash equilibrium, which
concepts in the title refer to the following (Langr & Bok, means a point at which neither player can improve their situ-
2019): ation or payoff by changing their actions. A GAN model con-
verges when the discriminator and the generator reach Nash
1. Generative addresses the general purpose of the statisti- equilibrium, when the following conditions are met:
cal model, which is creating new data capturing the train-
ing data distribution. –– The generator produces false examples that are indistin-
2. Adversarial indicates the relationship between the two guishable from the real data in the training dataset.
models in the game, namely, a competitive dynamic –– The discriminator can at best randomly guess whether a
between the two models generative and discriminator. In particular example is real or false (have the probability of
the game, the generator’s aim is to create examples that 0.5 to guess whether an example is real). In our example,
are indistinguishable from the real data in the training set. if the image belongs to a Nouvel building.
The Challenge of Next-Generation Machine Learning Algorithms for Architecture Design and Living Environment 123
Fig. 1 The core components

of a GAN. (Anca Vitcu) Generator Output:
Input: synthetic image that
Goal: generate false images
random noise tries to be as
similar with those of the
(a vector) convincing as possible
training dataset
Discriminator
Goal: discriminate between Output:
Input: image
(real from the training the false images coming from predicted probability
set or synthetic created the Generator and the real that the image is real
by Generator) images coming from the (a scalar in [0,1])
training dataset
In summary, at the equilibrium point, which is the optimal ing projects, well trained maybe, it will be able to imitate the
point in a zero-sum game, the generator will model the real distribution of the training dataset. Conditionally, it will be
data and the discriminator will output a probability of 0.5. able to generate examples with similar volumes, shapes,
Since both networks want to weaken the others, a Nash equi- planes, and it will be able to produce new but untruthful con-
librium is reached when one network will not change its tent. And all this process has nothing to do with architectural
action regardless of what the other may do. thinking, with “creating a sense of place,” about which Frank
In practice, there are some technical problems, including Gehry said that is one of the most important issues facing an
the fact that training GAN is not an easy task, that mode architect (Isenberg, 2009). And worse, if you somehow suc-
partial collapse is one of the hardest problems to solve (the ceed in solving the ethical and copyright problems, you still
generator repeatedly provides the same images, for which find yourself caught in a trap with the false feeling that you
reason networks cannot progress) and the networks some- are a good architect. Nonetheless, you will always be the sec-
times generate behaviors that do not find an explanation in ond, and as Arthur Rubinstein said in his outstanding inter-
the mathematical foundation. However, when the model view to Robert MacNeil for WNET/13, on his 90th birthday
architecture and hyperparameters are carefully selected, celebration, in art, “being the second is already wrong.”
GAN learning performs well (Goodfellow, 2016). In a highly technological society, architecture design
The standard GAN has been enthusiastically received by already proved that has the ability to form novel concepts
the research community, having by now developed several inspired from art, science, and nature confirming that “origi-
important, competitive variants. GAN is an important inno- nality is the mark of independence of mind” (Bronowski,
vation based on some simple brilliant ideas, which works 1956).
very well as a building block for other approaches with GANs have a promising future in theoretical approaches
sound outcomes. One of them is LAPGAN model that pro- as well as in practical applications where they have already
duces samples of images that are more realistic than those proved useful in game design, image generation, text-to-
originating from a standard GAN. LAPGAN model com- image synthesis, face aging, image-to-image translation,
bines a conditional GAN model with a Laplacian pyramid to video synthesis, high-resolution image generation, and com-
generate images containing different levels of detail. A series pleting missing parts of images.
of conditional GANs is trained to first generate a very low- Exciting topics for computer scientists and mathemati-
resolution version of an image and then incrementally add cians have been created. A challenging edge for art-related
details to the image managing to generate plausible-looking fields, as architecture design, has been envisaged. Even so,
scenes. LAPGAN generators proved able to also deceive these powerful models must first be understood in order to
human evaluation of samples, not only discriminator net- decide how and in what context they can be properly used in
works. The samples from LAPGAN models trained on art and architecture design. They must not be copied and fre-
LSUN categories like “tower” and “church front” are elo- netically applied only because they are fashionable.
quent (Denton, 2015). Christopher Alexander, one of the noteworthy interdisci-
Architecture design is about thinking. GANs do not think plinary architects, who analyzed the structural correspon-
outside of the training dataset and, when are incorrectly dence between the pattern of a problem and the process of
used, manifest a sort of dysfunctional creativity. If we give a designing a physical form that answers that problem, using
GAN several collections of images of Jean Nouvel’s amaz- set theory to explain methods of algorithmic design
124 A. Vitcu
(Christopher, 1964a, b), sensed the danger of unusual magic as many outstanding generations of talented architects, that
of computational fundamental algorithms, techniques and in art of design buildings and urban sustainable environ-
tools, for architecture design and architecture as a profes- ments, form search is not a game and that finding the right
sion. In his essay to the proceedings for the first conference formulation for a real-life architectural problem is a signifi-
organized in 1964 by the Boston Architectural Center titled cant part of solving it and leans on a bold vision and plenty
“Architecture and the Computer,” he wrote: of time dedicated to unconditional investment in learning
The effort to state a problem in such a way that a computer can (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5). To complete the architectural work, the sup-
be used to solve it will distort your view of the problem. It will port from algorithmic thinking and innovative technologies
allow you to consider only those aspects of the problem which to broad the architectural vocabulary, so that it can then be
can be encoded and, in many cases, these are the most trivial and transposed into a visual and structural optimized or adaptive
the least relevant aspects. (Christopher, 1964a, b, p. 52)
built form, must be received with discernment, with
Explorations across disciplinary thinking and practice, as responsibility.
well as inquiries into common boundaries among art, archi-
tecture design, nature-inspired mathematical models, com-
puter programming, and artificial intelligence, awakened the
interest of architects before John Holland’s landmark vol-
ume “Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems” have
been published in 1975 and continues until today. Laying the
foundation of a new field of study, based on a novel program-
ming technique, the genetic algorithm, Holland’s discourse
about the adaptive processes of natural systems, and their use
as ground field to design artificial systems, opened a door to
several important applications in architectural design, some
of them belonging to John Frazer, one of the key founders of
generative architecture (Frazer et al., 2002). Frazer’s book
“An Evolutionary Architecture” stands as an essential meth-
odological document for architects and scientists through the
attention paid to the reasoning and care with which genera-
tive models inspired by nature are designed to approach Fig. 2 The Exhibition Zaha Hadid: Form finding study, Institut du
architecture and the living environment as an evolutionary Monde Arabe, Paris, 2010. (Photo: Anca Vitcu)
process. Reasoning and care are also prominent features of
surfaces topology research in Frank Gehry (Goldberger,
2011), Zaha Hadid (Judidio, 2016), or Renzo
Piano (Goldberger, 2009) works or in machine learning
employment to predict how passively actuated façades
respond to temperature changes as in Foster + Partners stu-
dio technological experiments. These concerns can be read
in their own uniquely designed language. Just to remember
some of their masterpieces: Walt Disney Concert Hall (Los
Angeles, 2003), Stata Center (Cambridge, 2004), Neuer
Zollhof (Dusseldorf, 1999) designed by Frank Gehry, Tower
C by Zaha Hadid Architects (Shenzhen, in work), The Shard
designed by Renzo Piano (London, 2012) or RMK head-
quarters with a hybrid façade inspired from nature designed
by Foster & Partners, completed in 2021. They never repeat
themselves.
Alexander knew just like Foster, Gehry, Hadid, Piano, Fig. 3 The Exhibition Zaha Hadid: Form finding study, Institut du
salient leaders in the break from rectilinear geometry, as well Monde Arabe, Paris, 2010. (Photo: Anca Vitcu)
The Challenge of Next-Generation Machine Learning Algorithms for Architecture Design and Living Environment 125
Fig. 4 The Exhibition Zaha Hadid: Form finding study, Institut du

Monde Arabe, Paris, 2010. (Photo: Anca Vitcu)
Fig. 5 The Exhibition Zaha Hadid: Form finding study, Institut du
Monde Arabe, Paris, 2010. (Photo: Anca Vitcu)
Conclusions References
We started this essay with a sample from Cecil Balmond’s Aicher, O. (2015). The world as design. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn.
Bronowski, J. (1956). Science and human values. Harper & Row
kneading for discovering new, simple, beautiful generative Publisher.
algorithms tailored for specific architectural programs, a Christopher, A. (1964a). Notes on the synthesis of form. Harvard
model of how good science serves good architecture when University Press.
mediated by a brilliant mind and a cohesive professional Christopher, A. (1964b). A much asked question about computers and
design. In Boston Architectural Center (Ed.), Architecture and the
team. There are so many significant illustrations in which computer: Proceedings, first Boston architectural center conference
parametric thinking and genetic algorithms support creativ- (pp. 52–54).
ity in architectural design or machine learning algorithms the Denton, E., et al. (2015). Deep generative image models using
effort of understanding and healing structures, all inspired by a Laplacian pyramid of adversarial networks. In NIPS’15:
Proceedings of the 28th international conference of neural informa-
nature’s divine patterns and processes. All lessons are to be tion processing systems (Vol. 1, pp. 1486–1494). MIT Press.
learned. Aicher Otl noticed that “the scope for intelligent Foster, D. (2019). Generative deep learning. O’Reilly Media.
solutions is immeasurable, but only if you are in a position to Frazer, John H., Frazer, Julia M., Liu, X., Tang, M., & Janssen, P. (2002).
ask questions” (Aicher, 2015). We have to give ourselves Generative and evolutionary techniques for building envelope
design. In GA2002: Proceedings of 5th International Generative Art
time to look at the architectural heritage with modesty, emo- Conference (pp. 3.1-3.16). Milan, Italy: Generative Design Lab.
tion, curiosity, and wisdom, to understand its messages and Goldberger, P. (2011). Why architecture matters. Why X Matters Series.
decently “capitalize” them in our futuristic vision of generat- New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ing an “architecture without architects.” Goldberger, P. (2009). The modern wing: Renzo Piano and The Art
Institute of Chicago. Art Institute of Chicago and Yale University.
126 A. Vitcu
Goodfellow, I., et al. (2014). Generative adversarial networks. In Anca Vitcu Associate Professor,
NIPS’14: Proceedings of the 27th international conference on neu- Ph.D., graduated from the Faculty
ral information processing systems (Vol. 2, pp. 2672–2680). MIT of Mathematics of “Alexandru Ioan
Press. Cuza” University (Iasi) in 1993
Goodfellow, I., et al. (2016). Deep learning. The MIT Press. with a thesis on differential geome-
Holland, J.H. (1975). Adaptation in natural and artificial systems. try. In 2000 she graduated the
University of Michigan Press (2nd Ed., MIT Press, 1992). doctoral studies in Mathematics at
Isenberg, B. (2009). Conversations with Frank Gehry. Alfred A. Knopf. “Gheorghe Mihoc” Center of
Judidio, Ph. (2016). Zaha Hadid (1950-2016): The Explosion Reforming Mathematical Statistics of the
Space. Taschen. Romanian Academy (Bucharest)
Langr, J., & Bok, V. (2019). GANs in action: Deep learning with gen- with a dissertation on geometrical
erative adversarial networks. Manning Publications. approach of random algebraic equa-
Nordenson, G. (Ed.). (2008). Seven structural engineers: The Felix tions. She is part of the academic
Candela lectures. The Museum of Modern Art. staff of “Ion Mincu” University of
Architecture and Urban Planning
(Bucharest) since 2002. In 2013, she founded the courses, seminars and
laboratories of Mathematical Models in Architecture and Urban Design,
and Fractal Art in Architectural Design, grounded on a transdisciplinary
research activity in visual arts, architecture and their connections with
branches of science (partnership over time with IMUAU and the Faculty
of Computer Science of UAIC Iasi, Romanian Academy, WBI (Belgian
Research Fund), Faculty of Architecture of the University of Liège). In
parallel, she is teaching topics on 3D computer animation: fundamental
algorithms and techniques and Social Media Network Analysis at the
Faculty of Computer Science (“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of
Iasi). For more than twenty years, she has carried out activities in bio-
statistics research and applied mathematics with leading institutes in
Romania and abroad, being since 2010 the coordinator of the Romanian
National Group of the International Society for Clinical Biostatistics.
Part III
Studying Scales in Territory: Bionics and Landscape
Landscape as Process:
A Transdisciplinary Integrated
Approach
Tana Nicoleta Lascu
Abstract Keywords
Considering as methodology the transdisciplinary vision, Process · Holistic systemic approach · Landscape
corroborated with the interpretation of a series of con- perception as sign · Cultural identity
cepts rising from a set of interconnected and symbiotic
disciplines that transcend traditional academic boundaries
such as the holistic systemic approach, the fractal theory Introduction
and the semiotics, this chapter analyses some aspects
within the landscape processes regarding the physical More than ever, the crisis we are all experiencing nowadays
state but also cultural aspects, taking into account the shows the absolute necessity to understand and to design our
dynamic of the geomorphological state and perception landscapes in a more comprehensive perspective. Fredric
processes. Jameson considers what we might now call either the disap-
Given its multiple interconnections with different pearance of landscape or, on the contrary, the generalization
fields, landscape research offers challenges and opportu- of landscape: “Postmodern hyperspace has come to exceed
nities of reflection. Moreover, recent years have brought the capacities of the individual human body to self-situate, to
significant developments in all areas of landscape organize through perception its immediate environment and
research, transforming it into an integrated field of study to cognitively determine its position in a mappable external
of perceptions and materiality, culture and nature, long- world” (Jameson, 1991). Nowadays, a total disjunction
term historical processualities and present states, as a core between the human beings and the built environment has
unity complex for the research area. been reached and the continuing sense of defeat is that of the
Within the framework opened by the European incapacity of our mental, at least for the moment, to map “the
Landscape Convention (Florence, 2000), this chapter immense global, and decentralized network of communica-
aims to take a wide, but not exhaustive, look to the relation in which we find ourselves as individual and essentially
tions and interconnectedness established within the isolated subjects: the map of the immense global network of
complex natural and human processes that are generat- the Internet”.
ing, modelling and influencing the landscape, propos- However, it seems that the loss of the usual references
ing, from a holistic systemic approach and an in reading the territory and the daily confrontation with
eco-semiotic perspective, some paths in order to contrib- non-places and interstitial or neglected spaces that
ute to the definition of a new strategy, to rebalance a new increasingly characterise our experience, specially esca-
equilibrium within the landscape system, nowadays lated by the pandemic context, have heightened the desire
under the threat of loss of the usual references regarding to identify, safeguard and celebrate that which escapes or
the territorial reading, to orient the restarts towards a seems to oppose this tendency: the landscape as solution,
more sustainable future. understood in the sense of a pleasant or wild place, or as a
picturesque site.
Revealing the rich character of the landscape, reflecting
complex relationships established between the geomorpho-
T. N. Lascu (*) logical and ecological processes, but also as a collective nar-
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning, rative, expression and, at the same time, foundation of
Bucharest, RO, Romania communities’ identity, this chapter aims to take a wide, but
130 T. N. Lascu
not exhaustive, look to the processes modelling the land- Along time, new sciences and theories brought their con-
scape, considering the framework opened by the new land- tribution to enrich the significances of landscape concept:
scape paradigm, introduced by the European Landscape Relativeness Theory, Semiotics, Structuralism, Landscape
Convention (Florence, 2000), requiring a perspective beyond Ecology, Phenomenology, Chorography etc. The contribu-
the separated objects, to understand their dynamic relation- tion of the new concepts elaborated by different disciplines is
ships, considering different types of connection networks relevant within the process of multiple meanings acquired by
that ensure to re-establish the vital connections of the terri- landscape as an integrative concept (Fig. 1).
tory in space, between various dislocated events, in time,
from the perspective of the historical processuality based on
rational analysis of interconnectedness between human and Landscape as a System
environmental systems.
Although the first attempt to incorporate the whole of human
knowledge into one vast scheme belongs to Aristotle
Methodology of Reference (Broadbent, 1987), it was not only until the first half of the
twentieth century that the increasing fragmentation and
In his Transdisciplinary Manifest, searching out reality as a duplication of scientific and technological research and
unity belonging between the disciplines, in a systemic and decision-making led the Austrian biologist Karl Ludwig von
quantic vision, the physicist Basarab Nicolescu considers Bertalanffy to advance his idea of a General Systems Theory
transdisciplinary approach corresponding to in vivo knowl- (Laszlo & Krippner, 1998). Thus, the systems approach to
edge, defined by the correspondence between the external the phenomena that focuses on the whole instead of the parts,
world of the object and the internal world of the subject, as as well as on the complex interrelationships among its essen-
opposed to in vitro knowledge (Nicolescu, 2009). tial components, evolved from General Systems Theory,
The opportunity offered by the transdisciplinary approach which was developed in 1937 (Laszlo & Krippner, 1998;
within understanding the landscape as process is revealed by Pourdehnad et al., 2011).
all characteristics appropriate to this type of knowledge. Process represents the actions carried out at the level of
Rejecting the elitist distinctions, European Landscape inter-system connections producing that synergistic effect
Convention focuses on ordinary landscapes, emphasising the resulting from the functioning of the system, performing
values of everyday landscapes (Priore, 2004). Correspondence its functions and maintaining the living system, by exchang-
between the subject and object and including the third logic ing flows between the social, biologic, ecologic and cultural
plays a key role essential when it comes in discussion to structures, as matter/energy/information at the level of con-
issues of values legitimation. There are two main approaches nections keeping the structure unchanged, in a constant
for the landscape interpretation: the first one uses a dichot- dynamic equilibrium, sustaining the life of the system over a
omy between subjective and objective aspects, excluding longer or shorter period of time (Fig. 2).
human aspects, and is based on the methods of natural sci- The system comprises the subsystems and the connec-
ences, while the second approach is related to social sci- tions between them that work by interacting with each other
ences, focusing on values related to liveability, beauty and and with the environment in which they are located, accord-
sensitivity to places. Nowadays, this second approach is ing to algorithms, laws and principles, to achieve a result.
being reinforced by the quantum perspective offered by the The processes give the system its character. The character of
natural sciences (Lascu, 2013). a system is different from the character of the component
subsystems taken separately.
The structure of the system is given by the way its con-
he Process of Defining Landscape
T nections are made. Repetitive processes create repetitive
as an Integrative Concept structures. Those repetitive structures that are identical
regardless of the scale at which they are studied have been
In 1993, the anthropologist Tim Ingold defined landscape as called fractals (Mandelbrot, 1983). A portion of a landscape
“...the totality of human experiences” (Ingold, 2011). and all that it contains can be fractal. The study of fractal
However this syntagma seems for many of us quite unfamil- systems at a holistic interdisciplinary level has proved
iar, it contributed to open new perspectives in the process of extremely useful, bringing new sciences such as bionics, bio-
defining the landscape. philia, biomimicry etc., into focus.
Once idealised as an Arcadian paradise, the term land- The connection between ecology and landscape is also
scape has been associated, for long time and, even nowadays, considered pivotal by ecologists, architects and landscape
for many of us, with an image of nature, reminiscent to a planners (Naveh, 1995; Nassauer, 1995). The concept of
pastoral, idyllic vista or scene – scenery. landscape is thus intertwined with the different modalities of
Landscape as Process: A Transdisciplinary Integrated Approach 131
Fig. 1 Natural and social sciences compete enhancing the understanding of landscape meanings, for enriching landscape significance with new
concepts opening up new perspectives. (Tana Lascu)
living and perceiving it. Nassauer (1995) proposes a stricter and constructing new models of human habitat so that the
collaboration between aesthetics and ecology, namely, in impact on the landscape/environment/system that keeps us
architecture and design. alive does not disrupt the proper functioning of the encom-
The new sciences are responding to the need of human passing system, that unique synergistic effect resulting from
society to restore a balance with its environment by studying multiple and complex processes.
132 T. N. Lascu
where the information and code system of human culture

gathers, adapts and regenerates itself.
As a follower of the New Cultural Geography, which pro-
motes a chorographic approach, Simon Schama analyses
from this perspective the sense of character of a place and the
appreciation of certain rhythms, the recognition of balance
and sensitivity to harmonious relationships, which are
inscribed in the genes and adapted to the environmental con-
ditions. Meaningful relationships are established between
people and the space in which they live, as the built environ-
ment allows the communication of specific cultural values
related to thinking, perception, emotional reactions and
images. Social and cultural historians continue to explore
the interconnections between national identities and human
landscapes, focusing, for example, on landscape, myth and
memory (Schama, 1995).
Bernard Lassus compares cultural evolution with Darwinian
evolution (Lassus, 2010), where both forms of evolution are
characterised by a hereditary transmission system. The trans-
mission system (gene versus meme) in biological evolution
genes can propagate or disappear (natural selection) paths
with multiple and recursive transmission directions as a tree of
life, which replaces the dead and broken branches on the sur-
face of the earth, covering the surface with its splendid
branches in continual division, based on “affinities between
living beings of the same class” (Darwin, 2010).
Within the poetic archaeology defined by Bernard Lassus,
in an irreversible process, mementoes follow a new dimen-
sion of construction, associating it with the spiritual act of
settling, in order to perceive and understand signs and mean-
ings in the landscape, giving them space.
By interacting, landscape and human systems shape each
other. Unfortunately, human society has even come to destroy
Fig. 2 Layers within landscape: the outer layer as perceived landscape its environment/system by containing faulty subsystems.
and the inner layers including the social, biologic and ecologic struc- The system of human society with all its components, includ-
ture. (Tana Lascu) ing man-made constructions, is still a natural system; it has
not been artificially implemented but has evolved
through energy exchange processes at matter and informa-
ultural Identity and the Historical Signs
C tion levels.
in Landscape
Culture can be defined as the set of information transmitted andscape Ecology and Landscape
L
along time, from one individual to another, through behav- Perception as Sign
ioural means. Besides the system of natural and ecological
values, the cultural system of the architectural heritage plays Nassauer aims to appropriate ecology and aesthetics and the
a key role, having different functions, as network system for philosophies of perception and aesthetical preference more
transport of people and products, but also for transferring generally. In her view, one of the key elements needed to
ideas, for example, the slow networks, which allow commu- analyse and manage landscapes is human perception,
nity reflection, contemplation and belonging feeling. between cognition, values and landscape, existing a symbi-
The knowledge of our life environment that we get from otic relation (Nassauer, 1995).
our perceptual and cognitive capacities is part of the autopoi- Related to landscape, perception process implies associat-
esis process not only of the living organisms, but of the whole ing things through all our senses beyond the according
landscape (Farina, 2006). Human settlements are the places spatial-temporal approach, going far over the boundaries of
three-dimensional space to a temporal multidimension, physical and material characteristics as well as cultural,
reminding of the intelligence and memory of the things emotional and spiritual connections. Indicators cannot there-
(Farina, 2006). In this way, landscape perception becomes a fore be objective; they are rather ambiguous, vague and on
complex multilayer process connecting us within a frequency the borderline between subjective and objective.
continuum. Our interaction with the landscape essence, Within the most valuated are the ecological balance of a
expressed, beside the common geomorphological formation, certain landscape, including hydrogeological stability and
by colours, rhythms, materiality, sounds air, memories and security, land consumption and physical environment, human
imagination, emerges to be the deepest connection with the health, quality of life and communities’ life and the quality
originating natura naturans. Considering these aspects, land- of the landscape: its identity, readability, imageability, per-
scape valorisation can preserve, enhance and even create spectives, landmarks, natural and cultural heritage and iden-
new attributes to ensure the balance of the ecosystemic pro- tity, access to services and sustainable transport, territorial
cesses providing wellness to human beings. economy efficiency of settlements systems and sustainable
According to Eugenio Turri, “the landscape becomes touristic enhancement. To identify the ecolands appropriate
such if we manage to give a sense, a cultural meaning to its to an organism, and to plan actions for its conservation and
components, transforming them into signs, through which security, Almo Farina presented the eco-field theory as the
we communicate with others” (Turri, 1998). These land- spatial configuration that, for a given individual, signifies the
scapes are simultaneously perceived by our behaviours, specific function of accessing a given resource, the set of
closely related with education patterns, own sensitivity, eco-landscapes that an individual needs in order to secure his
experiences and collective memory (Fig. 3). Any landscape basic resources, becoming thus his own “perceived land-
retains the essential function of orientating its users, inhabit- scape” (Farina, 2006).
ants or visitors, not only in spatial perspective but also in
terms of meanings and symbols (Lynch, 1971). Education
regarding a healthy ecology is in this context essential. ome Aspects Regarding Landscape
S
People who sense a fundamental sameness between as Process: Kaštela, Croatia
themselves and the natural world feel more empathetic and
compassionate with the nature (Dutcher et al., 2007). A landscape of physical superlatives, resulting from karst-
limestone rocks of mountain peak of Koziak, part of the
Dinaric Alps, overlooking the ancient Roman settlement of
andscape Indicators as Instruments
L Salona, the city of Split and the surrounding bays, offers a
for a Dynamic Landscape Evaluation synthesis of seven coastal vernacular nuclei, whose history
comes back to Illyrian and Roman times, each of them hav-
The main socio-economic model is based on the increasing ing its own stone castles built in a defensive role during the
use of energy resources, and its environmental consequences Ottoman invasion, including summer residences of the
have increasingly complex and unpredictable characteristics. nobles of Trogir and Split and the small traditional stone
As a result, society is in a state of growing uncertainty. New dwellings of local free farmers, owning their land up in the
research tools are needed to address this, which can no longer mountains, later complemented by the architecture of the
be based on direct measurements, due to the complexity of the Modern Style and the architecture of the communist
phenomena. To meet this challenge, ecological or environ- and post-communist periods, a scenography of surprising
mental indicators are used, in response to the high pressure views to the sea, narrow streets between façades and lime-
exerted by certain limiting factors on the environment, while stone details, pottery roofs, native vegetation and an excep-
also assessing society’s reactions, as emergent phenomena tional intangible heritage, Kaštela coastal landscape
having properties of systems that arise from the collective (Fig. 4a–k).
interaction of their components, properties that cannot be pre- The promenade along the seashore is significantly marked
dicted by looking only at the structure or behaviour of a small by surprising signs such as sculptures revealing legendary
number of constituents subject to fundamental laws. characters, ancient occupations or means of transport, stone
Despite this need, there is still no European consensus on slabs from the Renaissance period written in Latin, but also
what these indicators should be. There are still no lists of from the communist period, while a route up the mountain
landscape indicators that are integrated, structured and reveals memorial sites such as ancient churches isolated on
applied systematically as the landscape quality, for example, the ruins of Illyrian settlements, cemeteries and war memori-
is not an inherent datum in the characteristics of the land- als linked to recent history, as well as stone quarries and
scape itself, which can be measured scientifically, and oth- stunning panoramic views towards the coast and islands,
ers. Instead, it depends on how the landscape is perceived by rhythmed by the silhouettes of church campanile along the
the population, with appreciation based on a wide variety of shore. The detailed restoration and renovation of small-scale
134 T. N. Lascu
Fig. 3 Filters play a key role in landscape perception as sign. (Tana Lascu)
residential heritage goes in tandem with larger-scale land- pretative reading of territorial systems, recovery of their
scaping development projects for the coastal belt, providing historical role and reconsideration of the aesthetic dimension
new amenities for tourists and locals, extending the existing of the landscape are key issues in the project strategy.
waterfront. Nowadays, neglected areas of abandoned com- –– In a transdisciplinary perspective, the focus switches from
munist industrial heritage and larger scale architectural heri- the individual objects to the history of the processes that
tage, such as hotels and, especially, the many new serial generated those objects, paying particular attention to
residential interventions that deny and alter the vernacular systems networks and relationships that define ordinary or
and Mediterranean styles, represent a discontinuity and a residual landscapes, in which the character shifts, from a
serious threat to the well-established landscape character formal or historical inventory to a dynamic evaluation
acquired over many centuries within a complex process of generating transformations.
cultural syncretism. –– Critical attention to territorial plots characterised by the
multiplicity and stratification of signs rather than by pre-
sumed aesthetic or formal homogeneity.
Conclusions –– Centrality of the category of context, understood not as
physical contiguity but as the web of significant relation-
Conclusions can be summarised as follows: ships between assets, even if isolated or fragmented, built
–– Integration of perception and aesthetics within the frame- both on material connections and, mostly, on immaterial
work of environmental and sociocultural sustainability, inter- relations.
b c
d e
Fig. 4 Signs and landmarks within landscape processuality. (a) old transport means in the past, nowadays enhancing sense of identity
When the combination of natural, irregular fractal geometry of the of place and polarizing community daily life. (h) A scenography bathed
coastline meets the linear artificial configuration, the landscape acquires by filtred sunlight, where transparency and reflections play a key role
complexity and attractiveness: Kaštela, Croatia. (b) Perception of the within perception process. (i) Reflections and sequential plans: Kaštilac
overlapped visual layers of mountain slopes, shoreline, sea and and Marina in Kaštel Gomilica, in the background industrial architec-
islands, within a consolidated ecosystem. (c) Fractal geometry of the ture in Split and the slopes of Mossor Mount. (j) Faulty subsystems
rooftops as repetitive structure imposing rhythms and organic coher- inducing a neglected landscape: Palace Hotel, among the oldest hotels
ence within the perception process. (d) Vernacular stone architecture, in Central Dalmatia, an Art Deco heritage, and its huge park, a natural
following fractal geometry of volumes, organically integrated within monument. (k) Processes affecting the landscape character: massive
the natural configuration. (e) Ereditary transmission systems: bear cos- alteration and denial of the Mediterranean character of buildings
tumes recalling Vlachs continuity, animating a ritual inserted through through serial interventions along the coastal area. (Photos by Tana
Italian tradition: the Carnival. (f, g) Landmark as symbol, remembering Lascu)
136 T. N. Lascu
h i
j k
Fig. 10.4 (continued)
From this perspective of historical processuality and References

intrinsic connection with the place, the relationship between
recent architecture, settlement form, and landscape is Broadbent, D. E. (1987). Perception and communication. Oxford
University Press.
becoming increasingly relevant in terms of enhancing the Darwin, C. (2010). On the movements and habits of climbing plants.
attractiveness of community life, the creation of vital Cambridge University Press.
spaces and community-friendly spaces, a visual continuity, Dutcher, D., Finley, J., Luloff, A. E., & Johnson, J. (2007). Connectivity
in line with the (re)-discovery and understanding of the lay- with nature as a measure of environmental values. Environment and
Behavior, 39, 474–493.
ers of the settlement’s fabric read as a palimpsest. From this Farina, A. (2006). Il paesaggio cognitivo [The cognitive landscape].
perspective, the landscape becomes not just an image or a Franco Angeli.
form but a real repository of human experiences, offering Ingold, T. (2011). Redrawing anthropology: Materials, movements,
different levels of understanding and deciphering it, finding lines. Ashgate.
Jameson, F. (1991). The cultural logic of late capitalism. Duke
reconnecting and revitalising networks to structure new University Press.
synergies.
Lascu, T. N. (2013). Transdisciplinarity in the relationship between the Tana Nicoleta Lascu Ph.D. Architect
spatial policy and the historical/cultural policy. In Landscape and and Urban Planner, Lecturer at the
imagination - Towards a new baseline for education in a changeing Basics of Architectural Design
world. Bandecchi & Vivaldi. Department, Faculty of Architecture
Lassus, B. (2010). Paesaggio, un’ esperienza multiculturale [Landscape, of the “Ion Mincu” University of
a multicultural experience]. Editions Kappa. Architecture and Urban Planning from
Laszlo, A., & Krippner, S. (1998). Systems theories: Their origins, Bucharest. Graduated at IMUAU in
foundations, and development. In J. S. Jordan (Ed.), Systems theo- 1992 and having a postgraduate spe-
ries and a priori aspects of perception (pp. 47–74). Elsevier Science. cialization in restoration and conserva-
Lynch, K. (1971). Site planning (2nd ed.). MIT Press. tion of monuments and historic sites,,
Mandelbrot, B. (1983). The fractal geometry of nature. W.H. Freeman. she has been involved in several resto-
Nassauer, J. I. (1995). Culture and changing landscape structure. ration projects in Romania, France,
Landscape Ecology, 10(4). and Italy, thereafter developing more
Naveh, Z. (1995). Interactions of landscapes and cultures. Landscape than 100 projects during the 7-year activity at Cornelis de Jong
and Urban Planning, 33. Architektenburo bna, Middenbeemster, Noord-Holland, the most sig-
Nicolescu B. (2009). Ce este Realitatea? [What does reality mean?]. nificant in Urk, De Rijp, Marken and Beemster, elaborating the project
Junimea Publishing House. for the listing of Beemster polder on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Pourdehnad, J., Wexler, E. R., & Wilson, D. V. (2011). Systems and She was a Visiting Professor at the University of Liège (2014), the
design thinking: A conceptual framework for their integration. University of Architecture in Venice – IUAV, and the University of
Priore, R. (2004). Verso l’applicazione della Convenzione Europea Alcalá (2021). Since 2012, she has represented IMUAU within The
del Paesaggio in Italia [Towards the application of the European Network of Universities for Studies and Education according to the
Landscape Convention in Italy]. Fondazione Benetton Studi European Landscape Convention – UNISCAPE. Her doctoral thesis
Ricerche. “Landscape as an Integrated Concept in the Sustainable Development”,
Schama, S. (1995). Landscape and memory. Blackwell Publishing. finalized in 2011, and her studies published in four books and over 20
Turri, E. (1998). Il paesaggio come teatro, dal territorio vissuto al ter- international conference Proceedings, as well as the three research
ritorio rappresentato [The landscape as theatre, from lived territory grants and more than 50 international curated exhibitions, seminars and
to represented territory]. Marsilio. workshops, emerged as a result of her constant interest in connecting
architecture with landscape, within a transdisciplinary integrated
approach.
Disruptive Biotope: The Interstitial
Space between Nature and Urbanism
Henry Daniel Lazarte Reátegui
Abstract and making the interstitial space, for many years, the most
polluted place in Peru.
Before the arrival of COVID-19 and the mandatory social
isolation, the citizens of Lima remembered the existence Keywords
of that place of collective enjoyment; however, others are Biotope · Interstice · Environmental liabilities · Rímac
witnesses of a positive change in water resources that River
allows the development of mutualistic interactions of
flora and fauna present in the city of Lima. We are refer-
ring to the Rímac River along its banks, one of the three Introduction
most important rivers that the city has, with a length of
140 km from the heights of Ticlio (4818 m above sea For a better understanding of the case study, we consider it is
level) to the sea outlet, considered in this study as that necessary to highlight the meaning of the specified
interstice that generated recreational spaces on its banks keywords.
and was a source of inspiration for locals and foreigners, The Disruptive Biotope is a complex term that has been
capturing those scenarios in works of art, poetry, and lyr- little addressed in the urban literature. However, we will use
ics. It continues to be the main source of surface water it as a framework for this research; biotope is defined as that
and the most important aquifer of the Peruvian capital. vital space or territory that possesses environmental qualities
The Rímac River was considered as an object of analysis relevant for a certain community of living beings to develop
in the city of Lima and the principle of explanatory in it (Panhispanico, 2022) and disruptive from English dis
research, based on a case study, being a useful method for ruption, which is breakage or sudden interruption. Both
the understanding of what is explained. The result of the terms together we define them as that space that was condu-
study was that the reduction of human activity in the pan- cive to the interaction, harmony, and coexistence between
demic has had several impacts on nature showing us a species through uniform environmental conditions and how
different ecosystem (biotope + biocenosis) in the Rímac it is violently affected and left to oblivion by the accelerated
River and a health education along with a civic con- and irregular growth of the city, environmental pollution, and
science, through balance and interaction: individual- a constant increase in environmental liabilities and passives.
nature-society; a continuous and erroneous administration The term environmental liability can be defined as that
of the Rímac River that government political scenarios environmental situation that, generated by man in the past
failed to consolidate through both environmental and and with progressive deterioration over time, currently repre-
urban-architectural recovery projects. Environmental lia- sents a risk to the environment and the quality of life of peo-
bilities will continue to increase if we continue to make ple (Aro & González, 2020). In other words, it is a land or
this natural interstice a place for solid waste, industrial place environmentally affected by a historical activity over
and domestic wastewater drainage, tailings derived from which there is no control, due to negligence, accidents, or
nearby mines and factories, leading to increased pollution ignorance, being, in addition, potentially places with the
presence of contamination.
Regarding the approaches to the definition of interstice,
we will rely on definitions made by the Real Academia
H. D. L. Reátegui (*)
César Vallejo University, Lima, PE, Peru Española (RAE) and in some theories or researches that
e-mail: [email protected] address this definition. In that sense, the term interstitial
140 H. D. L. Reátegui
according to the RAE (from Latin interstitĭum) is defined as natives. Due to its territorial length, the river and the whole
the space or cleft, which mediates between two parts of the valley were named this way (Municipality of Lima, 2020).
same body, as well as the synonymy related to terms such as The Rímac River begins its journey on the western slopes
free, empty, hollow, gap, interval, opening, hollow, slit, of the Andes at an altitude of approximately 5508 m above
crack, hole, fault, crack, gap, cleft, fissure, slit, and others. sea level in the Nevado Paca, running through the provinces
The term is applied in various branches of the natural sci- of Lima and Huarochirí, both located in the department of
ences as physics, biology, and geology, among others, and in Lima. Among the most important tributaries of the Rímac
urban contexts with the Jean Remy’s and Ernest Watson are the Santa Eulalia River, the San Mateo or Alto Rímac
Burgess’s meanings, with the postulates of the Chicago River, the Blanco River, and the Surco River (Alameda,
School where they call it a transition zone and that proposed 2013).
by the Belgian School of Urban Sociology that called it an The Rímac River is a water resource that supplies around
interstitial zone (Forero Rodriguez, 2015). This concept 9 million inhabitants, who represent 30% of the total popula-
arises from Jean Remy’s theory called concentric zones, tion (according to INEI 2019, 32,131,400 inhabitants), as
which refers to neutral times and spaces, located in the urban well as generating 550 MW of clean energy resources, allow-
center, and dissociated from specific activities, which are ing 3000 ha of agricultural land and 1500 ha of green areas
little or not at all defined but are arranged for the develop- in the territory to be irrigated (Iagua, 2014).
ment of a social and urban life (Delgado Ruiz, 1999). The Rímac River ended up being located outside the city
In 2008, architect Peimbert dedicated his master’s thesis and later divided it, becoming a natural physical territorial
to this phenomenon, using the term of interstices, leaving border, due to urban growth and planning, losing a heritage
aside the idea of voids, since emptiness is related to nothing- legacy of a collective cultural memory, which, until the clos-
ness, supporting the idea of studying them together with ing date of the study, the State Institutions have not been able
their counterpart: full spaces, which he calls interstitial land- to recover.
scapes. He shows his preference for the relationship of inter-
stices to space for art, to which he superimposes his emphasis
on spaces: ruins of abandoned buildings, infrastructural and The Bank as a Public Space
industrial restrictions, etc., which are the preferred spaces for
urban art. The history of Lima is always linked to the coexistence of
Peimbert acknowledges the existence of what he calls inter- society and nature, since, in the sixteenth century, the people
stices, both in the periphery and in urban areas; he also admits of Lima used this environment and natural resource (the
the lack of theoretical or disciplinary lines on the subject of banks of the Rímac River) as a recreational area, spending an
interstices, which makes their treatment difficult (Aguila Flores, afternoon of entertainment among shrimp and turkey buz-
2014, p. 29).
zards, participating in popular religious ceremonies and
Likewise, the interstice for our case study is the Rímac thanksgiving to nature (Fig. 1).
River, a river that has always been in the territory and The bank of the Rímac River was the place of meeting
remained within the urban structure of the city of Lima due and social integration between the inhabitants of the side of
to the accelerated and informal growth of the city, turning its the city that carried out activities of celebration daily, espe-
banks year after year into urban remnants, due to the slopes cially in the afternoons, next to the inhabitants of the other
of construction deforestation, solid waste, and land traffic on side of the river (neighborhood of Indian shrimps of San
both sides of its banks. Pedro) that carried out domestic activities (for fishing, this
was a place with a strong traditional identity because it was
home to people who used to take shrimp from the river, and
The Rímac River – The Talking River its streets were named after the activity they carried out, such
as the shrimpers’ street; Fig. 2). The biodiversity of the flora
The noise produced by the great amount of stones that the that existed (among them the plant “pájaro bobo” and the
waters drag made the natives name it Rímac or Rimaq (elo- hummingbird representing the fauna that has had this flow)
quent, speaker, talkative), and with the passing of time, its generated a great impression to every visitor who came to the
settlers determined it as Rímac. city of Lima (Fig. 3), since this city was surrounded by a
Likewise, there are many versions in which they associ- natural green belt that later would be replaced by the con-
ated the name of the Capital Lima with the denomination of struction of a wall. The construction of the wall of 5 meters
the river. According to Garcilaso de la Vega, the term Lima is high, 34 bastions, and 10 entrance and exit doors began on
the alteration of the voice Rímac, which means the one that June 30, 1684, with viceroy Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull,
speaks in Spanish, referring to an oracle worshipped by the Duke of Palata, and finished in 1687 (Visit Lima, 2021).
Disruptive Biotope: The Interstitial Space between Nature and Urbanism 141
Fig. 1 Plan of the most illustrious city of the king’s court of the king- Congress, Washington. (“Rímac, Historia del Río Hablador”/Autoridad
dom of Peru, city of Lima. 1674, Technique Manuscript map, Nacional del Agua, Lima: ANA, 2016, Temporary Exhibition
69 × 80 cm, author Bernardo Clemente Príncipe, Provenance Library of (pp. 90–91))
The mere fact of crossing this great river was not an easy
task, so a bridge made of sticks was built, located in front of Study Cases Background
the Church of Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, over which
only one person could pass with a respective payment for the In order to support our study, we will describe some interna-
right to transit (toll). Later, during the government of the tional background information on the importance of the river
viceroy Marqués de Cañete, it was replaced by a bridge made for the city. This background information has been recovered
of stone and brick, solid and robust to resist the force of the by way of a synthesis of the master’s thesis carried out in
water flow due to the heavy rains in the highlands. 2015 by architect Luis Alejandro Forero Rodríguez
Likewise, there are also artistic expressions from the six- (pp. 33–36).
teenth and eighteenth centuries showing Lima sharing this
natural interstice space.
Fig. 2 View of the city of Lima from the vicinity of the bullring. 1791, (Book “Rímac, Historia del Río Hablador”/National Water Authority,
Technique Pen and ink drawing in sepia wash, 57 × 30 cm. Author Lima: ANA, 2016, Temporary Exhibition (pp. 102 and 103))
Fernando Brambila, Provenance Spanish Naval Museum – Madrid.
Aburrá-Medellín River, Antioquia, Colombia Integration” Project, aiming to recover 23 km of the river and
including it in the urban public space.
Dividing the city into western and eastern parts, the Medellín The park project is oriented towards the incorporation of the
River is 100 km long from its source at the San Miguel peak river in the solution of mobility problems through the construc-
at an altitude of 2700 m, being fed by the waters of 200 tribution of cycle paths and pedestrian corridors. In this way, the case
taries receiving contributions from 352 other streams. of the Medellín river provides some guidelines for understand-
ing the inclusion of urban rivers in city planning. Some guide-
The contamination of this important body of water for lines from Medellín can be taken for use in the case of Bogotá
Medellín has been a constant feature of the city’s urban and the Fucha River (Forero Rodriguez, 2015).
development project, as the discharge of sewage into the
river has become a mechanism for the expulsion of waste
produced by the city.
Aburrá river is a central component in the urban configu- he Bodies of Water, Valley of Mexico,
T
ration of Medellín, since the development of mobility Mexico
infrastructure such as motorways and the metro has taken
place around the river. The insertion of natural elements within cities has, in each
Last March, the administration of the Mayor of Medellín, particular case, a historical and social background that deter-
Aníbal Gaviria, in compliance with the Land Use Plan, pre- mines the formation of specific morphological elements. The
sented “Medellín River Park: Equity, Inclusion and case of Mexico City is presented as a specific study that
Fig. 3 New Paseo de la Alameda, city of Lima, 1843, Technique Oil on Lodres (1975). (Book “Rímac, Historia del Río Hablador”/National
canvas, 56.0 × 89.5 cm, author Juan Mauricio Rugendas, Provenance Water Authority, Lima: ANA, 2016, Temporary Exhibition (pp. 118 and
In: nineteenth century Romantic Peru. Baring Collection, Brother, 119))
shows the reasons why this city has also presented a special Currently, according to a Conagua Report on the
context that has led to a proposal for the La Piedad River. Hydrological System of the Valley of Mexico, “the formerly
In this regard, Fermín Valenzuela (2012) wrote about the La Piedad River contributes in the Deep Drainage System
transformation of spaces from the interventions to the bodies that excludes the water captured from the Valley of Mexico
of water in what is currently known as the Metropolitan Zone and dumps it in the El Salto River” (Forero Rodriguez,
of the Valley of Mexico (ZMVM) in which approximately 20 2015).
million inhabitants live.
In Mexico City, water bodies have also been inserted
through a process of growth, while in the decade of the thir- he Interstitial Space Before and During
T
ties in the twentieth century, after the Mexican Revolution, COVID-19
the beginning of a series of public works was marked by the
piping of the different rivers, since the growing urban Having in view the conditions before 2020, we can highlight
expansion toward the south of the city and the establishment the following aspects:
of industries to the north began to completely transform the
rivers into vertiginous centers of garbage. –– Eighty percent of the drinking water in Metropolitan
In the 1940s, the problem of flooding reappeared and a Lima and Callao comes from the Rímac River, while
second phase of river channelization took place. Thus, the La Lima is the second largest city in the world located in a
Piedad River was channeled between 1945 and 1960. Once desert, after Cairo. However, Cairo has the mighty Nile
these infrastructure works were completed, the first major River, which has an average flow of 2830 m3/s; in con-
avenues and highways were built to connect the city’s trast, the Rímac has an average flow of only 26.6 m3/s.
neighborhoods.
–– Lima’s water reserves of approximately 330 million m3 S/. 30 million more its operating costs to eliminate pollutants
constitute only 30% of the reserves of equivalent cities in from the water it captures from the Rímac River basin and
population, such as Bogotá. thus ensure the quality of the liquid element that reaches the
–– The current drinking water coverage in the city is 92%, homes of Lima and Callao” (La República, 2019).
that is, about 800,000 inhabitants do not have access to La Atarjea, the water purification container for the city of
drinking water. Lima, reaches more than 129 tons of solid waste per day due
–– The average consumption per person in Lima is high: 250 to the river floods and increases the turbidity of the water,
liters/day, due to inefficient usage practices and leaks in making the whole water purification process more expen-
the distribution system, due to old infrastructure in poor sive, eliminating particles that make it darker and less suit-
condition ((INEI, Sedapal, ANA, USAID). able for treatment and consumption.
According to the latest analyses for the period of 2019,
The Rímac river and its banks, as a natural interstitial the Rímac River presented a large number of deficiencies
space, are the most deteriorated basin in environmental that did not meet the Environmental Quality Standards, due
terms, having as impact scenarios the accumulation of to various metalloids, metals, and thermotolerant coliforms
domestic waste, sewage, urban waste, and environmental detected (ANA, 2020). This natural interstice has long been
liabilities (mining), a total of 27 mining operations being at the mercy of contamination by solid waste, domestic and
located in the Rímac basin, of which seven are still operating industrial wastewater, and environmental liabilities.
and the other 20 are closed or abandoned, the districts of As shown in Fig. 5, according to Francisco Dumler, chair-
Chicla, San Mateo, Matucana, Surco, Huanza, and man of the Board of Sedapal, this phenomenon was due to
Carampoma in Huarochirí having the highest concentration the reduction of solid waste from neighboring factories and
of operations (Alameda, 2013). citizens by approximately 90%. In other words, 1 TN of
The images show a large amount of waste; however, what debris and garbage was not reached, due to the inoperability
can be seen in the first figure is not the most worrying thing. of the industries dedicated to extracting material from the
What is really dangerous is the mining activity (illegal and quarries (Gestión Newspaper, 2020).
informal) at a distance of 160 km from the Rímac River,
which is extremely contaminating with hazardous waste that
threatens health (arsenic, cyanide, mercury etc.), as well as Conclusions
other worrying factors such as tailings seepage (Fig. 4).
Attempts by the government and the administration of the In view of the above, we believe it is appropriate to conclude
Rímac River (almost 50 years ago) have failed to recover the by way of an interpretative graph (Fig. 6), where we start
river and its banks in its environmental and urban- from a biocenosis that, as a whole represented by living
architectural conception. In addition, the high cost of purify- beings, interacted freely and safely in a natural interstitial
ing the contaminated water has to be pointed out, as in 2010, space. However, it’s presence was reduced, and in many
making potable water drinkable for the inhabitants of the cases, there is a disappearance of some living elements in a
capital demanded an investment of 12.7 million soles from biotope with vulnerable environmental conditions due to
Sedapal (La República, 2019), which later “has increased by environmental pollution and the development of uncon-
Fig. 4 The Rímac River alarmingly polluted, consequently, the water we drink in Lima. (http://www.aguapureza.pe/rio-rimac-agua-contaminada-
lima (Alameda, 2013))
Fig. 5 The Rímac River recovers after mandatory social isolation. Flocks of various species and more vegetation are sighted. (http://www.ana.gob.
pe/noticia/minagri-rio-rimac-se-recupera-tras-aislamiento-social-obligatorio. (Tuesday, 21 April 2020))
trolled and spontaneous urbanism that ended up relegating to

the background, using the natural interstice indiscriminately,
progressively turned into a complete garbage dump of the
city for more than 50 years, unfortunately leading to the dis-
appearance of a natural ecosystem, where once a symbiosis
nature/individual developed and marked a safe place.
References
Aguila Flores, J. L. (2014). Interstitial space, emergence and transfor
mation. Universidad Internacional de Andalucia.
Alameda, E. (2013, April 18). The alarmingly polluted Rimac River –
The water we drink in Lima. Retrieved from http://www.aguapureza.
pe/rio-rimac-agua-contaminada-lima/
ANA. (2020, April 21). Ministry of Agrarian Development and Irriga
tion. Retrieved from Minagri: Río Rímac recovers after mandatory
social isolation: http://www.ana.gob.pe/noticia/minagri-rio-rimac-
se-recupera-tras-aislamiento-social-obligatorio#:~:text=De%20
acuerdo%20a%20ultimas%20evaluaciones,y%20ciertos%20
metales%20y%20metaloides
Delgado Ruiz, M. (1999). El animal público: Hacia una Antropologia
Fig. 6 Diagram of the disruptive biotope – Rímac River. The disruptive de los espacios publicos [The public animal: Towards an anthropol
biotope will be in the memory of those who have lived and remembered ogy of public spaces]. Anagrama.
it before an environmental contamination and of those who can Gestión Newspaper. (2020, April 21). Rímac river presents crystal
now appreciate the potential of an urban image of Lima, making its clear waters after 90% reduction of garbage during quarantine.
pedestrianization along its banks safer and turning the Rímac River Forero Rodriguez, L. A. (2015). Urban environmental interstices, artic
into a majestic talking river consolidated in a city in constant ulating elements from the public space – Caso Rio Fucha Tramo
growth. (Author) Carrera 10 – Carrera 30. Master’s thesis on Urban and Regional
Planning, Bogotá, Colombia.
Iagua. (2014, April 11). The Rimac river basin: Looking to the future. Henry Daniel Lazarte Reátegui
Retrieved from https://www.iagua.es/noticias/peru/14/04/11/ Architect by Ricardo Palma
la-cuenca-del-rio-rimac-mirando-al-futuro-48235 University; Master in Digital Home,
Municipality of Lima. (2020). Municipality of Lima. Retrieved from Infrastructures and Services -
http://www.transparencia.munlima.gob.pe/component/k2/2-portal/ Universidad Europea de Madrid.
historia Develops Smart Buildings, Cities
The Republic. (2019, May 25). Society. Sedapal must spend S/. 30 mil and Territories projects coordinating
lion to purify contaminated water from the Rimac River. with regional and local governments
Visit Lima. (2021, September 18). Al Otro Lado Del Rio: Recuperando the management of Public Policies
La Ribera Del Rio Rímac. Retrieved from https://visitalima.pe/blog/ based on Industry 4.0 and Society
al-otro-lado-del-rio-recuperando-la-ribera-del-rio-rimac/ 5.0 for the benefit of the citizen.
Developed the first technology park
in Peru (bicentennial park) as a
Digital City Node in the district of
San Isidro - Lima - 2019. PhD in
Public Policy: National Security and Sustainable Development and is a
doctoral candidate in Complex Thinking by the Multiversidad Mundo
Real Edgar Morin. He collaborates in projects of Sustainable Cities of
the Regional Center of Competences in Education for Sustainable
Development RCE Lima-Callao, being promoted and certified by IAS/
UNU (Institute of Global Reflection and Organization of Graduate
Education by the United Nations University).
Life on Earth: Reflections in Times
of Crisis
Iván Curiel
Abstract (Watson & Crick, 1953). It began about 3.8 billion years ago
in the deep ocean, saturated with chimneys that expelled sul-
External agents and changing environmental constants phur and metals from the Earth’s crust. Combined with
have compromised the formation and development of life organic molecules from meteorites, this led to the emergence
on Earth over the centuries. These processes of change of the first microorganisms that were able to use sunlight,
have required long periods for the impact to become vis- carbon dioxide and water as a source of energy to produce
ible. However, since the Industrial Revolution, these alter- food through the process of photosynthesis. In return, they
ations have progressed much faster, threatening our living emitted oxygen as “waste” and filled the ocean with this ele-
planet, using natural resources in a predatory way, degrad- ment. From this point on, the organisms managed to evolve.
ing ecosystems, breaking nature’s circular economy and These unicellular forms were able to give rise to more com-
using it as a waste space. In search of a possible solution plex life forms. At this point, the evolutionary line of living
to all this, new forms in the field of design are studying things began, developing into a large family tree and forming
existing strategies in nature to apply them to the entire an immense variety of living things (Fig. 2).
development of the human species, always in harmony For millions of years, the development of species has
with the environment so as not to destroy life on Earth. been limited by natural phenomena that, at historic times,
almost completely wiped out life, due to the changing condi-
Keywords tions of the planet and even to extra planetary objects as evi-
Development · Environment · Circular economy · Linear denced by samples from the Chicxulub meteorite collected
economy · Climate change · Construction · Design by a group of scientists in the Yucatan Peninsula (DePalma
et al., 1994). During these periods of mass extinction, some
species managed to survive these abrupt variations and are
Formation of Life on Earth the ones that have evolved to the present day. However, how
have species managed to survive on a changing planet for so
The planet Earth is so far the only living habitat in the known long? The first answer was elaborated by Jean-Baptiste
universe. It was formed 4.47 billion years ago – according to Pierre Antoine de Monet, knight of Lamarck, biologist and
measurements by John Rudge, who used various radiometric naturalist considered the first evolutionist, and later by
dating techniques (Kaplan, 2017), with this date being the Charles Darwin, natural scientist, both reaching, at different
most accepted by the scientific community. The original historical moments, similar conclusions (De la Peña Seaman,
planet was nothing like what we know today as Earth. Once 2018).
the necessary conditions were in place, a small microscopic
world began to develop that would be the beginning of the
evolutionary history of life and living things on planet Earth. Theory of Evolution
Life as we know it has its basis in the existence of a mol-
ecule that stores information – the information necessary to Life has adopted multiple shapes and sizes throughout its
form a living thing – which we know as DNA (Fig. 1) evolutionary history. The species that live on our planet
today have not been the same since their origin, but have
developed in the course of biological evolution, depending
I. Curiel (*)
Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, SP, Spain on whether they were exposed to different climatic condi-
e-mail: [email protected] tions, natural phenomena or other circumstances. The evolu-
148 I. Curiel
longer necks were more able to catch food, so they were able
to produce offspring (Darwin & Wallace, 2006).
Both based their theory of evolution on the countless evi-
dences they collected. Today, the theory of evolution is still
valid, with the additions and clarifications that scientific
progress in various fields (genetics, biochemistry, geology,
ecology, etc.) has provided us with.
Ecological Closed-Loop System
When we talk about living organisms, we have to ask another

fundamental question: How have living things used the plan-
Fig. 1 Representation of a DNA molecule, Vikrazuul. The National
et’s resources to survive?
Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid. (Photo I. Curiel) In the natural environment, the residues or wastes of one
organism are raw materials for others, thus forming an eco-
system. There are thousands of ecosystems that span all
tionary process is one of slow change over long periods of scales, from the ocean or desert to small ecosystems in a
transformation of organism. Species that fail to adapt because decomposing creature. The difference between the two is the
they do not accumulate enough variation are the least likely number of variables. Large-scale ecosystems such as a
to survive and reproduce and therefore more likely to go marine ecosystem encompass many ecosystems, while a
extinct more easily. On the other hand, the species that suc- small decomposing insect may only encompass one or two
ceed in adapting through a minimal number of variations are ecosystems.
the ones that will have offspring and can survive. These vari- Seth Galewyrick explains how species interact within an
ations can vary greatly within the same species due to the ecosystem to use resources in a closed economic model
environment. This phenomenon was described in 1859 by (Fig. 5) (Galewyrick, 2018).
Charles Darwin in the theory of the evolution of species, also The tree grows, thanks to solar energy and the photosyn-
known as “natural selection” (Darwin & Wallace, 2006). thesis of its leaves. Glucose is synthesised, which is used by
Natural selection acts against living beings with unfa- the aphids to produce a kind of honey that serves as food for
vourable characteristics that cannot adapt to their the ants. In return, the ants protect themselves from
environment. The main driving force of the evolution of spe- predators.
cies is genetic mutations in DNA, which Darwin and The ants are the food for the woodpecker, and the wood-
Lamarck were unaware of and only discovered much later, pecker and the squirrel are the food for the fox. The wood-
thanks to the advances of modern science. Mutations are ran- pecker also uses the tree boot to dig its burrow and build a
dom errors that occur during DNA transcription. The vast shelter for its young. The excreta of these animals are used
majority of these mutations are caused by the characteristics by dung beetles, fungi and bacteria, which can obtain nutri-
of the environment, which influence the genetic content of ents and energy through fermentation reactions. This system
every living being. Some other mutations are not due to the is not isolated, but involves many more variables, but in this
environment but are random and may not be unfavourable. way demonstrates the circular and efficient use of natural
These mutations are inherited by the offspring and lead to the resources (Sommers, A., Learning form nature – circular
genetic differences between organisms (Echeverria, 1994). economies & biomimicry, 2020).
In his travels, Darwin observed patterns in the distribution
and characteristics of organisms. One of the most important
is his study of the “Fringilla coelebs” birds in the Galapagos I ndustrial Development and the Linear
Islands (Fig. 3). They were not identical on the different Economy
islands; they had different morphology, especially the beak,
which was due to the different types of food found on the The entire harmony of dynamic systems in vital equilibrium
islands. It was concluded that they had a common ancestor was disturbed with the development of industry around 1760.
but had evolved differently due to environmental The industrial revolution radically changed energy pro-
conditions. duction, forms of work organisation, systems, manufacturing
Lamarck explains the evolutionary process with another and techniques used. All this led to an enormous growth in
well-known example, that of the giraffes (Fig. 4). Those with the production of goods and thus to a new everyday life that
Life on Earth: Reflections in Times of Crisis 149
Fig. 2 Timeline of the development of life on planet Earth. (I. Curiel)

150 I. Curiel
Fig. 3 Differences in
morphology of the same
“Fringilla coelebs” species
on different islands. (Darwin
& Wallace)
Fig. 4 Differences in giraffe neck lengths. (Darwin & Wallace)
changed from a traditional, agricultural and artisanal society port. It was powered by the new, non-renewable energy
to an industrial and modern society. source coal.
Factories meant a radical change in the organisation of The advantages of the invention of the steam engine were
work. Large areas allowed the use of machines that displaced obvious: labour savings, product quality, production speed
manual labour, increased efficiency and shortened manufac- and production capacity. Thanks to large-scale production,
turing times (Chaves Palacios, 2004). Key to this develop- prices fell, cities multiplied and the population gained in
ment was the invention of the steam engine in 1769 by Watt, quality of life and life expectancy. The development of the
which was used in virtually all areas of production; it was the transport sector, the steamship in 1787 by Fitch and the rail-
basis for sustaining mining, industrial production and trans- way in 1825, used coal as a raw material for their operation.
Fig. 5 How the circular economy works. (I. Curiel)
The industrial revolution had a profound impact on the second half of the twentieth century has meant that the
consumption of energy and natural resources. Global effects of climate change, already seen in the past, are severe
CO2emissions increased exponentially, in dates ranging from and threatening to life on Earth. Climate change in facts:
the pre-industrial era to 1877 zero to 10 million tonnes of
carbon emitted. By 1947, emissions continued to rise, reach- –– Biodiversity loss due to habitat destruction has increased
ing almost 2 billion tonnes of carbon, and, thereafter, there globally to an average of 68% since 1970 (WWF, 2022).
was exorbitant exponential growth, exceeding 7 billion –– Rising temperatures are causing the melting of the poles,
tonnes of carbon in 2003 (Keay, 2007). other ice and snow around the globe and contributing to
the disruption of the Gulf Stream. In the last 23 years,
global ice loss has increased by 65%. Half of the loss is
Climate Change Due to Human Development due to continental ice melt, estimated at 6100 MT, 3800
MT in Greenland and 2500 MT in Antarctica (Rodriguez,
Research carried out by various expert groups shows that the 2021).
influence of humans on climate change is obvious. The –– The increase in fires is a consequence of the increase in
planet is constantly changing, following natural cycles that the average temperature on Earth and the concomitant
have changed since the development of industry. But recently, decrease in precipitation. It is estimated that about 55 mil-
the unstoppable emissions of greenhouse gases that have lion hectares burn each year (Castillo et al., 2003).
accumulated in the atmosphere since the industrial revolu- –– Rising sea levels, a consequence of continental melt, pose
tion are affecting the Earth’s natural balance in ways that a serious threat to coastal areas. Sea levels have risen
could become irreversible. The consequences could be dev- 20 cm since 1880 and are projected to rise another 30 cm
astating if we do not drastically reduce our dependence on to 100 cm by the end of the century (NASA/JPL-Caltech,
fossil fuels and cut emissions (Duarte, 2006). 2016).
The exponential consumption of natural resources simply –– Lack of rainfall and rising temperatures are leading to
for the greater comfort of the human population since the land surface desertification, degrading fertile soils and
152 I. Curiel
promoting loss of plant species and soil erosion. By 2025, A rethinking of work, production and human develop-
about 1.8 billion people are expected to face absolute ment is necessary; we must turn our gaze to nature, the
water scarcity. Degradation of arable land is increasing at means by which man can survive. Human needs nature for
30 times the historical rate (Flores, 2022). this survival. Nature has evolved life on earth for 3.8 billion
–– The average temperature increase of the Earth’s surface years and has already overcome many of the adversities that
over the last 150 years is 2 °C, according to the WWF we humans still face. Nature has many of the answers we
report. An accelerated increase has been observed in the have been looking for. Some schools of thought, design and
last 30 years (Giannakopoulos et al., 2009). development, such as bionics or biomimetics, involve a natu-
–– Material losses due to weather events are increasing. ralistic conscience to stop endangering life on the planet and
Material losses per year are estimated at €202 million try to reserve these harmful effects through energy-saving
(World Meteorological Organisation, 2021). strategies, optimisation of resources, increased efficiency
material conservation and so on.
The changes in environmental constants do not occur in For far greater optimisation and harmony with the envi-
isolation, but one triggers the other in an accelerated cycle ronment, new areas of design, biodesign, have been and are
that we are beginning to feel all over the planet. The being developed that incorporate living organisms at every
accelerated degradation of the environment, which is obvi- scale as a tool and main element of the projects. These new
ous, is triggered by human activities. forms of emerging design start from in-depth scientific
Humans extract matter from the environment and convert research applied to design areas, from small objects to cities.
energy to make products, process raw materials and consume The aim is to use ecological design as a tool. These new
the product. At the end of the product’s useful life, it is dis- forms of design therefore reflect a shift in societal priorities
carded so that it can no longer be used; it is thrown into the towards sustainable approaches to construction, as there is an
environment in the form of waste and determines a linear unprecedented urgency to change traditional methods and
economy (Fig. 6) with losses that run counter to natural pro- rethink goals to counter accelerating environmental degrada-
cesses. In clear contradiction, we attribute the word progress tion (Myers, 2018).
to a development process that endangers the life of the planet Therefore, there is an urgent need to optimise existing
and the people who live on it, which is paradoxical (Cervera resources and reduce the ecological footprint, starting with
Sardá, 2018). the reduction of high CO2emissions and the reduction of
energy consumption.
Since the first greener building approach, a global reduc-
I mpact of Construction on the Environment tion in the environmental footprint of these early projects has
and Development of New Lines in the Design been recorded from 2000 to 2016, saving 55.56 million kWh
Field of electricity and 40.92 million kWh of fossil fuels
(Macnaughton et al., 2018). The application of biodesign
Buildingis one of the most environmentally damaging human using digital techniques reveals possibilities for design with-
activities. The construction of building is a process that can out constraints in balance with nature, using organisms as
take years or even decades. In contrast, the lifespan of build- energy producers, collectors of harmful emissions, sources
ings is not particularly long. Buildings require energy, and of materials, digital storage systems, cleaning agents, etc.
much of that energy comes from fossil fuels. The materials The goal is a new multidisciplinary future of construction
used come from all over the world, which also entails energy, and design (Kırdök et al., 2019).
mining and production cost. In numbers, construction con- These new projects on the table aim to eliminate the use
tributes: One-third of CO2emissions come from the construc- of fossil fuels, such as the genetic project in Barcelona,
tion sector, which also consumes 40% of the world’s energy, A. Estevez. By introducing a luminescent protein into the
40% of the world’s resources and 25% of the world’s drink- genetic material of trees, it achieves total energy indepen-
ing water (Fig. 7) (Ritchie et al., 2020). dence, as the leaves of the trees manage to emit light, biolu-
Fig. 6 Linear economy.

(I. Curiel)
Fig. 7 Global emissions. (I. Curiel)
GaleWyrick, S. (2018). Biomimicry for sustainable innovation: The

minescent trees for public and even private lighting. Other answers are all around us. Design Management Review, 29(1),
future projects, such as the Sahara Forest developed by 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/drev.12106
M. Pawlyn, seek reforestation and repopulation, creating Giannakopoulos, C., Le Sager, P., Bindi, M., Moriondo, M.,
Kostopoulou, E., & Goodess, C. M. (2009). Climatic changes and
new water, food and vegetation in arid and resource-poor
associated impacts in the mediterranean resulting from a 2 °C global
areas and harnessing sun, wind and salt water to develop warming. Global and Planetary Change, 68(3), 209–224. https://
self-sustaining greenhouses capable of absorbing water from doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.06.001
the air, growing vegetation and thereby drawing moisture Kaplan, S. (2017, March 6). Dear science: How do we know how old
the earth is? Washington Post.Com.https://global.factiva.com/en/du/
into the environment and attracting life forms as a result.
article.asp?accessionno=WPCOM00020170306ed360040h
There are many working groups putting these new projects Keay, M. (2007). Energy: The long view (Publisher’s version). Oxford
on the table, from small objects to large infrastructures, to Institute for Energy Studies.
mitigate and reverse all the effects of climate change and Kırdök, O., Altun, T. D., Dokgöz, D., & Tokuç, A. (2019). Biodesign
as an innovative tool to decrease construction induced carbon emis-
reverse the way development takes place in step with nature.
sions in the environment. International Journal of Global Warming,
19(1–2), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGW.2019.101776
Macnaughton, P., Cao, X., Buonocore, J., & Laurent, J. G. (2018).
References Energy savings, emission reductions, and health co-benefits
of the green building movement. Journal of Exposure Science
& Environmental Epidemiology, 28(4), 307–318. https://doi.
Castillo, M., Pedernera, P., & Peña, E. (2003). Incendios forestales y
org/10.1038/s41370-017-0014-9
medio ambiente: Una síntesis global. Ambiente Y Desarrollo De
Myers, W. (2018). Biodesign nature science creativity. Thames &
CIPMA, XIX(3–4), 44–53.
Hudson.
Cervera Sardá, M. R. (2018). Espacio y tiempo en composición arqui-
NASA/JPL-Caltech. (2016). Aumento del nivel del mar. https://
tectónica. Munilla-Lería.
climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/274/aumento-d el-n ivel-
Chaves Palacios, J. (2004). Desarrollo tecnológico en la Primera
del-m ar/#:~:text=El%20cambio%20clim%C3%A1tico%20
Revolución Industrial. Norba. Revista de historia, 17, 93–109.
est%C3%A1%20provocando,ente%201%20y%204%20pies
http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/oaiart?codigo=1158936
Ritchie, H., Roser, M., & Rosado, P. (2020). CO2and greenhouse
Darwin, C., & Russel Wallace, A. (2006). La teoría de la evolución de
gas emissions. Our World in data. https://ourworldindata.org/
las especies. Crítica.
co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions.
De la Peña Seaman, C. (2018). La epigenética y la reivindicación
Rodriguez, H. (2021). La pérdida de hielo global alcanza un
de lamarck. https://www.cicy.mx/Documentos/CICY/Desde_
nuevo récord. https://www.nationalgeographic.com.es/ciencia/
Herbario/2018/2018-06-21-CdelaPena-la-epigenetica.pdf
perdida-hielo-global-alcanza-nuevo-record_16274
DePalma, R. A., Oleinik, A. A., Gurche, L. P., Burnham, D. A.,
Sommers, A. Learning from nature – circular economies & biomimicry.
Klingler, J. J., & Echeverria, A. B. (1994). Gene y mutación: una
(2020, April 14). [Video/DVD]. TED Conferences, LLC.
visión historica. LLULL (Madrid), 17(32), 5–24. Periodicals Index
Watson, J., & Crick, F. (1953). Molecular structure of nucleic acids:
Online Segments 1–50 database. https://search.proquest.com/
A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature, 171, 737–738.
docview/1306824705
https://doi.org/10.1038/171737a0
Duarte, C. M. (2006). Cambio global: impacto de la actividad humana
World Meteorological Organization. (2021, September 2). Weather-
sobre el sistema Tierra Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
related disasters increase over past 50 years, causing more damage
Científicas.
but fewer deaths. Targeted News Service/HT Media. https://public.
Echeverria, A. B. (1994). Gene y mutación: una visión historica.
wmo.int/en/media/press-release/weather-related-disasters-increase-
LLULL (Madrid), 17(32), 5–24. Periodicals Index Online Segments
over-past-50-years-causing-more-damage-fewer
1–50 database. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1306824705.
WWF. (2022). Informe Planeta Vivo 2022. Hacia una sociedad con la
Flores, J. (2022). La desertificación, uno de los grandes problemas
naturaleza en positivo. Ed. R. E. A.. Almond, M. Grooten, D. Juffe
ambientales de la actualidad. https://www.nationalgeographic.com.
Bignoli, T. Petersen. WWF.
es/naturaleza/desertificacion-uno-grandes-problemas-ambientales-
actualidad_14425
154 I. Curiel
Iván Curiel is an Architect and

Urban Planner from the School of
Architecture of the University of
Alcalá and graduated in the Master’s
degree in Architecture in 2022. He is
currently studying the Master in
BioDigital Architecture at the
International University of Catalonia,
Barcelona. Furthermore, he has par-
ticipated as support in a couple of
projects for the General Foundation
of the University of Alcalá de
Henares.
Evolutionary Biophilic Concerns
in the Landscape and the Relationship
with the Future Consciousness Society
Cerasella Crăciun
Abstract nificant contribution in supporting the life resources of

the future, and the nature-human/community relationship,
The work aims to make an approach of the history of evo- to become a real vector and germ of eco-sustainable
lutionary concerns related to the deep connection of development, including contribution of multidimensional
human and nature, before the appearance of the term bio- education, through knowledge/consciousness applied in
philia, with the aim of bringing to present elements/prin- urban design.
ciples/processes/ideas, which can be reinterpreted in the
contemporary processes of design, planning, and Keywords
architectural-landscape and urban-territorial develop- Urban organism · Archetypal garden · Knowledge
ment. From the idea of the tree/garden/landscape as a pri- society · Multidimensional education · Urban
mordial archetype, passing through the stage of metabolism
sacralization, to the profane interpretation, from the per-
sonalization of nature/life, to the appearance of the first
cities, the problem transposed into the human-landscape Introduction
relationship, the research focusing on a transdisciplinary
integrated research method and approach. Sensitive anal- The purpose and objectives of the research are to bring back
ysis of different forms of biophilic concerns that connect up-to-date elements, principles, processes, or ideas that can
the philosophical and educational ideas, with the develop- be reinterpreted in the contemporary processes of conscious
ment of new urban and architectural morpho-typologies, design on a place/landscape, through a process of design,
the evolutionary economic components, overlapped with planning architectural-landscape, and urban-territorial plan-
technological progress, but also subject to some local ning, which integrate biophilic attitudes, principles, or mul-
beliefs and cultures. These generate principles that con- tidimensional education elements. These are extracted from
cern nature/multi-scalar landscape in all its typologies the aspects of historical evolution relationship between
(natural, anthropic/built, urban/architectural, also cultural human and nature along the development and transformation
landscape). The city needs a sensitive analysis of the of human society, from the first communities, into the cur-
urban organism and urban planning focused on particular rent smart eco-sustainable and resilient urban development.
internal urban metabolism, a complex process and a Different incipient (pre)biophilic ideas appeared in the
model of conscious design of an integrated biophilic history of urban planning and the garden. The philosophy of
urban organism. Development of urban systems as bio- the dominant ideas, as well as the customs of the related
philic organisms involves complex integrated process principles through (re)interpretation and adaptation to the
necessary to introduce a new paradigm practice of con- present, could today (re)generate biophilic approach, think-
sciousness and (meta)ethics, under the conditions of the ing, and practice in urban-territorial and architectural-
current transition from the information society, through landscape or multidimensional education domains.
the knowledge society, to the future society of conscious- The city as an urban organism with a particular metabo-
ness. It is necessary to include biophilic aspects as a sig- lism needs to be analyzed and planned in a biophilic perspec-
tive, as a conscious design model of a complex process.
Without the introduction of related research methods of an
C. Crăciun (*)
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning, integrated transdisciplinary approach on biophilic bases,
Bucharest, RO, Romania knowledge still limited at present, new effective solutions for
156 C. Crăciun
the future of urban development, but also human, connected he Absolute Landscape and the Beginnings
T
with life/nature as vital resources, cannot be found, except of Biophilia in a Philosophical Approach
through a resilient form and in a truly eco-sustainable
connection. Ancient Greece biophilic concerns are related to integration
The paradigm of consciousness and (meta)ethics are into the macro-landscape and deep respect for the natural
research methods that must be integrated in educational spe- landscape. Being an insular people of navigators, the Greeks
cialized practice and in planning and designing the conscious invent the concept of absolute landscape, harmonious corre-
design, with preservation of the memory of place/genius loci lation with nature, which brought aspects of ecstasy to the
and local particularity. It’s necessary to include biophilic landscape and urban planning of the first democratic cities.
aspects as a significant contribution in supporting and sub- The Greeks always created a dialogue between nature and
stantiating greatest life resources of the future, and the architecture, because nature was considered beautiful and
nature-human/community. Relationship must not be limited sacred, a stage on which most of the mythical dramas took
by a unidirectional and global knowledge, if necessary to place, which consisted of a scenography on successive plans
involve ethics and consciousness in planning processes. The from macro- to mezzo-landscape.
act and attitude of planning and design on biophilic bases The beliefs of the ancient Greeks claimed that only near a
can and is necessary to become a mediating indicator tree and a spring human can communicate with the Divinity.
between development and technology, a true vector and evo- They developed the concept of open gardens for all citizens
lutionary germ of future development, including in other in the new idea of democracy, but also the unique concept of
related fields, as well as in multidimensional education. philosophical gardens, dedicated to wisdom, developing new
valuable, theories, and aesthetic directions of philosophy in
nature (Assunto, 1981).
aradise Garden Typology Design
P Aristophanes called the philosophical garden the Empire
as an Incipient Biophilic Process of the Trees (taken by symbolic interpretation as hypostyle
forest of pillars of Greek temples), where the disciples and
Since the earliest times of mankind, long before the appear- masters walked, talked, and exchanged ideas. This is a first
ance of the current terms biophilia or bionics, there is a deep biophilic multidimensional educational attempt to connect
connection between human and nature personified as divin- human and nature through thinking and philosophy, consid-
ity/big universe, later as Gaia Hypothesis (Lovelock, 2000) ering at that time that only nature can help the thought to be
and in contemporary understanding as bio-structure and fulfilled and the mind to bear new avant-garde ideas.
experimental bionics. When people lived in nomadic groups Epicurus’ garden was included in the same educational phil-
in natural landscapes, there was the idea of the garden as a osophical typology (Furley, 1996), and the Athena Academy
primordial sacred archetype that represented glorification of functioned in a public park (Wycherley, 1978) open to all
the divine nature in its sacred and profane meanings (Eliade, citizens, because only there new philosophical ideas could
1987). Initially, sacred education and knowledge began with circulate freely and democratically among people with dif-
the development of observations on nature and first biophilic ferent status.
relationship, incipient elements of conscious design, and Roman Empire come with a new vision, in order to show
intervention in nature at the time of the appearance of archaic their dominant and expanding imperial power in nature.
design processes. Biophilia was still present at the level of the special apprecia-
Paradise or Eden Garden (pairi-daeza in old Persian lan- tion of the sites, considered to have a great landscape value.
guage) can be considered the first historical-archaeological For example, the ancient poet Vergilius supports the aban-
and pre-urban landscape mention of an incipient biophilic donment of the Roman City and the return to the domain of
process, created by the Divinity, with and through nature. The the province, considered to be a domain of the joy and vir-
Babylon Semiramis suspended garden is a biophilic design tues of rural life, as well as the beauty of the cultivated plain
attitude applied in the first planted garden in history of archi- (Vergilius, 2011). The architectural and urban design was
tectural structure. This denotes an attitude of a green insert, in done by integrating into the natural context but transforming
contrast to the existing desert area in that territory being a lost the natural landscape. Imperial Park was considered in
memory of the divine garden. Ancient Egypt included plea- Ancient Rome a model of disciplining nature as a visualiza-
sure gardens, represented in the necropolises, royal funerary, tion of power of the empire.
and divine temple gardens, a biophilic sign that symbolically
expressed the domineering power and greatness.
Evolutionary Biophilic Concerns in the Landscape and the Relationship with the Future Consciousness Society 157
superorganism and proposals to using principles from nature

he Scenographic Relationship
T or elements of nature coherently integrated into urban pro-
of Architecture with the Human-Centered posals, architectural, and landscape (Lovelock, 2000).
Landscape Consciousness society is a desirable future ethical model
(Drăgănescu, 2000) determined by a philosophical vision of
The Dark Middle Ages brought a marked regression visible new paradigms related to education and research with refer-
including in the urban and architectural development and in ence to fundamental questions about existence and the rela-
the principles approached in relation to the landscape. Later, tionship between nature/man/technology and education/
the Renaissance ideals put human in the center as the mea- knowledge through consciousness/ethics.
sure of all things and rediscovers the ancient idea of the phi- Consciousness society will emphasize the structural-
losopher Protagoras. Compositionally and aesthetically, the phenomenological character of information that has become
principles of an incipient biophilia were used whereby pure consciousness and will have as functional vectors: grounded
but also modified or designed nature contributed to the and integrated knowledge of existence, management, econ-
whole, through symmetry, main and secondary axes focused omy, culture, multidimensional education, and all interacts
on the great landscape. It used the compartment into distinct directly and deeply with the development of future human
functional areas in new typologies of green spaces with bio- settlements.
philic contribution of closed/secret garden, all of which in
fact constitute the history of the architectural-urban evolu-
tion of landscape and gardens design (Prévôt, 2006). esults – The Planned City as a Complex
R
In the Baroque era, the interior-exterior spatial relation- Process and Conscious Biophilic Design
ship, between architectural construction, garden, and great Model
landscape is made through specific composition and the mit-
igation of the previous schematism and used multiplication The awareness of the Earth as a living organism has as its
principle of visual lines of force and the relationship with the starting point the ability of the planet to be self-supporting,
landscape in order to obtain scenographic effects of overall similar to the ability of biological organisms but, in contra-
unity and harmony in nature. The green decoration combined diction with the city urban system, except through urban
with water stage, as well as the processing of a major relief planning concerted and approach as a biophilic urban organ-
form in a biophilic spirit, is a symbolic role of the cosmic ism (Crăciun, 2008). This must be correlated with a specific
archetypal garden. and particular image of the city (Lynch, 1998) that must be
Triple revolution context (industrial, urban, democratic) of preserved with a development based on urban models with
seventeenth to eighteenth century came with a new biophilic its related regulations (Choay, 1997), which should also
and landscape architectural approach configuration of urban take into account the component of biophilic principles
public space, in relation to the public space and a new urban art development.
multidimensional education. Biophilia transformed the idea of The development of the nature-human relationship
archetype garden, which becomes the place where the Roman through architectural, urban, and landscape conscious design
provinces became the natural landscape, with history, reshape was achieved through evolution along cultural history
configuration, presence of the motif of the ruins/memories of (Rogers, 2001), in relation to the development of garden
the past, picturesque, wild but also melancholic. Thus, the design by tracing the development of gardens through his-
newly appeared freestyle promotes nature as a primordial bio- tory and across social, political, and philosophical boundar-
philic element in the creation of landscape scenographies, ies (Turner, 2005).
which induce emotions and build biophilic consciousness Urban diagnosis based on a multi-criterial transdisci-
through design, spaces that contain messages and symbols. plinary scientific analysis, including the processes and phe-
nomena at the urban level; components of the place memory;
local cultural landscape; economic, social, and political sys-
iophilia in a Complex Integrated
B tem; management strategies, and urban policies, thus trans-
and Conscious Urban Organism disciplinary approach (Nicolescu, 1999), became a tool for
integrated research of the natural, anthropic, and cultural
Democratic Haussmannian industrial city promotes the idea landscape of a living multi-scalar and complex organism.
of unprocessed nature as biophilic idyllic ruralism refuge, Landscape becomes connection link between humans, archi-
correlated with perceptions of the rural and cultural land- tectural object, development, and urban planning, including
scape and with new multidimensional education. In the the principles of urban ecology (Forman, 2016; Pickett &
twentieth century, many authors argue that the Earth is a Cadenasso, 2017).
158 C. Crăciun
Landscape as a fragile resource but also is an asset in ular valuable elements and the local specificity, in connec-
development, through the biophilic perspective, is a process tion with applied (meta)ethics, with an essential role in the
that ensures the continuity of the relationship between human multidimensional education from society of knowledge
and nature, through the design process, as conscious design (Crăciun, 2020). Only knowledge and consciousness applied
on a place/settlement who can eliminate vulnerabilities and in urban design become true vectors and germs of develop-
complex hazards. Likewise, other biophilic components can ment with significant input in supporting the greatest life
be seen within landscape strategies, related to the projects at resources of the future, a mediating indicator between devel-
the macro-landscape level on an extended territory of a opment and technology, including in other related fields, as
county or territory, or at the mezzo-landscape level, such as well as in multidimensional education.
general urban plans of the municipalities, such as the inte-
grated landscape studies.
References
Assunto, R. (1981). Filosofia del giardino e filosofia nel giardino. Saggi
onclusions – Biophilia as a Transdisciplinary
C di teoria e storia dell’estetica. Bulzoni.
Approach to Diagnosis, Planning Urban Choay, F. (1997). The rule and the model: On the theory of architecture
and urbanism. MIT Press.
Development, and Multidimensional Crăciun, C. (2008). The urban metabolism. Un unconventional
Education approach to urban organism (pp. 243, 244). “Ion Mincu” University
Publisher.
Biophilic contribution of the landscape planning is important Crăciun, C. (2009). Urban health and pathology. Romanian Academic
Forum Journal, 2(FAR XXI), 80.
not only for the achievement of a functional mix with eco- Crăciun, C. (2020). Manifesto for a paradigm shift in future conscious
sustainable and leisure contribution or for raising the quality transformational education. In Mentoring project – Life quality.
of life, but also for the support of human and urban health of technology in retrohumanism. The future with the power of com-
cities’ complex urban organisms, with minimization of the munities 5. (Vol I, pp. 285–286). Club Romania Publishing House.
Crăciun, C., & Acasandre, A. (2015). “Landscape right” and “right to
effects of diseases and urban pathology, with the eco- landscape”. Landscape as a tool of meta-ethic and multidimensional
sustainable biophilic incidence on life in general (Crăciun, education in the knowledge society. In New approaches in social
2009). The present/future resilient city needs to be sensi- and humanistic sciences – Multidimensional education and profes-
tively analyzed and planned as a complex process and con- sional development. Ethical values. Medimond Publishing.
Drăgănescu, M. (2000). Consciousness, frontier of science, frontier of
scious design model of an integrated biophilic urban humanity. Philosophy Magazine, XLVII(1–2), 15–20.
organism in a multiscale-level approach – territorial, admin- Drăgănescu, M. (2004). From the information society to the knowledge
istrative, urban, social, community, biological, cultural – society. Technical Publishing House.
while preserving the local morpho-typological specificity Eliade, M. (1987). The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion
(trans. W. R. Trask). Harper Torchbooks/Harcourt.
and memory of the place/genius loci. Forman, R. T. T. (2016). Urban ecology principles: Are urban ecology
Development of urban systems as biophilic organisms, and natural area ecology really different? Landscape Ecology, 31,
but also as urban and architecture educational systems, 1653–1662.
involves a sensitive, complex, and integrated process, a new Furley, D. J. (1996). Epicurus. In The Oxford classical dictionary (3rd
ed.). Oxford University Press.
paradigm of consciousness and (meta)ethics. These need to Lovelock, J. (2000). A new look at life on earth (p. 35). Devanata.
be adopted including the sense of a multi/trans-dimensional Lynch, K. (1998). L’image de la cite. Dunod.
education, absolutely decisive for the current evolution of Mărincuș, N., & Munteanu, F. (2009). Humanology. The organization
educational processes in the urban landscape and architec- of the leadership of mankind. Odeon Publishing House.
Nicolescu, B. (1999). Transdisciplinaritatea. Manifest (Transdis
tural field (Crăciun & Acasandre, 2015), according to the ciplinarity. Manifest.) (Contemporary ideas collection. “Plural”
principles the biophilic basis of life. In the conditions of the series). Polirom.
current transition from the information society, through the Pickett, S. T. A., & Cadenasso, M. L. (2017). How many principles of
knowledge society, to the consciousness society (Drăgănescu, urban ecology are there? Landscape Ecology, 32, 699–705.
Prévôt, P. (2006). Histoire des jardins. Editions Sud Ouest.
2004), only going through a humanological process Rogers, E. B. (2001). Landscape design: A cultural and architectural
(Mărincuș, Munteanu, 2009), we can overcome the contem- history. Harry N. Abrams.
porary discrepancies between development and technologi- Turner, T. (2005). Garden history, philosophy and design, 2000
cal future urban reality. BC–2000 AD. Spon Press.
Vergilius, P. M. (2011), Bucolica. The Bucolics of Virgil. With Engl.
Biophilic aspects are necessary and have a significant Notes [by H. Hayman]. Nabu Press.
contribution in the transformational education process, in Wycherley, R. E. (1978). The stones of Athens. Princeton University
preparation for global transition, only by keeping the partic- Press.
Evolutionary Biophilic Concerns in the Landscape and the Relationship with the Future Consciousness Society 159
Cerasella Crăciun is an Architect,

Urban and Landscape Design
Planner – member of the Order of
Architects from Romania, Register
of Urban Planners, and Union of
Romanian Architects. She is Full
Professor, Habilitated to Advise
Doctoral Research, “Landscape and
Territory” Master Director, Faculty
of Urban Planning, University of
Architecture and Urbanism “Ion
Mincu” Bucharest. She is titular of
the courses: “Landscape Design,”
“Protection and Restoration of the
Natural Heritage,” “Garden History,”
“Landscape Research, Scenography and Art,” “Eco-Development and
Landscape,” and “Creative and Transdisciplinary Heuristic Research
Methods.” She is author/co-author/coordinator of over 120 projects,
research, studies; published 9 books, 17 book chapters, over 80 articles,
130 conferences, and 80 exhibitions/contests/competitions. She
obtained over 25 awards/nominations/selections national/international
distinctions as author/co-author – National Architecture Biennale,
Urban Planners Romanian Union, European Union Prize for
Contemporary Architecture Mies van der Rohe Award, Green Building
Council award, etc. She completed research activity in the transdisci-
plinary fields of Architecture/Sacred – Spirituality/Cultural Landscape/
Tradition/Anthropology – Creativity/Transformational Education of
the Future, and Border Frontier/Holistic Sciences.
Nature – A Structural Component
for Future Human Settlements?
Biophilic City Approaches
Codruț Papina and Cerasella Crăciun
Abstract tecting habitats and encouraging healthy social life and

healthy and ecologic behaviour by applying biophilic
Cities have become more like simple inserts in the land- principles and processes.
scape, not fully conscious of the local context. Essential
resources of our daily lives – health, food, energy, protec- Keywords
tion/shelter (from hazards/unfortunate events) and well-
being – are in very high percentages dependent on the Biophilic cities · Nature and communities · Landscape
external value chains. Only part of our needs is sourced planning · Green infrastructure management
locally, making cities very un-resilient and fragile. How
can this be changed? In the current literature, the biophilic
city is presented as a new emerging concept that describes Introduction
an urban structure that includes nature in the spatial con-
figuration, and is oriented towards nature. Biophilic cities What is a biophilic city? In the current literature, the bio-
can be more than just “nature-inclusive” cities. Authors philic city is presented as a new integrated and emerging
consider that the potential of the biophilic cities concept concept that describes an anthropic architectural structure,
can be better exploited through integrated urban and ter- built ensemble or an urban structure that includes nature in
ritorial planning. A good understanding of the potential the spatial configuration, and is oriented towards nature. It
purposes/roles nature can play within urban structures protects the natural elements, being aware of the social and
will make cities more resilient, self-sufficient, healthy and health benefits it has, as well as the benefits on the environ-
sustainable through conscious eco-sustainable design and mental conditions.
urban planning. Cities have the possibility of creating a Achieving the requirements for a biophilic city will go a long
more harmonious relationship with natural elements, way in stimulating social resilience and the landscape, in the
through planning, design and adaptation of innovative face of climate change, natural disasters and economic uncer-
ecologic solutions. This chapter explores the relationship tainty, and other shocks that cities will face in the future. (Beatley
& Newman, 2013)
between people, as a community, and nature, in order to
understand what are the important drivers for construct- The term biophilia derives from biology, popularized by
ing or regenerating today’s cities. From ancient times, myrmecologist and sociobiologist Harvard E. O. Wilson.
where nature was depicted as sacred archetype, to modern Wilson argues that humans have co-evolved with nature and
times, where the first ideas of purposely planning devel- that we carry with us our ancient minds and our need to con-
opments to be in harmony with nature emerged, and to nect and affiliate with nature to be happy and healthy. In fact,
current times of technological and design innovation, this nature represented a primordial archetype to which humanity
chapter tries to extract and conclude the core values of related as the sacredness and memory of the place, a direct
biophilic nature versus dynamic cities. Nature-based connection with the planet and the universe. Thus, a defini-
solutions, green infrastructure management, ecological tion of biophilia is the innately emotional affiliation of
energy sourcing or food production solutions – all have to human beings to other living organisms. For Wilson, the con-
be part of an integrated territorial, urban and landscape cept is a set of rules of learnings developed over thousands of
planning and policy-making of how nature can help cities years of evolution and human-environment interaction (an
to thrive, reducing the impact on the environment, pro- aspect that is taken over by the emerging paradigm of bio-
philic city). The term biophilia was first used by Erich
C. Papina (*) · C. Crăciun
Fromm to describe the psychological orientation of an indi-
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning, vidual/existence to be attracted to everything that is alive and
Bucharest, RO, Romania vital. The concept was taken up by Wilson, using it in a
162 C. Papina and C. Crăciun
s imilar sense, saying that biophilia suggests “the connections the city’s diseases/existing conditions must be identified and
that people subconsciously seek with the rest of the living investigated, not only of the built frame itself but also of all
elements” (transposed into urban and spatial discourse, bio- the systems that coexist in an interdependent relationship
philia suggests the connections that cities/urban systems within the city. Thus, the city is seen as a living urban organ-
seek them intrinsically with nature). This chapter is part of ism in permanent metamorphosis and change, as well as of
ongoing research for understanding what makes a biophilic all the living systems involved in the urban metabolic pro-
city, what are core values it should embed and how we can cesses (Crăciun, 2008, p. 244), from the “green waves” exist-
achieve this in current times in order to ensure a sustainable ing in the city to the biological systems. Microorganisms,
environment. The main aim is to elaborate a set of require- birds and animals must go through a planning process to
ments for biophilic cities classification and a flexible and identify and investigate their dysfunctions/diseases/affec-
adaptable road map for making the typical (European) city tions at the level of biological pathology of life – human
more included biophilic approach towards nature, creating beings/inhabitants, fauna and vegetation, ecosystems, etc. –
communities that value, protect and sustainably use nature in but also of urban pathology of the urban, rur-urban or rural
their daily lives. For the current paper and research, the settlement.
objective is to delineate the first set of core values that nature The urbanists we need must imagine urban forms that can satisfy
can bring to cities. As a result, this chapter explores the rela- the sensibility of the urban world in which the sphere and the
tionship between communities throughout recent strategies curve have a place. They must find a geometry more complex
or projects and nature, on the idea that biophilic cities are not and truer than that of the nest and the straight, a geometry of life,
of flower opening and plant growth, of elementary vital struc-
a new phenomenon or process but only a term resulting from tures: the egg and the cell. (Ledrut, 1977)
the conscious and intended vision of returning back to nature,
in a way that does not diminish the convenience and quality Ledrut, through his comment, refers to the way/methods/
of life of contemporary and future cities. form of development of cities, which is in antithesis to
nature, the forms and structure of natural elements. He sup-
ports a rethinking of urban morphology, the creation of a
ontemporary Evolutive Strong Models
C more organic, more natural environment, in the sense of
and Approaches of the Interconnections: being familiar with the living world. This principle, of the
Between Communities and Nature functional imitation of the living world, in a utopian sce-
nario, can also be translated to the functioning of urban sys-
Contemporary Evolutive Models tem, creating new types of developments, more biophilic.
Since the 1970s, the Gaia Theory (Lovelock, 1991) has been
outlined whereby the Earth behaves as a superorganism, xamples of Biophilic City Approaches
E
made up of all living organisms and the surrounding environ- in Recent History and Today
ment (natural or built – human settlements), giving rise even
to new pluri-disciplines of scientific research. The theory is Portland (United States): Recognized as one of the greenest
currently being explored that the living matter on Earth – the cities in the world for innovative green initiatives: Portland
air, the ocean and the soil – forms a complex integrated and showcases advanced storm water management practices by
conscious system that has the ability to maintain the Earth as implementing the Green Street Project, reducing the percent-
a place conducive to life. Gaia is defined as “a complex entity age of impervious surfaces and increasing the percentage of
that includes the Earth’s biosphere, atmosphere, oceans and green spaces, to allow water to infiltrate into the soil. It was
soil; the whole constituting a feedback or a cybernetic sys- also one of the first cities to implement an urban growth
tem that seeks to create an optimal physical and chemical boundary, requiring increased density and compact develop-
environment for life on this planet. The maintenance of rela- ment within the city while protecting farmland and natural
tively constant conditions through active control can be con- areas outside the boundary. Portland has one of the highest
veniently described by the term homeostasis” (Lovelock, percentages of green space per capita in the country, includ-
2000, p. 35). ing large natural areas such as Forest Park and Oaks Bottom
Wildlife Refuge. Portland’s proximity to nature in and out of
the city makes it moving towards becoming a biophilic city.
pproaches of the Interconnections Between
A Singapore: Have built on the motto “Singapore – City in
Communities and Nature the Garden”. The city features a developed network of trails
and green corridors that connect to parks and natural areas.
For a complete urban diagnostic process to assess biophilic Thus, the city opens up to nature, and the inhabitants find it
city potential of the urban-territorial development today, all easy to spend time in open, natural spaces. The city has a
Nature – A Structural Component for Future Human Settlements? Biophilic City Approaches 163
developed green infrastructure, with a strong local policy for to ensure optimal production of resources for the next year
the promotion/adoption of green terraces and facades being and so forth. We can say that rural communities organically
implemented – something that contributes to the reduction of followed the principles of sustainable development and cir-
urban greenhouse effects (Singapore’s urban area has even cular economy, characterized by “closer interaction between
lower temperatures than the metropolitan average). actors, by optimising the use of resources, and between pro-
European “Garden Cities” are unique variations of the duction processes and social and cultural matrices”
Ebenezer Howard model presented in his work “The Garden (McDonald & Brown, 1984). This “love for nature” has been
City”, elaborating a new (utopian) model of development, passed down from generation to generation, creating an
which represented an innovation for certain urban develop- evolving heritage of knowledge, meaning, identity and a sus-
ments in the world. The author proposed the outline of a new tainable way of thinking.
ideal society, formulating a possible solution to the “land
problem” (more precisely the problem of sustainable devel-
opment), which at the time consisted of (1) urban congestion ural Communities as Inspiration for Urban
R
and (2) rural exodus (Howard, 1902). In his vision, the cen- Management and Policies
tral city is surrounded by rural satellites, in a strong
collaborative relationship. His vision triggered a specific Several characteristics of the archetypal rural settlement
urbanization movement in Europe (especially England and have to be taken as important inspirations for the way we
Poland), being developed communities in nature – cities with manage cities and urban infrastructures, and also for the way
a very high degree of planted spaces, even forests (Fig. 1). we can promote and support social cohesion and the creation
of sustainable communities. For example, rural communities
hold important knowledge on how to increase crop produc-
Different Source of Inspiration? Rural
A tion sustainability, applying for centuries solutions or strate-
Areas as Biophilic Settlements gies that they are now reconsidered or (re)-innovated as
nature-based solutions. The way agriculture is performed in
he Archetypical Rural Settlements –
T these types of landscapes (considered subsistence agricul-
In Harmony with Nature? ture, not to be confused with the idea of living on the verge
of poverty) is very ecologically conscious. Crops have a high
Throughout history, one type of development considered by degree of biodiversity, purposely supported by rural commu-
the authors to be one of the few anthropic systems/human nities, through the cultivation and propagation of pollinator
settlements that developed a very unique relationship with plants, attracting insect predators to avoid diseases and pests.
nature is the rural settlements. The rotation of cultures is carefully chosen in order to ensure
For centuries, the archetypical rural village represented the regeneration of land and preserve/maintain optimal
places where people constructed communities that have a conditions.
very deep and profound connection with the nature and land- If we were to characterize rural settlements, using the lens
scape. Due to the way the rural communities (organically) of current policy objectives and agendas for cities and regions
“plan” the way they produce food, and energy, recycle waste, at the European level or worldwide, we can extract valuable
protect the environment and are aware of a wide variety of knowledge: (i) high-level of understanding of resource circu-
environmental and ecological knowledge, they can be con- larity; (ii) very little waste; (iii) the value and impact of pre-
sidered biophilic communities. These settlements generated serving/supporting biodiversity; (iv) use of ecologic materials
unique and organic inserts in the landscape in direct coordi- for buildings; (v) use of locally sourced materials that create
nation with environmental conditions and the location of a unique and context-driven cultural landscape, in harmony
resources (Fig. 2). In these situations, the “love for nature” is with the natural landscape in which the settlement has
manifested through high synchronisation between people (as evolved in; (vi) strong community spirit; and (vii) day-to-day
a community) and natural cycles, with all the resources that contact with nature. These values present in the archetypical
they bring. These communities’ existence and well-being village are at risk of being lost or forgotten. Living in an age
were/are heavily dependent on crop production and all the of technology, speed, globalization and variable economy,
benefits that the specific landscape can produce. Classic rural rural villages have population shrinking, severe population
settlements managed to reach a relatively optimal level of ageing or the present rapid urbanization processes, “trans-
self-sustenance, due to a long process of trial and error over forming landscapes formed by the rural lifestyles into urban-
generations. The “common sense” of rural life was not to like ones” (Antrop, 2000). Translating this way of life to the
disturb too much the natural way of things, understand how scale and complexity of a typical city is not considered
Fig. 1 Podkowa Lesna Garden City, Poland. In the 1920s, a unique and political life since the beginning of its existence (https://podkow-
housing estate was created here in the natural, forested surroundings, alesna.pl/). (Photo: https://earth.google.com)
which has attracted many well-known figures from cultural, scientific
feasible, but nevertheless, important “lessons” can be Europe’s population (ESPON, 2020). This phenomenon of
extracted. For example, practices such as community gar- shrinking put to risk relevant assets of the cultural landscape
dens in cities, under the umbrella of nature-based solutions, that holds not only a unique and, in many cases, a more sus-
have become in the last years very successful interventions tainable way of life but also a huge potential to create new
that promote production of food locally, social interaction more biophilic territories, by connecting the rural settle-
and environmental protection (Fig. 3). In many cases, com- ments with the urban centres, ensuring that the specific value
munity gardens were included in strategies/projects of the of the rural village persists. For this to be possible, it is
city, thus triggering a regeneration of neighbourhoods. important to “diversify the local economy and to creatively
mobilise endogenous resources, increase resilience and
adaptive capacity by selectively downsizing infrastructures
Territorial Approach for Biophilic Cities? and rightsizing the local economy” (ESPON, 2020). Hence,
the policies at regional level are important to strengthen the
By 2050, the total Europe’s population in urban regions will role of rural settlements in an integrated territorial approach.
increase by 24.1 million, and the rural population to fall by Planning local-level value chains between rural components
7.9 million. Currently, rural region represents 28% of and urban ones at functional urban area level can reduce the
Fig. 2 Rural landscape in Eftimie Murgu village, Banat region, was inhabited by indigenous communities since 4000 years ago.
Romania. The village is known for its famous watermills, which are (Photo: Authors)
hundreds of years old. Archaeological discoveries attest that this village
Fig. 3 Community gardens in Sesvete, Zagreb, located in a post-industrial neighbourhood. Community gardens became part of the local identity,
as the neighbourhood slowly started to shift from industrial activities. (Photo: Authors)
Fig. 4 Approach with biophilic components in studies and real proj- Bucharest”, Fundamental Study in the Project: “Integrated Urban
ects. Urban Planning Strategies: “Public Space, Quality of Urban Life Development Strategy of the Bucharest City and Its Support and
and the Landscape as a Fragile Resource. Mezzo-Landscape and the Influence Territory (BUCHAREST STRATEGIC CONCEPT 2035”/
Natural, Anthropogenic and Cultural Landscape in the City of CSB 2035, IMUAU-CCPEC, 2012)
impact on the environment, improve resilience of the local Territory of Support and Influence – CSB 2035 – Strategic
economy and empower rural communities to continue their Concept of Bucharest 2035” (Crăciun, 2012-1). It proposes a
way of life, adapted to modern times. Several relevant chal- biophilic perspective regarding the rehabilitation policy and
lenges emerge: (i) how to ensure that the activities performed the establishment of intervention strategies regarding the
in the rural areas (either production, agro-tourism, natural aesthetic-functional valorisation of an urban public space, as
resources exploitation) remain eco-friendly/sustainable and well as the landscape, which becomes an asset, a welcome
follow/respect the co-created knowledge of generations and privilege, to consider as a criterion priority in development
(ii) how to ensure a territorial coherence and interconnectiv- and planning, the landscape potential of the territory
ity of rural areas with urban centres. The answer is heavily addressed (Fig. 4). In this approach is important also “the
dependent on the local settings. We consider that creation of need for protection, conservation, renaturation, redevelop-
biophilic cities have to take into consideration relevant ment and management (...), in the context of a current urban
knowledge of how to interact, use and synchronise with competition, considered to be a cardinal element for eco-
nature, and also to create a coherent territorial development nomic aspects” (Crăciun, 2012, p. 5).
in order to make more resilient territories and nature ori-
ented. Emerging policies on ecologic development, cultural
heritage, territorial mobility and ecosystemic services have Urban Approaches Project
to be integrated and carefully monitored. Nature have to be
seen as the driving factor and the main guiding system to The integrated landscape study, “Buzău Green Municipality”,
which other human-made infrastructures and communities has as its main objective the elaboration of an integrated
have to respond to and align with. landscape study based on biophilic principles, which pro-
poses the enlargement of green spaces, for the improvement
of the quality of life, the elimination of pollution and the
xamples from Current Practices (Authors’
E support of an eco-sustainable environment, more clean and
Work) resilient to face current climate pressures. Also, the study
made proposals related to the development of new functions,
Contemporary Territorial Strategies activities and leisure/leisure facilities needed by residents,
Approaches visitors and tourists, by proposing a biophilic green strategy
to guide the urban development of the city and the pre
The applied research “Public Space, Quality of Urban Life paration of the process of investments for its future
and the Landscape as a Fragile Resource” is a study that development.
develops biophilic ideas related to the mezzo-landscape The complex work established the intervention priorities,
approach and the Natural, Anthropogenic and Cultural addressing the following sections/issues: (a) the natural and
Landscape in the city of Bucharest, within the “Integrated quasi−/semi-natural framework characteristic of the area;
Urban Development Strategy of the City of Bucharest and Its (b) establishing the functions compatible with the status of
Fig. 5 Approach with biophilic components in studies and real projects. Urban Planning Documentation: Integrated Landscape Fundamental
Study: “Buzău Green City”, in the project: “Integral General Urban Plan of the Municipality of Buzau”, (IMUAU-CCPEC, 2021)
the area and their balanced distribution in relation to the research), leisure and promenade, sport-leisure and tour-
determining/dominant function; (c) environmental problems ism; (5) the major green-yellow-blue belt, the area with the
resulting from the analyses regarding the ratio of natural role of protection and permeable relationship with the
framework/constructed framework; (d) heritage values that macro-landscape at the level of the administrative and
require protection; (e) natural and anthropogenic risk ele- county territory; (6) the middle inner green belt, by con-
ments, the area’s relations with neighbourhood ecosystems; verting some non-functional industrial spaces into areas of
(f) general aspects regarding the implications of neglecting landscaped park with integrated activities (sport-leisure,
an urban function with an essential effect on the health of the exhibition-cultural, research, technology and IT, etc.) and
population; (g) the quality of the existing green spaces, the redevelopment of existing functional industrial areas,
including the typologies, as well as their relationship in the with a percentage of space green of min 30%; and (7) estab-
territory; (h) the effects induced by the urban planning func- lishing the system of existing and proposed green spaces
tions in the vicinity and proposals to improve the observed for development, to support the ecological effect of the
situation; (i) proposals for solutions that integrate all types of green network of biophilic development.
natural, anthropic and cultural landscape in extra-urban and
intra-urban areas, necessary for the future City General
Urban Plan. I ncremental Steps for Biophilic Cities
The Strategic Scheme for the Development of the Innovation (Research Projects and Urban
Landscape and the System of Green Spaces proposes the Experiments)
adoption of the landscape and the green system, seen not as
a barrier to urban development but as a biophilic promoter Important steps in the journey of urban management and sus-
and model of an intervention strategy and of a unique institu- tainable development are being made by research and
tional form of management. innovation-actions projects. From current practice and proj-
This approach can contribute not only to increasing the ects, we can give two good examples of how nature can help
quality of life and the physical, mental, emotional and psy- urban regeneration processes: (1) proGIreg project (Productive
chological health of the population and communities in Green Infrastructure Regeneration, funded under H2020 pro-
general but also as a “vector” of development in the terri- gramme) deployed applied research project with eight nature-
tory, of the urban economy (tourism, agriculture, forestry, based solutions: landfills conversions, soil remediation,
eco-technologies, etc.) and includes several major biophilic community urban farms and gardens, urban aquaponics sys-
strategic elements (see Fig. 5, third scheme): (1) the devel- tems, green walls and roofs, accessible green corridors, pol-
opment of representative structuring green axes; (2) the linator biodiversity. In order to prove sustainability and
establishment of major green-blue axes (in areas related to impact, these solutions are experimented with four front run-
water), as a direction of interest and the permeable limit of ner cities: Dortmund, Zagreb, Turin, Ningbo. Other four cit-
relation with the local mezzo-landscape, inside the city; (3) ies – follower – build regeneration strategies of (post-industrial)
the creation of secondary longitudinal green axes, green neighbourhood in co-creation approach, aiming to bring posi-
pockets and landscaped areas that connect the city’s neigh- tive economic, environmental and social impact on the local
bourhood; (4) magnetic biophilic poles/nuclei of focus, communities. Impact of the research project on wider level is
attraction and development of different types: productive that it capacitates and empowers the involved cities to elabo-
(urban agriculture, permaculture, seeds and horticultural rated policies and strategies differently, including nature in
different infrastructures and urban systems. (2) UIA SPIRE Conclusions

Baia Mare (Smart Post-industrial Regenerative Ecosystems,
funded by Urban Innovative Actions Programme) experi- Creating cities in harmony with nature, which are more sus-
ments with remediation of heavy-metal polluted land, with tainable, is not an effort of innovation but an effort of inte-
the use of nature, through a process called phytoremediation. grating existing (and past) knowledge and design according
The innovative aspect of the project is that phytoremediation to the local landscape conditions and level within it.
plantations represent the trigger to new local productive value Anthropic urban and architectural landscape planning
chains, biomass resulted from plantations being used for based on biophilic principles is an important integrated pro-
clean energy. At the same the time, within the new local value cess, which is the basis of strategic decisions with a resilient
chains, the community represents the main component, being contribution and which can prevent development based on
involved in environment-oriented activities and reclaiming principles that contradict human nature.
the polluted land. Regeneration is considered on long term, Policy instruments are considered optimal approaches for
through creating a new identity of the Baia Mare city, with triggering long-term impact, but for that, there has to be con-
communities oriented towards nature and care for the envi- crete proof of the benefits the nature brings.
ronment. Instead of mining and metallurgic work, the city In this sense, an approach in integrated inter-, multi- and
remediates the historic pollution and creates affordable and trans-disciplinary teams of research, conservation, design
clean energy sources. and urban planning specialists is necessary, for an efficient
approach to the city and the landscape.
Incremental advancements are realized through applied
Results research, and strategic and planning documents. As much as
the political and administrative component represents the
Biophilic urbanism is the practice of management, design turning factor of urban and regional development, also the
and planning that makes it possible to create a city that is active and vocal involvement of experts in multi- and inter-
oriented towards nature. From the perspective of the current disciplinary environment is needed to steer development
chapter, there are two important aspects of biophilic urban- directions and promote coherent and sustainable ways of
ism: (1) To create the context/settings for communities- development.
nature interactions, through urban and architectural design, The biophilic perspective is a truly eco-sustainable
and also through territorial planning. People being in contact approach and a preoccupation since ancient times of man-
with nature provides wide variety of health and psychologic kind, regarding the relationship between man and nature.
benefits, together with the ecosystem services that nature This represents, at the same time, a chance for the future to
brings into urban environments. (2) To promote nature- capitalize on principles that are centred on life and living, in
oriented urban management, planning and integrated policy- cities and territories that can get closer to the inhabitants and
making for sustainable development. If present in urban the community, at the expense of an anthropic, technological
environment, nature does not have to be a “static” compo- society that brings problems of urban and human pathology,
nent of the local (eco)system. It is important to assess how alienation and disease.
nature can be taken as a resource than can produce, regulate, The city is a gigantic processor not only of the anthropic,
catalyse certain processes or mitigate, resolve or ameliorate built, technical, mobility and infrastructure components, of
different types of challenges that cities are facing. An inte- capital and power, but also processors of people’s lives,
grated approach is needed, besides technological and engi- binder of communities, ecosystems, ecotone and general life.
neering innovations. Going back to rural settlements, in
order to be efficient and sustainable, technologies can play a
part but is more important to have an integrated approach.
References
Ecological technical solutions, biophilic architecture and
other such solutions currently have a very advanced techno- Antrop, M. (2000). Changing patterns in the urbanized countryside of
logical readiness level. The current paper notes the lack of Western Europe. Landscape Ecology, 15, 257–270.
urban management and planning practices that address these Beatley, T., & Newman, P. (2013). Biophilic cities are sustainable, resil-
design techniques in an integrated way. Natural systems, or ient cities. Sustainability, 5(8), 3328–3345.
Crăciun, C. (2008). The urban metabolism. Un unconventional
in short nature (including green infrastructure, nature-based approach to urban organism. “Ion Mincu” University Publisher.
solutions, natural areas, natural phenomena, biodiversity, Crăciun, C. (2012). Research study: Public space, quality of urban
etc.) must be seen both as a valuable resource, able to gener- life and the landscape as a Fragile resource. Mezzo-landscape and
ate other resources, to catalyse certain processes and address the natural, anthropogenic and cultural landscape in the City of
Bucharest in the project: “Integrated Urban Development Strategy
a wide range of urban issues: productivity (energy, food), of the City of Bucharest and its Support and Influence Territory –
local environment and microclimate, urban resilience. CSB 2035 – BUCHAREST STRATEGIC CONCEPT 2035”, p. 5.
Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London: Swan project proGIreg (Productive Green Infrastructure for Post-Industrial
Sonnenschein & Co. Regeneration) and project leader of JPI Positive Energy Districts Call
Ledrut, R. (1977). L’espace en question ou le nouveau monde urbain. project KINETIC (Knowledge Integration for Neighbourhoods in
Editions Anthropos. Energy Transition led by Inclusive Communities).
Lovelock, J. (1991). Gaia. The practical science of planetary medicine.
Gaia Books. Cerasella Crăciun is an Architect,
Lovelock, J. (2000). A new look at life on earth. Devanata. Urban and Landscape Design
McDonald, G. T., & Brown, A. L. (1984). The land suitability approach Planner – member of the Order of
to strategic land-use planning in urban fringe areas. Landscape Architects from Romania, Register
Planning, 11(2), 125–150. of Urban Planners, and Union of
Policy brief: Shrinking rural regions in Europe | espon. Available at: Romanian Architects. She is Full
https://www.espon.eu/rural-shrinking (Accessed: 31 May 2023). Professor, Habilitated to Advise
Doctoral Research, “Landscape and
Territory” Master Director, Faculty
Codruț Papina (Ph.D. candidate) is of Urban Planning, University of
an Urban and Landscape Planner and Architecture and Urbanism “Ion
Designer, doctoral student, project Mincu” Bucharest. She is titular of
manager of applied research projects, the courses: “Landscape Design,”
holding a degree in Landscape “Protection and Restoration of the Natural Heritage,” “Garden History,”
Design and Planning with a master’s “Landscape Research, Scenography and Art,” “Eco-Development and
degree in Urban Management for Landscape,” and “Creative and Transdisciplinary Heuristic Research
Competitive Cities. Methods.” She is author/co-author/coordinator of over 120 projects,
His doctoral studies at IMUAU research, studies; published 9 books, 17 book chapters, over 80 articles,
Bucharest focus on the development 130 conferences, and 80 exhibitions/contests/competitions. She
of urban peripheries, biophilic cities obtained over 25 awards/nominations/selections national/international
and sustainable approaches to how distinctions as author/co-author – National Architecture Biennale,
cities can grow and transform. He has Urban Planners Romanian Union, European Union Prize for
valuable experience in co-creation Contemporary Architecture Mies van der Rohe Award, Green Building
processes for strategic planning, urban design and urban regeneration. Council award, etc. She completed research activity in the transdisci-
In the last years, he was involved in various urban planning projects, plinary fields of Architecture/Sacred – Spirituality/Cultural Landscape/
sustainable development strategies and various consultancy or strategic Tradition/Anthropology – Creativity/Transformational Education of
documents, along participation and winning in urban and landscape the Future, and Border Frontier/Holistic Sciences.
design competitions. Currently he is project manager of H2020
Bionic Criteria for Sustainable Labelling
of Buildings
Ana Mohonea
Abstract Introduction
This chapter proposes a strategy for sustainable labelling Bionic architecture builds smart and sustainable, using
of buildings, on the basis of bionic principles resulting resources responsibly. At the same time, durable develop-
from the interconnection between bionics and the criteria ment has the same purpose and, in most cases, uses bionic
for labelling sustainable buildings. It presents bionic prin- principles. The challenge of the study was analyzing if the
ciples that are based on principles of life and labelling principles of bionics are also present in durable development
criteria through BREEAM and LEED systems. An explor- and to find out if through correlation with the criteria of dura-
atory analysis is performed and two methods of correla- ble labelling they can become bionic criteria for architectural
tion analysis are proposed: at level of terms and at level of sustainability.
relations between bionic principles and labelling criteria Environmental changes nowadays have serious conse-
listed. quences that affect mankind. At architectural level, solutions
Bionic architecture represents building smart and sus- are sought to promote sustainability. Based on this search,
tainable, using resources responsibly. Following exten- there are two approaches. The first approach is one of dura-
sive research, I concluded that bionics, through its ble development, based on nature. It means to analyze the
principles, can promote sustainability in construction. labelling criteria of buildings in order to prove their sustain-
Also, sustainable developments have the same purpose ability and how green they are. The second approach is found
and, in most cases, use bionic principles. The challenge of in bionics, which uses a technique principle rooted from
the conducted study was to examine whether bionic prin- nature that guides life. Both approaches have the same pur-
ciples are found in sustainable development and if, by pose, that of finding the necessary elements for sustainable
correlating with sustainable development in architecture, architecture to answer actual consequences that happen to
sustainable labelling criteria based on bionics can be the natural environment.
achieved. This analysis proposes to show the similarities and differ-
It is noted that this study is a proposal for comple- ences between bionic principles (which have been taken,
tion and improvement of the existing labelling systems. analyzed, and synthesized from life principles) and sustain-
ability criteria (the criteria have been taken and analyzed
from the labelling criteria of green buildings) and what ele-
ments can be found from one’s category into the other’s, but
also what relations can be made between them.
Keywords One aspect of novelty of the article refers to finding ways
Architecture · Buildings · BREEAM · LEED · Bionic to measure the integration in nature of a building. The archi-
principles · Renewable criteria · Sustainable labelling · tect strives to integrate architecture in tandem with nature
Innovation in architectural certification and approaches this by demonstrating a correlation of bionic
principles with criteria for sustainable labelling.
The methodology was focused on defining principles of
bionic architecture. This was achieved by using analogy and
A. Mohonea (*)
systematization of the concepts contained in the principles of
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urban Planning,
Bucharest, RO, Romania life and principles of bionics. The correlation method was
e-mail: [email protected] based on the comparison of bionic principles and criteria for
172 A. Mohonea
labelling sustainable systems in order to achieve bionic crite- LEED is the most popular evaluation system at global
ria of sustainability, thus making a correlation analysis at the level for building’s sustainability. LEED aims to promote
level of terms and relations. design and construction that increases profit and reduces the
For this study, the chosen labelling criteria is Method for negative effects of buildings on the environment, improving
Assessing the Impact of Buildings on the Environment the health and comfort of occupants. LEED applies an envi-
(BREEAM) in Europe and Leadership in Energy and ronmentally friendly method even in terms of managing their
Environmental Design (LEED) in the USA. The chosen two communication (which is done mostly online) and minimiz-
systems are the most important and utilized systems in label- ing paper waste. To accredit buildings, LEED evaluates engi-
ling sustainability worldwide. The reporting of bionics to neering, design, and construction (LEED, 2019).
each of these was also pursued. The LEED labelling system approach can give even proj-
LEED and BREEAM represent the most accepted evalu- ects in the design stage a score, but they can only receive
ation systems from the industry of sustainable buildings. certification at the end of construction. LEED grades evalu-
They have similar means, approaches, and structures of ated buildings in four categories: Certified, 40–49 points;
evaluation, but the methodology differs. These evaluation Silver, 50–59 points; Gold, 60–79 points; and Platinum, +80
systems take into consideration a big number of parameters points.
in evaluating the performance of buildings, BREEAM hav- The LEED assessment categories are as follows: Location
ing a bigger number of managed buildings than LEED. and Transportation, Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency,
Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor
Environmental Quality, Design Process and Innovation, and
Labelling Criteria of Sustainable Buildings Regional Priority (Fig. 2).
BREEAM is an evaluation system that was made in 1990 in

Great Britain, being the oldest analysis and certification Bionic Principles and Sub-principles
method of sustainable building. The points are given for each
criterion and sub-criteria depending on the analysis domain. The principles of bionics can be defined by means of princi-
It is applied in different architecture programs: offices, ples of life, specific to all organisms. Life always evolves and
schools, houses, industrial units, etc. The building can be cat- adapts, managing to create favorable conditions for living.
egorized as Pass, Good, Very Good, Excellent, or Outstanding. By analyzing the bionic principles and its sub-principles,
The BREEAM program confers a sustainability strategy that bionic design methods can be deduced, leading to improved
takes into consideration all zones from the construction sustainability of future architecture projects.
branches (BREEAM, 2019). Nature never wastes and never uses more than it needs.
Adopting the BREEAM program has many advantages The principles of nature formulated by Janine Benyus
both from an environmental and economic point of view. emphasize how nature (Benyus, 2002), as a life-generating
Some of the advantages are implementation of low energy element, relates to the components outside it:
requirements and operating costs, higher rental value at
property level, improvements in the level of productivity due –– Nature works on the basis of sunlight.
to workers’ access to a comfortable working environment, an –– Nature uses only the amount of energy it needs.
improved reputation of the construction industry by showing –– Nature adapts the form to the required function.
its commitment to protect the environment, short time to sell –– Nature reuses everything.
buildings, as well as other advertising advantages. –– Nature supports cooperation.
The building sustainability assessment categories are –– Nature relies on diversity.
Management, Health and Well-Being, Energy, Transport, –– Nature implies the conditions of the place.
Water, Materials, Waste, Land Use and Ecological Aspect, –– Nature weighs the excesses from within.
Pollution, and Innovation (Fig. 1). –– Nature has as a principle the power of limits.
The BREEAM system is used in more than 70 countries.
In most countries in Europe, a new system is developed that Everything can be related to the environment, an environ-
is tailored to the specifics of each respective country in col- ment in which the Earth represents the catalytic element so
laboration with the National Scheme of Operators. The col- that the principles of life can also be defined in relation to it.
laboration between them is in advanced stages in countries We can say the Earth is defined by limits, but these do not
such as Holland, Spain, Norway, Sweden, and Germany. stop it from relating correctly to the environment, to capital-
Achieving BREEAM standards through design helps to cre- ize on the interdependencies between its elements, thus cul-
ate sustainable buildings with an increased quality level. tivating relations of cooperation and self-organization.
Bionic Criteria for Sustainable Labelling of Buildings 173
MANAGEMENT
HEALTH
INNOVATION
WELLBEING
POLLUTION ENERGY
BREEAM
LAND USE AND

TRANSPORT
ECOLOGY
WASTE WATER
MATERIALS
Fig. 1 BREEAM System. Evaluation categories for sustainability. (Ana Mohonea)
Earth optimizes living conditions, rather than maximiz- Earth is characterized by redundancy, decentralization,
ing, through the process of recycling all natural materials, distribution, and diversity, which allow the cyclical processes
adopting a multifunctional design and adapting form to of life to be maintained (Wines, 2000).
function. Earth’s primary resource is water, and it promotes The principles of life (Fig. 3) can be defined and under-
materials that are not harmful to life, relying on self-assembly stood through guidelines that promote sustainability. Bionics
and chemical processes occurring in water. can respond to these needs; therefore, the six principles of
life (De Garrido, 2012) defined as bionic principles form the
basis of the analysis in the proposed study.
174 A. Mohonea
Fig. 2 LEED System.

Sustainability evaluation
categories. (Ana Mohonea)
LOCATION
TRANSPORTATION
REGIONAL
SUSTAINABLE SITES
PRIORITY
LEED
INNOVATION WATER EFFICIENCY
INDOOR MATERIALS AND

ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY RESOURCES
Fig. 3 Scheme of bionic

sustainability. (Ana Mohonea)
EVOLVE TO
SURVIVE
USE LIFE-
BE RESOURCE
FRIENDLY
EFFICIENT
CHEMISTRY
BIONIC
BE LOCALLY ADAPT TO
ATTUNED AND CHANGING
RESPONSIVE CONDITIONS
INTEGRATE
DEVELOPMENT
WITH GROWTH
he Interconnection Between the Labelling

T Regarding the used language in the study, a few clarifica-
Criteria and Bionic Principles tions are imposed:
The analysis was carried out basing on bionic principles –– The principles of life are defined as bionic principles, and
and sub-principles, derived from the principles of life, as the generated documents are related to the name BIONIC.
well as basing on BREEAM 2018 and LEED V4.1 (2019) –– Bionic principles are defined by bionic sub-principles.
criteria. For the criteria, the last application options were –– Sustainable criteria are defined for each labelling system
chosen, the field being for New Constructions and Major separately by sub-criteria.
Renovations. –– The sustainable labelling criteria are simply called crite-
The principles and criteria were structured in order to ria and are represented by LEED and BREEAM, these
carry out the analysis. An attempt was made to correlate the naming the related documents.
six bionic principles with the criteria to which they corre- –– The criteria and principles represent the three categories
spond, but a link was also made between BREEAM and of analysis.
LEED at the criteria level. Following the relationship of –– Writing lines of code to help generate solutions was based
bionic principles with the labelling criteria of sustainable on the analyzed principles and criteria as well as their cor-
development, a series of advantages that favor sustainability relation; codes and subcodes define the keywords in the
can be deduced. analysis categories.
Both the principles and the criteria have as stated objec- –– The analysis was carried out in English.
tives: the creation of indoor comfort through indoor air qual- –– The analysis methods refer to correspondence analysis at
ity, the creation of both renewable and efficient energies, and the level of terms and correspondence analysis at the level
the creation of methods for capturing water and minimizing of relationships.
its consumption, managing emissions, optimizing and sepa- –– In creating the schemes, tables, and graphs, the same col-
rating waste, and creating a resilient system for the use of ors chosen to represent the criteria and principles at the
sustainable materials. level of visual representation in this study were kept every
Nature has the same goals, and through its mechanisms, it time. Thus, blue was chosen for BREEAM, red for LEED,
has managed to create solutions (Pawlyn, 2011). Building and green for BIONIC.
with a low environmental impact and implementing cutting-
edge technologies can also succeed in creating sustainable For the two analysis methods proposed, the creation of
solutions. An analysis was carried out at the level of aspects codes was sought, which generated a series of links based on
and indicators present both at the level of BREEAM and the contents of the subcodes. This approach was used because
LEED, as well as at the level of BIONICS (Fig. 4). it was desired to obtain the most conclusive results. After the
Any new method of designing in close relation with bion- first stage of the study, represented by document analysis,
ics could improve the sustainability performance of a build- followed the second stage of analyzing the results and gener-
ing. It can bring demonstrable benefits against already ating solutions.
existing sustainability criteria if they can represent viable Through the application, the codes and subcodes of the
solutions for sustainable development in the current context. search-analysis variables were generated, obtaining after the
Through bionics, which currently offers the most innova- analysis the “network” of the study, a map of each code. The
tions, new solutions can be created, but also a bridge between competition of the codes and their interconnectivity were
bionic principles and labelling criteria promoted by sustain- realized starting from the concrete results obtained in the
able development. case study generated with the help of the documentation in
English. Behind all the generated codes are words and para-
graphs considered relevant for the analysis, belonging to sev-
eral documents entered within the project. Subcodes were
Bionic Criteria of Sustainable Labelling generated to search for the core elements characteristic of
each of the LEED and BREEAM criteria – correlated with
The study that was carried out was based on an exploratory BIONIC.
analysis, at the level of keywords and at the level of relation- After introducing several types of documents into the pro-
ships between the three analyzed systems. gram (doc, docx, rtf, html, mht, pdf, jpg, avi), with the three
The first method aimed to perform a correspondence anal- categories of analysis as the subject, words and phrases were
ysis at the level of terms, and the second aimed to generate a selected that defined important concepts in the realization
correspondence analysis at the level of relationships between study, and codes and subcodes were generated. The gener-
the bionic principles and the sustainable criteria of BREEAM ated codes were named according to the mentioned princi-
and LEED. The analysis program Atlas.ti version 7 was used ples and criteria. To generate them, the documents introduced
to carry out the study. in the first stage were analyzed (Fig. 5).
176 A. Mohonea
Fig. 4 Issues and indices present in BREEAM, LEED, and bionics. (Author: Ana Mohonea)
irst Method – Correspondence Analysis

F between the content of the BIONIC principles and the con-
at the Level of Terms tent of BREEAM and LEED sub-criteria. Also, the content
of the BREEAM and LEED criteria was taken into account
Through the first method, a correspondence analysis of com- in relation to BIONICS sub-principles, with the aim of
mon terms or keywords was proposed within the three cate- establishing to what extent the compared contents refer to
gories of analysis: BIONIC, BREEAM, and LEED. the same notions and name the same ideas.
In the first stage, the analysis of terms of the three previ- The source of the codes taken in the study is represented
ously mentioned categories was carried out, at the level of by keywords found in English codes and subcodes. They are
the entire document. The next stage assumed the relationship words that are the basis of the analyzed codes (approximately
Fig. 5 Analysis study first stage. (Ana Mohonea)
140 words were the basis of the analysis imported within (codes that were named after the bionic principles) first
BIONICS). Filtering of relevant words was done through the resulted, then between BREEAM and its codes (codes that
program, finding that there are some keywords that were the were named after the BREEAM labelling criteria), then
basis of several codes or subcodes within the application LEED and its codes (codes that were named after the LEED
(e.g., the word construction is found 10 times in LEED, 4 labelling criteria), and then the links between the common
times in BREEAM, and 2 times in BIONIC). codes of the two criteria were created (Fig. 9).
The analysis highlights the presence of relevant words The second part of the analysis consisted of generating
within the criteria and principles. Statistically, the same rel- relationships between BIONIC and BREEAM, and the third
evance per word or relevance per code was observed, within part of the analysis between BIONIC and LEED. The rela-
the analyzed criteria, both within the analysis performed. tionships obtained were relationships of association, causal-
Following the analysis, the presence of bionic principles was ity, opposition, and membership. For example, between
observed both in the LEED criteria and in the BREEAM cri- BREEAM and its codes, as well as between LEED and its
teria, not necessarily at the level of the same keywords, but codes, the relationship of belonging (is part of) was gener-
the final weight was the same. The results obtained were ated. The association relationship (is associated with) was
recorded in the presented tables, being counted by means of generated between some of the BREEAM and LEED ele-
databases generated by the applications used in the analyses ments. Two types of relationships were generated between
(Figs. 6 and 7). BIONIC and its codes: association and belonging (is associ-
ated with and is part of). Three types of relationships were
generated between BIONIC, and BREEAM/LEED based on
econd Method – Correspondence Analysis
S association, membership, and opposition codes (is associ-
at the Level of Relationships ated, is part of and contradicts).
Through the second method, a correspondence analysis was

carried out between the relationships established between Results Interpretation
the three categories of analysis (Fig. 8). First, the links
between codes and principles, respectively, between codes It is observed, following the analysis, the finding of the same
and criteria, existing within each category were generated. types of relationships between the bionic principles and the
Thus, the relationships between BIONIC and its codes labelling criteria, but in different proportions.
178 A. Mohonea
Fig. 6 Obtained results after conducting the analysis with first method. (Ana Mohonea)
The study results help to develop architectural-bionic sible solutions is a conscious approach by the architect who
design methods, adapted to the current requirements of sus- is proposing solutions based on the principles of
tainable development, defined as evolutionary method, sustainability.
regenerating and smart. It can obtain certificate of integration into nature through
Initially, it was proposed to measure the integration in the application of bionic criteria for labelling the sustainabil-
nature of a building by comparing bionic principles with the ity of a building and can develop a method for architectural-
basic requirements for the construction of buildings, but later bionic design who will allow to measure the percentage of
in the development of the thesis, those were replaced with integration of the building in nature. Future generations of
labelling schemes of sustainable construction. architecture and design students can learn to apply the bionic
It was found that such labelling schemes and certifica- criteria, developing sustainable projects with a high degree
tions, known worldwide, are based on a number of criteria of integration in nature.
that allows their relationship with bionic principles and
demonstrates the possibility to measure integration in nature
of a building. Conclusions
The study showed that bionics can be implemented on
several levels, and therefore, the section of case studies was The study of the relationship between natural habitats and
larger than was originally thought, being added to the case ecosystem can be a starting point for the development of sus-
studies based on the presentation of a new method of analy- tainable urban habitats. Analysis, comparison, and replica-
sis to those already proposed. tion of principles used in nature, at their level of functioning,
This study does not propose an entirely bionic approach represent the chance to design urban habitats to be in har-
on built space but highlights the link between bionic and sus- mony with the natural ones, and to join in the effort to protect
tainable architecture in order to enhance the comfort of liv- the planet, the biodiversity, and, not least, the life of future
ing and to understand the importance of nature in achieving generations.
sustainable development. Not everything must be bionic In this study, bionic principles and BREEAM and LEED
because it would be a world with which the people could not labelling criteria were analyzed and compared. We conclude
identify themselves. It is important for architects to propose that several parameters from bionics can be implemented in
harmonious bionic solutions that do not contradict the sustainable labelling criteria in order to improve the quality
cultural-spiritual matrix that defines contemporary society. of buildings for a more durable architecture and greener
The innovative value of this analysis is represented by environment.
bionics impact in architecture, achieving a comprehensive The article proposed a strategy (correlation analysis at
content obtained through an interdisciplinary research meth- level of terms and at level of relationships) in order to achieve
odology, by analyzing specific issues and generating multi- criteria of sustainable labelling based on bionic principles,
ple connections and interactions between areas. Anticipating aimed at reducing the negative impact of building on the
the risk factors and implementing environmentally respon- natural environment. Filling standards for evaluating sustain-
Fig. 7 Analysis – percentage of retrieval of each relevant subcode within each of the analyzed categories (% P1 BIONIC + %P2 BREEAM +%
P3 LEED = 100%). (Author: Ana Mohonea)
Fig. 8 Correspondence analysis at the level of relationships. (Ana Mohonea)

180 A. Mohonea
Fig. 9 Analysis of the relationship between BREEAM, BIONIC, and LEED. (Ana Mohonea)
ability in the built environment could lead to the creation of Pawlyn, M. (2011). Biomimicry in architecture. RIBA Enterprises.
Wines, J. (2000). Green architecture: The art of architecture in the age
an architectural-bionic design method that will become a of ecology. Taschen GmbH.
useful working tool in the design of sustainable buildings.
One could conclude that the implementation of bionic in
architecture can help to reduce negative impact on the natu- Ana Mohonea is an Interior Archi
tect, graduated the Faculty of Interior
ralenvironment, on one hand, and to redefine standards for Architecture of the “Ion Mincu”
assessing sustainability in the built environment on the other. University of Architecture and Urban
A new way to approach the criteria for labelling buildings Planning in Bucharest, Romania.
through the principles of nature transposed by bionic may be She studied her undergraduate,
master’s and doctorate at the IMUAU,
proposed, and a higher level of ambition may be reached in where she is currently working as an
trying to get the balance between the built environment and Assistant Prof. Ph.D. Arch. She was
the natural one. awarded the “Bene Merenti” for the
outstanding results of her aca-
demic studies and the Medal of the
IMUAU for her diploma project.
References Ana Mohonea was a pioneer of
research in bionic architecture in
Benyus, J. M. (2002). Biomimicry – Innovation inspired by nature. Romania; her doctorate thesis is
Harper Collins Publishers. titled: “Bionic Architecture. Premises for Sustainable Building”.
BREEAM Manual New Construction 2018. BREEAM, SD5078, Issue She is a member of the Interior Architecture Society from Romania,
3.0 (31.07.2019), https://bregroup.com/products/breeam/ collaborator with ROGBC (Romania Green Building Council) and for-
De Garrido, L. (2012). Green in green: Sustainable architecture. mer BREEAM international assessor. She participated in many compe-
Instituto Monsa de Ediciones. titions, projects, summer schools, architecture biennales and
LEED Reference Guide for Building Design and Construction 2014. international workshops and received many awards, among which was
LEED v4, ISBN:978-1-932444-18-6 (01.11.2013/ updated the first Prize at National Level of the eighth edition of the Design com-
08.2019). https://www.usgbc.org/leed/v41 petition for avant-garde furniture for her Guitar Chair.
Part IV
Researching on Materials: From Macro to Nano
Microalgae Biotechnology:
The Bioindustry of the Future
María Segura Fornieles
Abstract Due to their excellent biochemical profile and high growth

rates, microalgae and cyanobacteria generate a multitude of
AlgaEnergy is a Spanish biotech-based company exclu- products, having applications in many sectors.
sively focused on microalgae, photosynthesis microor- The industrial development of microalgae and cyanobac-
ganisms with high biomass productivity and high capacity teria, based on intensive cultivation and controlled in photo-
for CO2 biofixation. Microalgae biomass is natural source bioreactors, represents a valuable tool to help alleviate the
of proteins, fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and other three major crises that humanity faces, namely: food, energy,
compounds such as minerals or carotenoids, having appli- and the environment.
cation in many sectors, including agriculture, food and
feed, cosmetics, aquaculture, energy, and pharmaceutical,
among others. AlgaEnergy develops R&I projects that Global Context
result in products and solutions for all those sectors that
can contribute to improve the quality of life of population Mankind must overcome the main twenty-first century chal-
through a circular and sustainable business model. lenges including food security (the world’s population is
growing, meaning food security is a priority), environment
Keywords (mitigating the climate change is one of the modern society’s
Microalgae · Phytoplankton · Biomass · Biostimulants · greatest concerns), and energy (our future will depend on
Food · Feed · Cosmetics · CO2 biofixation · obtaining a more efficient and sustainable energy source).
Biotechnology · Circular economy · AlgaEnergy Microalgae are well positioned as a clear opportunity for
improving these scenarios. Regarding food security, micro-
algae increase the crops’ productivity and are the raw mate-
Introduction rial with the highest protein content on the planet. In
addition, they are essential to increase production in aqua-
Prokaryotic microalgae (blue-green algae or cyanobacteria) culture. Concerning environment, microalgae are the most
and eukaryotic microalgae, essential components of phyto- efficient CO2biofixation systems and the greatest producers
plankton, are microorganisms endowed with the ability to of oxygen on the Earth. In terms of energy, microalgae are a
develop oxygenic photosynthesis, releasing oxygen (O2) as a source of fourth-generation sustainable and inexhaustible
result of photolysis of water (H2O) and synthesizing organic biofuels.
matter to the oxidized forms of the primordial bioelements
(C, N, P, S), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), at the expense of
an inexhaustible source of energy, the sunlight. They are The Company: AlgaEnergy
highly efficient organisms in the use of solar energy, with
high biomass productivity and high capacity for CO2 biofixa- AlgaEnergy is a biotech-based company, established in the
tion (Esteban Clares et al., 2014). year 2007, exclusively focused on microalgae.
The company stands out for its experience and passionate
team that consolidates almost 5 decades of research in micro-
algae, its technologies and culturing facilities developed “in-
M. S. Fornieles (*)
AlgaEnergy, Madrid, Spain house” (the most advanced in the world), and its innovative
e-mail: [email protected] products that are efficient, competitive, and sustainable.
184 M. S. Fornieles
AlgaEnergy is a B Corp company, becoming the first nent of the production process, must be designed in
company in its sector to obtain the certification worldwide, compliance with a series of requirements that allow these
after having demonstrated in a rigorous audit that its activity premises to be fulfilled.
generates a positive impact on society and the planet. The main parameters to control during the development
of microalgae cultures are solar radiation, temperature, pH,
culture medium, mode of operation, including dilution rate,
What Are Microalgae? and photobioreactor design, including mix-up.
Once the culture reaches the optimum concentration
About 3000 million years ago, the cyanobacteria, and some inside the photobioreactor, it must be harvested, which con-
1500 million years later, the eukaryotic microalgae populate sists of separating a part of the microalgae culture to collect
the terrestrial and aquatic systems of the Earth constituting, the microalgae biomass contained therein, to stabilize it, and
together with the higher plants, the support of life and the process it based on the business application of interest
oxygenation of the atmosphere. Microalgae and cyanobacte- (Fig. 2).
ria are responsible for half of the planet’s primary p roductivity
and the generated new oxygen into the atmosphere (Shestakov
& Karbysheva, 2017). Results
There are tens of thousands of species, which exhibit a
multitude of shapes, sizes, and colors. AlgaEnergy Facilities
They are the first step in the food chain in the sea and
responsible for more of the 50% of the oxygen on Earth. Having exclusively dedicated our first 10 years to applied
They do not compete with the production of other raw mate- research sourcing from more than 3 decades of basic R & I,
rials, they grow in all types of water, they are extremely pro- today we can confidently say that one of the greatest accom-
ductive, and they are able to biofixate up to 2 kg of CO2 for plishments of AlgaEnergy is the successful scale-up of
every kg of biomass produced. microalgae cultivation processes, which allows us to put
innovative, competitive, sustainable, and highly effective
products on the market.
Microalgae Composition AlgaEnergy owns two microalgae cultivation plants. One
is our Technological Platform for Experimentation with
As a result of their excellent biochemical profile and high Microalgae (TPEM), located at the Adolfo Suárez Madrid-
growth rates, microalgae and cyanobacteria are microscopic Barajas airport (Madrid). The other is the Arcos de la
biofactories that generate a multitude of products of interest Frontera plant in Cadiz, whose secondary objective is the
because of being a natural source of proteins, fatty acids, car- biofixation of CO2 through microalgal cultivation, to turn
bohydrates, vitamins, and other compounds, such as miner- this greenhouse gas into products of high commercial
als or carotenoids. Due to their rich and complete interest.
composition, they have application in many sectors includ- We also operate the UPT® Production Center, exclusively
ing agriculture, food and feed, cosmetics, aquaculture, dedicated to the production of our range of agricultural bios-
energy, and pharmaceutical, among others (Fig. 1). timulants, marketed as DynaMix®.
In operation since 2011, TPEM is probably the most pow-
erful and flexible private R&I tool known in the international
Microalgae Culture field of microalgae biotechnology. It was built in collabora-
tion with AENA and IBERIA. Located at the Adolfo Suárez
The intensive and controlled culture of microalgae and cya- Madrid-Barajas airport, TPEM combines different types of
nobacteria is developed in photobioreactors, operated to photobioreactors, which allow the simultaneous cultivation
obtain biomass, or extracts from it, as final product. of several different strains of microalgae. TPEM’s mission is
Photobioreactor is understood as those systems in which to generate valuable knowledge about technologies and pro-
there is a physical separation between the culture and the cesses on a scale preceding the industrial level, as well as to
medium that surrounds it, normally transparent, and that serve as a R&I and experimentation tool (Figs. 3 and 4).
allows better control of the culture conditions, thus increas- ARCOS plant, located in the South of Spain (Arcos de la
ing productivity. Frontera, Cádiz), became operational in 2014 and is on the
Inside them, the division and cell growth of the cultures site of the largest combined cycle power plant in Spain,
take place, in an efficient, sustainable, and controlled man- owned by Iberdrola, world leader in renewable energy and
ner. Therefore, the photobioreactor, as an essential compo- technological partner of AlgaEnergy since 2009.
Microalgae Biotechnology: The Bioindustry of the Future 185
Fig. 1 General microalgae composition
more efficient systems for cultivation and processing of

microalgal biomass.
AlgaEnergy leads and participates in international R&I
projects with a total investment of more than EUR 80 mil-
lion. AlgaEnergy leads the way with more than 150 consor-
tiums (universities, research centers, and companies), all
firmly committed to progress and sustainable development
(Fig. 7).
Applications and Sectors
At AlgaEnergy, R&I is the seed of all the high-value prod-

Fig. 2 Microalgae photobioreactor for biomass generation
ucts we produce for a variety of market sectors. Our firm
commitment to innovation propels us to develop innovative,
sustainable, and, above all, highly effective solutions for
The main nutrient of the microalgae, CO2, is taken directly industries in which microalgae have an immense application
from the combustion gas chimney of the power plant and potential.
pumped into microalgae cultures. So ARCOS plant produces Currently, AlgaEnergy has products and solutions, based
microalgae biomass through CO2 biofixation from flue gases, on different microalgae, for agriculture, nutrition (both
transforming this harmful gas into products of high commer- human and animal), cosmetics, and aquaculture. In addition,
cial interest (Figs. 5 and 6). we are studying the immense application potential of micro-
algae for the pharmaceutical, biomaterials, and biofuels sec-
tors (Fig. 8).
R & I Projects
AlgaEnergy, using basic research coupled with its own Conclusions

know-how, has the mission of promoting new lines of basic
research and applying and improving performance achieved Microalgae and cyanobacteria are not only our origin but
in the lab at industrial level (applied research). also our future. AlgaEnergy is the first company in the world
R&I’s project portfolio ranges from genetic engineering taking advantage of the CO2emitted by other industries to
applied to the modification of certain microalgae’s metabo- cultivate its microalgae as part of a circular and sustainable
lism to the development and implementation of new and business model (Fig. 9).
186 M. S. Fornieles
Fig. 3 TPEM facilities, including laboratories, offices, and greenhouse
Fig. 4 TPEM flat panel photobioreactors

Fig. 5 ARCOS plant, flat panel, and tubular photobioreactors’ view
Fig. 6 ARCOS plant, raceway reactors’ view

188 M. S. Fornieles
Fig. 7 AlgaEnergy’s R&I projects
Fig. 8 AlgaEnergy brands for several market applications

Fig. 9 AlgaEnergy circular economy business model
María Segura Fornieles is entitled

in Chemical Engineering and Indus
References trial Engineering. She also has a
Master in Renewable Energies.
https://www.algaenergy.com/ As AlgaEnergy’s Deputy General
Esteban Clares, M., Moreno Fernández, J., García Guerrero, M., & Manager and Technical Director, she
García González, M. (2014). Assessment of the CO2 fixation capac- has developed, since 2010, her pro-
ity of Anabaena sp. ATCC 33047 outdoor cultures in vertical flat- fessional activities in the engineering
panel reactors, Journal of Biotechnology, 187, 51–55. field. Most especially her activity
Shestakov, S. V., Karbysheva, E. A. (2017). The origin and evolution of focused on the design of construction
cyanobacteria. Biology Bulletin Reviews, 7, 259–272. and installation of facilities for the
culture of microalgae, such as
AlgaEnergy pilot and industrial facil-
ities, including the development and
improvement of culture processes
and photobioreactor designs, development of control and instrumenta-
tion systems, as well as in the direction and management of several R &
D projects.
Cultivating Microalgae in Architecture:
Toward a Zero Carbon Print: A CO2
Sequester Analysis
Ma. Rosa Villalba and María Rosa Cervera Sardá
Abstract Keywords
Architectural photobioreactor · Green façades ·
The need to implement projects that contribute to environ- Sustainable architecture · Bioenergy · Biomass · CO2 ·
mental conservation and prevent global warming by reducing CO2 sink, Sustainability
greenhouse gas emissions is increasing. The objective of this
work is to transfer the technology of microalgae photobiore-
actors to the architecture, in such a way that the façades or Introduction
rooftops of buildings could became biomass production
plants and CO2 collectors through natural resources. This will Currently, the need to implement projects that contribute to
mean that the architecture would assume a change of environmental conservation and prevent global warming by
approach, both in an aesthetic and functional way. A new reducing greenhouse gas emissions is increasing. According
active and efficient urban landscape is generated and the bio- to the United Nations, global carbon dioxide (CO2) emis-
climatic and metabolic behavior of the building is improved sions have escalated by nearly 50% since 1990, causing the
by introducing in the construction process living organisms in global average temperature to rise by 0.85° between 1880
relatively small ground space. Focusing on the CO2 sink and 2012 (United Nations, 2020a). These changes in tem-
effect of a flat photobioreactor integrated in a building located perature lead to multiple environmental problems ranging
in the city of Madrid (Spain), we pretend to demonstrate that from rising sea levels to increasingly extreme weather events.
a façade could act as a CO2 collector despite of the carbon Among the main factors that generate CO2 emissions, energy
footprint produced by its elements. Taking into account all the production is one of the most important as it accounts for
parameters needed for the microalgae to grow, we can esti- 60% of global greenhouse gas emissions (United Nations,
mate the amount of biomass that is produced to get the CO2 2020b).
that is fixed during the photosynthesis process and compare it In response to this urgent need, it has been proposed to
with the carbon footprint of the materials of the façade. build a system that includes the absorption of solar energy
According to the calculations of the photobioreactor with the fixation of CO2. Photosynthesis is the only natural
proposed, it will take almost 8.5 years to fix the manufac- phenomenon that involves these two processes, so the goal is
turing CO2 footprint of the materials used. However, in to benefit from it by capturing sunlight through cells com-
50 years of lifespan of the materials, a photobioreactor of posed of living organisms such as microalgae.
338 m2 will subtract from the atmosphere more than 166 Microalgae are a relatively easy and versatile crop to
tons of CO2, which is equivalent to the drive of almost grow. They have numerous applications not only in the bio-
768,000 km of a gasoline car. However, it must be taken fuel industry but also as biomass, as fertilizers, for nutritional
into account that after studying the carbon footprint of the purposes, and many other uses. The main advantage of their
photobioreactor materials, the final amount of CO2 effec- use is based on its capacity as fast-growing photosynthetic
tively subtracted will be more than 166 tons. microorganisms that can double their volume over a period
of 1–10 days if the medium allows it; their high lipid content,
M. R. Villalba (*) which can reach 50% by weight of dry matter in some cases
Alcalá University, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected] (an oil production of 15–300 times higher than soil plant spe-
cies per unit area); and the use of less surface area for culti-
M. R. Cervera Sardá
Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain vation as they can be grown in vertical structures. Finally, the
e-mail: [email protected] most important feature that signifies a usable advantage is its
192 M. R. Villalba and M. R. Cervera Sardá
greater CO2 fixing capacity compared to other plant species Photobioreactor Inspired
(Santos Montes et al., 2014). on the Microstructure of a Butterfly’s Wing
Microalgae have traditionally been grown in closed or
open photobioreactors. Photobioreactors (PBRs) are con- This photobioreactor design mimics a thin scale of the
tainers that allow these organisms to grow in an aqueous microstructure of a butterfly wing placed as tiles, generating
medium that contains the elements necessary for their a fickle structure that is able to lay over any surface or façade.
development: nutrients, a source of CO2 and the exposure to The photobioreactor modules are held from a primary struc-
sunlight. The purpose of this document is to outline design ture and can be easily hung or taken down as needed. The
options and strategies for integrating flat photobioreactors modules’ suspension pieces allow these to be articulated so
into the façade of buildings. Acting as an architectural struc- that they can be positioned at will for maintenance, design,
ture, PBRs combine beauty with use. In cities, flat-plate or user convenience. They can be of a tubular shape or
PBRs will be a design option that can remove excess CO2 located within a “glass-like sandwich” with all microalgae
from the atmosphere and produce useful algae products. fluids running inside (Fig. 2).
Therefore, the purpose of this document is to outline a
simple design of a PBR to analyze the amount of biomass
and CO2 that could be sequestered and compare it with Tubular Photobioreactor on Façades
the amount of CO2 needed to produce the materials that
build it. This type of photobioreactors is composed of acrylic tubes
exposed to sunlight. A pipe system is formed to move the
culture medium (fluid that concentrates the elements neces-
Photobioreactors in Architecture sary for the growth of microalgae) so the microalgae could
grow. Through the rhythm of the tubes, their orientation and
So far, algae cultivation has been done industrially. So the color, the system could be managed in such a way that they
objective of our work is to transfer it to the architecture, in constitute an aesthetic element for the building (Fig. 3).
such a way that the façades or rooftops of buildings This is a new way to incorporate nature into the urban
could became biomass production plants through natural environment of today’s cities. Photobioreactor façades offer
resources. the possibility of combining different types of vegetation
The combination of elements as an architectural enclo- that coexist symbiotically to promote their growth. In this
sure with the biomass production gives them a unique aes- case, the photobioreactor system would produce natural fer-
thetic and iconic value. This will mean that the architecture tilizers that promote the growth of the vertical garden that
would assume a change of approach both in an aesthetic and structures the façade. Consecutively, through this design,
functional way. A new active and efficient urban landscape is CO2 is captured both by the plants we include and by the
generated and the bioclimatic and metabolic behavior of the microalgae embedded in the piping system. Therefore, it not
building is improved. Living nature is incorporated into the only becomes a versatile way to cover the building but also
construction (Fig. 1). provides an attractive aesthetic element.
The façades would become something active and Apart from all the abovementioned benefits, one of the
dynamic, through the conduction of fluids with microalgae, most important advantages of this kind of façades is that they
that adds functional value to the purpose of protection of the present an effective thermal insulation within a cost equal to
building. The aesthetics of a living element change over or less than the existing coatings (Cervera Sardá & Vicente,
time, so this new façade would change accordingly. 2016).
Therefore, the aesthetic perception is transformed to be the
source of other designs that adapt to the new functionality
and the temporality that this involves. This approach pro- esigning a Flat Photobioreactor
D
vides new opportunities to generate a versatile architecture as a CO2 Sink
that develops according to the changes in temperature and
sun exposure of the year. The main objective of this research is to calculate the CO2
Within this research, we have been working on different sink effect of a flat photobioreactor. To this end, it has been
designs that combine the functionality with different aes- decided to work on an existing prototype building, located in
thetic approaches that work with the diverse forms of indus- the city of Madrid (Spain) and considering the climatologi-
trial cultivation of microalgae: cal characteristics of that city (Fig. 4).
Cultivating Microalgae in Architecture: Toward a Zero Carbon Print: A CO2 Sequester Analysis 193
Fig. 1 Vertical bioreactors on building façades. (Cervera & Pioz Architects, 2014)
Fig. 2 Butterfly-inspired façade. (Cervera & Pioz Architects, 2014)

Fig. 3 Design made for Alcalá Mobile Week 2021. BIO-ARCHITECTURE: Towards zero impact with Microalgae. (Cervera Arquitectos)
As a practical exercise, we choose an existing building with will not have a top cover to allow the natural release of oxy-
a south-facing façade of 13.00 m in height and 26.00 m wide. gen produced by the photosynthesis of the microalgae. In the
These measures define the dimensions of the modules that same way, the upper closure element will have open spaces
make up the photobioreactors cells and the location of the for this purpose (Fig. 6).
pumping system necessary for the operation of the façade. Inside the container, it is intended to place a plastic ele-
To determine the dimensions of the project module, mul- ment that produces a slope of at least 1% to avoid the accu-
tiples of three were used to avoid material waste, being the mulation of material at the bottom of the panel. The gas
base measurements 1.20 m × 3.00 m. However, the module mixture distribution system will be fixed to this element,
was adjusted to 1.00 m × 2.60 m in width to cover the entire which must cover the entire width of the panel to guarantee
existing façade and to give space for the attachment of the the continuous movement of the culture medium.
base structure, the water distribution and biomass collection To optimize the distribution of the growth medium
systems (Fig. 5). through the photobioreactor, it was decided to locate the
Stainless-steel C metal profiles, anchored to the building pipes for the supply and collection at the slab’s level, so the
slabs, were positioned to support each of the panels and give framework structure provides a channel for the pipes to be
space to the photobioreactor operating system. Over this laid. Also, the dimension of the modules coincides with the
structure, a metal plate is attached to support the panels and height of the building’s mezzanine to allow the pivoting
the pivot mechanism. movement of the panels.
The module is made up of a stainless-steel structure com- It is intended to locate the pivoting mechanism in the
posed of C-type profiles that house an acrylic container that transversal axis of the panel to keep the hydromechanical
will be inserted using the profile as a channel. The container and gas mixing connections fixed while the panel can be
Fig. 4 Flat photobioreactor as an alternative of the previous design in Fig. 2. (Cervera Arquitectos)
Fig. 5 Schematic design of a flat photobioreactors on the façade of an existing building. (Cervera Arquitectos)
rotated to take advantage of the solar incidence or in turn to The PBR will be semi-open to allow the release of O2
cool the crop in the summer months. from the top. Microalgae produce oxygen, as a product of the
The distribution of the fluids is done by gravity to opti- oxygenic photosynthesis, which in excess would decrease
mize the use of pumps that move the fluid along the façade. optimal growth. Therefore, some O2 degassing system is
It is intended to collect rainwater from the roof of the build- required. The simplest of these systems is to leave the top of
ing and store it in an underground compartment to take the PFRs open and allow oxygen to exit through the
advantage of the thermal insulation that the earth provides opening.
against extreme cold and heat (Fig. 7).
Fig. 6 Elements that form

the photobioreactor’s
module. (Cervera Arquitectos)
Fig. 7 Harvesting system. (Cervera Arquitectos)

Fig. 8 Effect of temperature

on biomass productivity and
CO2 fixation rate of S.
vacuolatus in continuous
cultivation. (García Cubero
et al., 2017)
ecessary Parameters for the Operation

N that the growth rate between these temperatures were no sig-
of Photobioreactors nificant (Xin et al., 2011, p. 3100).
Even though this type of strain of Scenedesmus have high
For the proper operation of the photobioreactor, the follow- adaptability to cold environment, there weren’t enough data
ing parameters were taken into account in consideration to of the growth rate related to the CO2 fixation rate of the
achieve the highest possible productive activity in biomass Scenedesmus sp. LX1. For this reason, we choose to use the
production and CO2 fixation. data (Fig. 8) from the DIGITAL.CSIC of García Cubero
(2014), which compares de biomass productivity (g L−1 d−1)
at determinate temperatures with the CO2 fixation rate (g L−1
Temperature and Light d−1) of the strain Scenedesmus vacuolatus:
There was no data to temperatures below 15° to stablish
Both temperature and light are important factors in determin- the biomass productivity, so there is going to be too much
ing the growth rate of algae. Sun irradiance is one of the few uncertainty in the calculations of the growth rates of the
conditions that is largely out of experimental control, and months with an average lower than 15°. Although we esti-
temperature is largely too. Many PBR studies are carried out mate the growth gate on these months to be minimal, still
under ideal conditions, usually around 30 °C; however, ideal there are some studies that indicate that a type of Scenedesmus
conditions are generally not possible in external environ- strain can be found in extremely cold regions of the Arctic
ments. Heating water before pumping it to PBR is an energy- and Antarctic (Varshney et al., 2015). So we can assume that
intensive effort and will require more energy than it will this strain can survive in extreme weather conditions.
produce. Therefore, the temperature of the water will be Nevertheless, for the estimations needed to calculate the
determined by the outside temperature, as well as by the sun- biomass production of this exercise, a linear regression analy-
light in the photobioreactors. sis was made from the given data and a linear extrapolation
The average monthly temperature in Madrid ranges was formulated from the trend line obtained from Fig. 8 to get
between 5 °C and 25 °C (Climate-Data.org, 2020). At first, the growth rates for the lowest average temperatures (Fig. 9).
we consider to use different strains of algae to adapt to the This model is used to determine the annual biomass pro-
high variation in temperature. However, the Scenedesmus duction and the amount of CO2 sequestered. Temperature
strain has shown a great adaptability to temperature change, was the only variable accounted for in this growth rate model,
as shown in a research done by Xin, Hong-ying, and Yu-ping but the intensity of sunlight is also an important variable. The
in 2011. They summit the Scenedesmus sp. LX1 strain to two, temperature and irradiance, are related since the most
controlled temperature of 10, 20, 25 and 30 °C and realized direct sunlight raises the temperature (Table 1).
Fig. 9 Linear extrapolation of the effect of temperature on biomass productivity. (Authors)
Table 1 Growth rate versus average temperature (Authors) Harvest
It is important to determine what percentage of the mixture

should be harvested and how often. In a semi-closed system,
as the microalgae grow, the nutrients in the aqueous medium
are consumed until reaching its total capacity. This means
that after reaching a critical concentration, the algae will
begin to die if they are not harvested and the culture medium
is renewed. We found this critical concentration (g L−1) for
Scenedesmus and determined the harvest periods based on
them (Shelef et al., 1984) for Scenedesmus reaches this con-
centration around 1.2 g L−1 (Fig. 8).
Our goal is to harvest around 20–50% of the microalgae
mixture each time. This means that the harvest frequency
should be every other day. Using the growth rates determined
above and the critical concentrations, we found the percent-
age of the microalgae mixture to harvest during each month
(Table 2).
It is needed to clean the entire system, after the coldest
period of the year, to make sure that the algae could have its
optimal conditions to grow after being exposed to lower tem-
peratures. Therefore, in March, we have a different harvest
In order to optimize the light exposure and thermal con- frequency to let the algae grow for 15 days in order to get its
trol that microalgae have available, PBRs are designed on a maximal concentration.
vertical axis that can rotate. This means that the bioreactor Harvesting is set as a certain percentage of the mixture
plates can be tilted in the direction needed to optimize expo- that is extracted by the pipes at the bottom of the photobiore-
sure based on light need and temperature regulation. actor into a harvesting mechanism. The actual harvesting
Table 2 Percentage of volume harvested per month. (Authors)

Max conc. Harvest frequency (times per Days in between harvest
Percentage to be harvested
−1 month)
(g L ) (%)
November 1.2 6 Once a week 30
December 1.2 2 Twice per month 25
January 1.2 1 Once a month 25
February 1.2 3 Every 9 days 32
Marcha 1.2 4 15 days of initial growth + 29
every 3 days
April 1.2 14 Every 2 days 29
May 1.2 15 Every other day 28
June 1.2 15 Every other day 35
July 1.2 15 Every other day 40
August 1.2 15 Every other day 39
September 1.2 15 Every other day 32
October 1.2 15 Every other day 18
The month of March has a different harvest frequency due to the initial growth of the microalgae
a
process is still being determined, but it is likely to combine heating systems of the building. Typical flue gases from nat-
some techniques such as sedimentation, filtration, and cen- ural gas-fired power plants may contain 8–10% CO2, and
trifugation. Centrifugation is a great way to separate algae typical flue gases from coal-fired boilers may contain
biomass from water, but it’s an energy-expensive mechanism 12–14 vol% CO2 (Song et al., 2004). This CO2 is generally
(Dassey & Theegala, 2013). released into the atmosphere and acts as a greenhouse gas,
which can be avoided if it is pumped into the PBRs and
turned into glucose.
Water To determine the amount of CO2 sequestered by the
façade, the daily growth rate of each month is multiplied by
The PBR façade requires no supplemental water in addition to the days in the month, multiplied by the total number of L,
the rainwater collected from the roof of the building. Using and converted to kg to find the amount of biomass produced
climate data from Madrid, we estimated the average rainfall per month. That is summed to find the total biomass per
per month, subtracted by the amount of water lost from the month, which is multiplied by 1.8 kgs CO2/kg of microalgae
centrifugation process. We estimated around 20% of the water (Zhang, 2015) to find the total kilograms of CO2 sequestered
from the centrifuge would be lost each harvest. In total, there by the PBRs over a year (Table 3).
is a surplus of around 48,000 L of water each year.
The area on the roof for collecting water will be 22.1 m in
length by 12.9 m in width. The length was reduced from Flat Photobioreactor Energy Balance
20 m to 12 m because the surplus of water was too large to
store in a storage tank. Even though we are only saving Materials in Flat-Plate Photobioreactors
22,000 L of extra water, that is exactly the right amount to
refill the entire PBR façade once. The 13,347 extra L could Algae cultivation in open spaces comes with a few major
be used as fertilizer for surrounding green areas. In March, downsides including low light utilization, loss through evapo-
there is a need of three times of the total volume of the PBR ration, diffusion of CO2 to the atmosphere, the requirement of
to clean the entire system, due to a restitution of the algae large areas of land, and face contamination issues. Since
after the coldest period of the year. closed systems don’t face these issues, much research has
been devoted to developing closed systems, such as flat-plate,
tubular, and vertical-column reactors (Ugwu et al., 2008).
CO2 Flat-plate reactors make sense to integrate vertically into
the façades of buildings. Because of their thin width, they
An essential component to plant growth is CO2. Through have a high surface area to volume ratio and make good use
photosynthesis, energy from light is used to convert water of sunlight (Tamburic et al., 2011). Placed vertically, there is
and carbon dioxide molecules into glucose. Our source of an issue of mixing in the reactor, which is why CO2 and air
CO2 for the PBRs comes from the flue gas of boilers and will be bubbled in.
Table 3 Amount of biomass produced and amount of CO2 fixated per month. (Authors)
Daily growth rate Monthly biomass produced (kgs
(g L−1 day−1) month−1) Amount of CO2 fixated (kgs)
November 0.1 59.14 106.45
December 0.1 13.58 24.44
January 0.1 6.79 12.22
February 0.1 25.76 46.36
March 0.35 78.08 140.55
April 0.35 114.99 206.98
May 0.35 224.06 403.31
June 0.36 275.97 496.75
July 0.36 329.30 592.74
August 0.36 320.48 576.86
September 0.35 254.94 458.90
October 0.35 147.34 265.21
Total 1850.42 3330.76
Table 4 Life span and CO2 produced from materials (kgs of CO2/kgs of material). (Authors)
Type Materials Life span Production of material Units References
Support structure
C profile (160 × 60 × ) Stainless steel 50 2.91 ton CO2/ton kg ISSF Stainless Steel (2015)
Metal platen (140 × 6) Stainless steel 50 2.91 ton CO2/ton kg ISSF Stainless Steel (2015)
Collection system
Biomass collecting tube PVC pipe 50 18 kg/3 m section of pipe m Recio et al. (2005)
50 18.00 m Recio et al. (2005)
Water tube PVC pipe 50 18.00 m Recio et al. (2005)
50 18.00 m Recio et al. (2005)
Water after harvesting PVC pipe 50 18.00 m Recio et al. (2005)
T pipe with valve PVC 50 67.00 Kg Alsabri & Al-Ghamdi (2020)
90° elbow pipe PVC 50 67.00 Kg Alsabri & Al-Ghamdi (2020)
Modules
C profile 1 (140 × 50 × 2) Stainless steel 50 2.91 ton CO2/ton Kg ISSF Stainless Steel (2015)
Stainless steel 50 2.91 ton CO2/ton kg ISSF Stainless Steel (2015)
Type 1 of module: 2.60 × 0.90 Acrylic 10 5.50 kg EnergyMan (2020)
To select the materials that structure the photobioreactor Finally, we decided to use PVC pipes to compose the water
cells, the CO2 produced in their manufacture and the life distribution and biomass collection systems, since they have
span of each one were studied (Table 4). Once the materials the lowest CO2 emissions between high-density polyethylene
with the lowest environmental impact were determined, the (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), concrete, and ductile iron. This
CO2 generation data were contrasted with the amount of CO2 data was taken from a report of the Estimation of energy con-
sequestered by the façade to establish the period of time that sumption and CO2 emission associated with the production of
each one needs to balance the CO2 necessary for its produc- these materials carried out by the Environmental Modelling
tion (Table 5). Laboratory of the University of Cataluña (Recio et al., 2005).
One of the most important materials to consider is the
microalgae container. The panels will be made of 3 cm thick
acrylic sheets for safety reasons. Acrylic was selected over Results
polycarbonate or glass because of its transparency and lesser
environmental impact (A & C Plastics, 2020). To determine the time that would take for this façade to fix
Afterward, the use of stainless steel for the structure and the CO2 produced by the materials necessary for its construc-
frames of the modules was chosen because it has one of the tion, we calculate the amount of biomass produced to estab-
highest recycling rates of any material. On average, about lish the CO2 that could be sequestered (Table 3) and compare
50% of stainless-steel scrap is used to produce one ton of it with the amount of CO2 needed to produce the materials
new stainless steel, according to the 2019 International needed to construct the façade. The results were as follows
Stainless-Steel Forum (ISSF Stainless Steel, 2015). (Table 6):
Table 5 CO2 output from containing material. (Authors)

CO2 outputted vs.
sequestered CO2 output from materials
Type Materials Material production (kgs of Total material CO2 produced from References
CO2/kg of material) used (kgs) materials (kgs)
2.60 m × 0.90 m Laminated 3.08 3699.1 11,393.1 Liu et al.
glass (2014)
Polycarbonate 6 1752.2 10,513.2 Boustead
(2005)
Acrylic 5.5 1650.0 9074.9 EnergyMan
(2020)
Table 6 CO2 output from materials compared to photobioreactor CO2 sequestered. (Authors)
Years to balance
Total material CO2 produced from CO2 sequestered carbon cost of CO2 sequestered
Type Life span Units used materials (kgs) per year (kgs) materials: in 50 years (kgs)
Support structure 166,538.18
C profile 50 kg 260.61 758.38 3330.76 0.23
(160 × 60 × 2)
Metal platen 50 kg 1379.68 4014.88 1.21
(140 × 6)
Collection system
Biomass collecting 50 m 104.70 628.08 3330.76 0.19
tube 50 m 8.40 50.40 0.02
Water tube 50 m 104.70 628.08 0.19
50 m 8.40 50.40 0.02
Water after 50 m 11.80 70.80 0.02
harvesting
T pipe with valve 50 kg 47.38 3174.46 0.95
90° elbow pipe 50 kg 4.76 318.92 0.10
Modules
C profile 1 50 kg 2405.31 6975.40 3330.76 2.09
(140 × 50 × 2) 50 kg 859.04 2491.22 0.75
Type 1 of module: 10 kg 1677.02 9223.61 2.77
2.60 × 0.90
Total 28,384.63 3330.76 8.52 years
It will take 8.5 years to fix the CO2 produced by the According to the photobioreactor model proposed in the
façade. However, the life span of the materials reaches present study, it will take almost 8.5 years to fix the manufac-
mostly up to 50 years. For this reason in 41.5 years, this turing CO2 footprint of the materials we are using. However,
façade can remove 138,226.69 kg of CO2 from the atmo- the life span of the materials allows the façade to remove
sphere before it is necessary to change the materials that more than 138 tons of CO2 from the atmosphere before it is
compose it. These 138 tons of CO2 will be equivalent to necessary to change them, constituting a great contribution
767,926.07 km of a running gasoline car. to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Conclusions Discussion
Microalgae façades are an aesthetically pleasing solution to It is necessary to find and test recycled materials that have a
generating energy and sequestering CO2. Taking into account lower carbon footprint to make more viable for us to reach a
algal growth conditions such as temperature, pH, light, mix- zero footprint with this project in less time. Furthermore, the
ing, and concentration, microalgae are a productive and main issue discovered with this research is the importance of
beautiful crop that can be implemented in relatively small continuing the work on the calculation of the CO2 that will
ground space. be produced while the system is working, since in the pres-
ent study the use of energy for the operation of the pumps Liu, M., Zhu, S., & Li, W. (2014). CO2 emission of building glass pro-
duction. Energy Education Science and Technology Part A: Energy
and other collection systems was not taken into account.
Science and Research, 1203–212.
Finally, it is important to account for the CO2 cost of Recio, J. M. B., Guerrero, P. J., Ageitos, M. G., & Narváez, R. P. (2005).
growing, separating, and transporting microalgae along with Estimate of energy consumption and CO2 emission associated with
the energy cost of materials and pumps. Larger areas of pho- the production, use and final disposal of PVC, HDPE, PP, ductile
iron and concrete pipes. Universitat Politécnica De Catalunya.
tobioreactors can make better use of the energy cost of oper-
Santos Montes, A. M., González Arechavala, Y., & Martín Sastre, C.
ating. In the future, scaling up this technology would be an (2014, 01/02/). Uso y aplicaciones potenciales de las microalgas.
efficient way to capture more CO2 and increase production- Revista: Anales de Mecánica y Electricidad, Periodo: 1, Volumen:
biomass. Overall, PBR façades are a creative way for cities XCI, Número: I, 20–28. Madrid, España.
Shelef, G., Sukenik, A., & Green, M. (1984). Microalgae harvesting
to become greener and will likely be a leading technology in
and processing: a literature review. United States: 10.2172/6204677.
the future. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6204677
Song, C., Pan, W., Srimat, S. T., Zheng, J., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Xu, B., &
Acknowledgments This work had the support of the program MIT- Zhu, Q. (2004). Tri-reforming of methane over Ni catalysts for CO2
Spain Universidad de Alcalá (UAH) Seed Funds 2020. conversion to syngas with desired H2/CO ratios using flue gas of
power plants without CO2 separation. Studies in Surface Science
and Catalysis, 153, 315–322.
Tamburic, B., Zemichael, F. W., Crudge, P., Maitland, G. C., &
Hellgardt, K. (2011). Design of a novel flat-plate photobioreactor
system for green algal hydrogen production. International Journal
References of Hydrogen Energy, 36(11), 6578–6591.
Ugwu, C. U., Aoyagi, H., & Uchiyama, H. (2008). Photobioreactors
A & C Plastics, I. (2020). Polycarbonate vs Acrylic: Learn about for mass cultivation of algae. Bioresource Technology, 99(10),
the difference between acrylic & polycarbonate material. A & C 4021–4028.
Plastics, Inc. https://www.acplasticsinc.com/informationcenter/r/ United Nations. (2020a). Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat
acrylic-vs-polycarbonate climate change and its impacts. https://www.un.org/sustainable
Alsabri, A., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2020). Carbon footprint and embod- development/climate-change/
ied energy of PVC, PE, and PP piping: Perspective on environmen- United Nations. (2020b). Ensure access to affordable, reli-
tal performance. Energy Reports, 6, 364–370. able, sustainable and modern energy. https://www.un.org/
Boustead, I. (2005). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. A sustainabledevelopment/climate-change/
report prepared for PlasticsEurope, Bruxelle, Belgium. Varshney, P., Mikulic, P., Vonshak, A., Beardall, J., & Wangikar, P. P.
Cervera Sardá, R., & Gómez Pioz, J. (2014). Architectural bio-photo (2015). Extremophilic micro-algae and their potential contribution
reactors: Harvesting microalgae on the surface of architecture. In in biotechnology. Bioresource Technology, 184, 363–372. https://
Biotechnologies and biomimetics for civil engineering (pp. 163– doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.11.040
179). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09287-4_7 Xin, L., Hong-ying, H., & Yu-ping, Z. (2011). Growth and lipid accu-
Cervera Sardá, R., & Vicente, C. A. (2016). Case studies on the mulation properties of a freshwater microalga Scenedesmus sp.
architectural integration of photobioreactors in building facades. under different cultivation temperature. Bioresource Technology,
In F. Pacheco Torgal, C. Buratti, S. Kalaiselvam, C. Granqvist, 102(3), 3098–3102.
& V. Ivanov (Eds.), Nano and biotech based materials for Zhang, X. (2015). Microalgae removal of CO2 from flue gas. IEA Clean
energy building efficiency (pp. 457–484). Springer. https://doi. Coal Centre.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-27505-5_17
Climate-data.org. (2020). Climate Madrid (Spain). Climate-data.org.
https://en.climate-data.org/europe/spain/community-of-madrid/ Ma. Rosa Villalba is an Architect,
madrid-92/#climate-table Ph.D. Candidate at the University of
Dassey, A. J., & Theegala, C. S. (2013). Harvesting economics and Alcalá with the theme: “Implemen
strategies using centrifugation for cost effective separation of tation of photobioreactors in
microalgae cells for biodiesel applications. Bioresource Technology, Architecture” (2020-present). She
128, 241–245. accomplished the Master in
EnergyMan. (2020). Eco-friendly alternatives to acrylic (plexiglass) – Advanced Architecture and City
2020 guide. Ubuntu Manual 2021. https://ubuntumanual.org/ Projects, with double specialty in
eco-friendly-alternatives-acrylic/ Environment and Architecture
García Cubero, R. (2014). Producción de biomasa de microalgas rica (2018–2019) and Urban Design
en carbohidratos acoplada a la eliminación fotosintética de CO2. (2019–2020). She has been awarded
(Tesis doctoral). Universidad de Sevilla. Sevilla.https://digital.csic. with the mention for the Best
es/bitstream/10261/101928/1/TESIS%20DOCTORAL%20RGC. Master’s Degree record (2019–
pdf 2020). She had published scientific
García-Cubero, R., Moreno-Fernández, J., & García-González, M. contributions in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
(2017). Modelling growth and CO2 fixation by Scenedesmus vacu- Science “Will the Covid-19 Pandemic Transform Our Urban Habitat? A
olatus in continuous culture. Algal Research, 24, 333–339. Microalgae Photobioreactors Labyrinth-Garden as an answer for The
ISSF Stainless Steel. (2015). Stainless steel and co2: Facts and sci- Post-Covid Sustainable City” (2021) and I Congreso Edificios Energía
entific observations (Paper presented at the International Stainless Casi Nula: “Fotobiorreactores urbanos de algas para la ciudad verde:
Steel Forum). reinterpretando el Laberinto” (2020) – online digital article.
María Rosa Cervera Sardá Ph.D. Slum (2012); Madrid, Recycled City (2011); Iron in 19th
Architect, Professor and former Dean Century Madrid Architecture (2006). A regular speaker in profes
of the School of Architecture at the sional and academic circles, she has given lectures in Spain,
University of Alcalá. Current China, India, USA, Bolivia, Peru, El Salvador, Venezuela, Romania,
Director of the Master’s degree in Italy, etc.
Advanced Architecture and City As an architect, Rosa Cervera has received several awards – the
Projects. She is the author of writings “Antonio Maura” award, the COAM award, the “Transfer of
and books on architecture, among Knowledge” award – and has won several international architecture
which we highlight: Bionics, competitions.
Biomimetics and Architecture Rosa Cervera is a pioneer in the research of Bionics, Biomimetics
(2019); Space and Time in Archi and the application of biological structures to innovative and efficient
tectural Composition (2018); Recy architecture and urban design. A direct result of these studies is the
cling Mumbai. Re-imagining the Self-Sustainable Vertical Garden City, Bionic Tower.
Nano-modified Materials for New
Construction Technologies:
Self-Compacting and 3D Printing
Hugo Varela, Gonzalo Barluenga, and Arnaud Perrot
Abstract showed an increase of shear yield stress while the addi-

tion of VMAs increased viscosity. The combination of
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) and 3D printing (3DP) both components produced synergetic effects in the mate-
have become two of the most innovative and promising rial over time, overcoming issues observed for both
construction technologies for the XXI Century technologies.
Architecture with cement-based systems (CBS). Both
applications require specific fresh material properties, Keywords
fluid in the first case and firm in the second one. However,
material cast-in-place in both technologies shows similar Self-compacting concrete · Digital fabrication · 3D
issues to be addressed regarding material fresh state rhe- printing · Rheology · Thixotropy · Nano-modified
ology and its control. The main rheological parameters to materials · Construction technologies
consider for fulfilling cast-in-place requirements are shear
yield stress, viscosity and structural build-up. Besides,
mechanical properties as compressive yield stress, Young Introduction
modulus and critical strain must also be considered at
early age, when setting begins. Nano-modification can be Cement-based systems (CBS) are a primary construction
the answer to modify fresh state rheological and early age material in architecture applications. Nowadays, innovative
mechanical parameters of CBS. The aim of this study was cement technologies such as self-compacting concrete (SCC)
the evaluation of CBS rheological behaviour with nano- and 3D printing (3DP) with cement-based materials
components and VMAs for SCC and 3DP applications. (CBS) are solutions to reduce the amount of material, cost
The combined use of nanocomponents (NC), as nano- and energy used, to improve structural and design efficiency
clays and nanosilica, and viscosity modifying admixtures and, in the case of 3DP, to eliminate the requirement of a
(VMAs) has shown the ability to tune CBS rheology. formwork (Wangler et al. 2016; Okamura & Ouchi, 2003;
Moreover, the addition of a high-range water-reducing Ferron, 2008).
admixture (HRWRA) is essential to produce CBS with an Although CBS fresh properties are different in both tech-
appropriate consistency and workability, although some nologies, both SCC and 3DP show similar issues regarding
incompatibilities with other components have been the rheological properties required for their cast-in-place
described. CBS rheological and mechanical parameters process (Wangler et al., 2016; Roussel, 2018; Perrot et al.,
can be studied using specific experimental test methods, 2018).
depending on the properties and the consistency required Rheology of CBS is an essential point to control fresh
by each technology and application. Nano-modified CBS state of this material (Roussel, 2018; Perrot et al., 2018).
Parameters as shear yield stress, viscosity and structural
build-up are used to evaluate CBS rheology. Besides mechan-
ical properties at early age, as compressive yield stress,
H. Varela (*) · G. Barluenga
Young modulus and critical strain have to be also considered
Universidad de Alcalá, Departamento de Arquitectura,
Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain (Perrot et al., 2018). SCC has to be fluid to be pumped and to
e-mail: [email protected] fill a formwork without requiring compaction. Then its con-
A. Perrot sistency should evolve at rest to avoid excessive formwork
Université Bretagne-Sud, IRDL, Lorient, France lateral pressure (Kim et al., 2010; Barluenga et al., 2017).
206 H. Varela et al.
On the other hand, 3DP has to be pumped, extruded of SCC (Roussel, 2018; Perrot et al., 2018; Perrot &
and placed. Then, layer by layer, it has to be vertically Rangeard, 2019). Several experimental test methods have
constructed, reaching enough mechanical capacity to keep been used in this study to evaluate these rheological param-
in place during setting and hardening. During this pro- eters (Varela et al. 2020, 2021).
cess, rheological and mechanical properties have to The addition of VMAs and NC showed the ability to
develop and adapt to the required values (Perrot et al., change SCC rheology during the different phases of its cast-
2018; Roussel, 2018). in-
place process. Nanoclays and nanosilica are able to
Nano-modification has been described in the literature as increase initial yield stress and structural build-up of this
an excellent opportunity to improve microstructural behav- material (Kim et al., 2010; Hou et al., 2013; Varela et al.,
iour and to control CBS rheology. The small particle size of 2020, 2021). VMAs change material’s viscosity and also
nanocomponents produces a high specific surface area and change yield stress (Palacios & Flatt, 2016; Varela et al.,
fill the small gaps within the matrix of cement (Sanchez & 2020). The combination of both NC and VMAs produces
Sobolev, 2010). Besides, some nanocomponents (NC) as synergies that can improve SCC behaviour over time (Varela
nanoclays and nanosilica have demonstrated to be useful to et al., 2021).
modify CBS rheology (Kuder & Shah, 2007; Kim et al., Figure 1 summarizes the stages of the process, the design
2010; Hou et al., 2013; Varela et al., 2020). Moreover, the parameters, requirements, issues and components related to
use of VMAs is another way to reduce CBS fresh state issues. SCC technology. The main aim of this study was to evaluate
VMAs are able to modify viscosity and control water drain- fluid pastes and SCC samples with NC and VMAs to assess
age inside fresh CBS (Palacios & Flatt, 2016; Varela et al., their effects and synergies on the material rheology.
2021). A combination of nanoparticles and VMAs is an
effective way to control rheology and to reduce CBS cast-in-
place problems (Varela et al., 2021). Material
The aim of this study was the evaluation of rheological
properties of CBS with NC and VMAs for SCC and 3DP Figure 2 presents CBS compositions used in this study,
applications. Synergies between NC and VMAs to control which were designed at two scales: cement paste and con-
rheological parameter were assessed. crete. A cement paste with a cement type CEM I 42.5R
blended with limestone filler (2:1) was designed in order to
reduce cement content and to produce sustainable pastes. A
Self-Compacting Concrete Technology low water to binder ratio was selected (0.35) and a HRWRA
was incorporated to reach a fluid consistency. Then nano-
Context components and VMAs were added to the paste to control
rheology. The nanocomponents included in this study, 2% by
New innovative and advanced concretes were designed dur- cement weight, were nanosilica and four nanoclays, an
ing the 90s, being self-compacting concrete one of the most attapulgite, a bentonite and two sepiolites (in powder form
relevant new materials (Okamura & Ouchi, 2003). SCC is a and dispersed in water). Three types of VMAs were added a
fluid material that can adapt itself to any imposed shape. polyacrylamide-co-acrylate based (VMA1), a polyether-
SCC increases quality control and reliability regarding con- methylcellulose-based (VMA2) and a synthetic co-polymer
ventional concrete and reduces cost, energy, noise and labour (VMA3), separately and combined with nanocomponents to
risk during its cast-in-place (Ferron, 2008). evaluate synergies between them.
SCC cast-in-place can be divided into three main stages: SCC compositions used the selected pastes with aggre-
material pumping, pouring into the formwork, and rest and gates, gravel with a maximum particle size of 16 mm and a
set inside the formwork. Some issues have been described river sand of 0–4 mm.
concerning SCC, as flow restrictions during the pumping
process, due to its rheopectic behaviour, increasing viscosity
under pressure (Barluenga et al., 2017). Besides, the high Experimental Test Methods and Evaluation
SCC fluidity generates high lateral formwork pressure that
would require stronger and tighter formworks (Ferron, 2008; Flowability and rheology of SCC technology were experi-
Kim et al., 2010). mentally evaluated. The effects of NC and VMAs on the
One strategy to avoid these cast-in-place issues is control- paste rheology were evaluated on cement pastes and after-
ling the rheology of the material in fresh state throughout the wards on SCC. Figure 3 shows the testing methods carried
use of nano-modification (Sanchez & Sobolev, 2010). out in this study on cement pastes and on SCC samples.
Rheological parameters such as shear yield stress, viscosity SCC cement paste was evaluated with a mini-cone slump
and structural build-up are essential to control the rheology test (MCS) and a dynamic shear rheometer test (DSR). Mini-
Nano-modified Materials for New Construction Technologies: Self-Compacting and 3D Printing 207
A) SCC
Lateral formwork
Flow restriction
pressure
Velocity
profile
1 3 Conventional concrete
2
Velocity
profile
Self-compacting concrete
Phases Rheological Issues Requirements Components
1 Pumpability Shear yield stress; flow restrictions; slip layer; low yield HRWRA, w/b
viscosity segregation stress; viscosity
2 cast-in-formwork Shear yield stress; Segregation; not low yield stress; viscosity; HRWRA, VMAs
viscosity self-compacting fluid consistency under
pressure
3 Reduction of Shear yield stress; Formwork lateral High structural build-up; Nanoclays and
pressure viscosity pressure; firm consistency at rest nanosilica
paste leaks
Fig. 1 Summary of the main features of SCC technology. (Source: Own illustration)
Fig. 2 Material compositions

of SCC samples: cement paste II. SCC
and concrete SCC. (Source:
Own illustration) I. Cement Paste
a. Cement I 42.5R
a. b. Filler: limestone filler (2:1)
c. Water: low ratio of w/b (0.35)
CEMENT d. HRWRA: between 0-2%
BASED e. Nanocomponents: nanosilica
f.
e. and nanoclays 2 %
SYSTEM d. f. VMAs: between 0.2-0.4%
II. Aggregates:
I. - Irregular Gravel (16mm)
c. - River sand (0-4mm)
b.
cone test consists of a 3D-printed mini-cone that is filled measured in samples left at rest and stirred before perform-
with cement paste and is lifted allowing free spreading of the ing the test. These parameters were also measured with DSR
paste sample and measuring the final spread diameter and tests with a coaxial cylinder geometry (Fig. 3b). However,
final spread time of cement paste (Fig. 3a). These parameters only dynamic (irreversible) τ0 values were measured with
were used to calculate paste rheological parameters, yield DSR. Two different protocols were used: a time curve
stress (τ0) and viscosity (μ0) (Ferron, 2008; Varela et al. (increase of shear) and flow curve (constant rate). In the first
2020). Besides, τ0 was measured over time, evaluating paste one, τ0 and μ0 were measured and afterwards structural build-
structural build-up (Athix) of mixtures. Reversible and irre- up (irreversible) was calculated (Ferron, 2008; Varela et al.,
versible mechanisms involved in τ0 values increased were 2021).
a) Mini-cone slump test b) Rheometer test c) Pumpability test d) Lateral pressure test
Rheometer Displacement
Geometry Formwork
Mini-cone sensor
Pressure
Data
sample sensors
Register
Data
Data Air
Register
Register pressure
Video
recorded
Fig. 3 Experimental test methods used to evaluate SCC: cement paste and concrete tests. (Source: Own illustration)
Cone flow diameter (mm)
500
NC VM1(0.2%)+NC VMA2(0.2%)+NC VMA2(0.4%)+NC VMA3(0.2%)+NC
400
300
200
100
0
0 2.5 0 2.5 0 2.5 0 2.5 0 2.5
% HRWRA % HRWRA % HRWRA % HRWRA % HRWRA
BE
VMA2+BE
Fig. 4 Increase of HRWRA on NC and VMAs combination cement paste samples: mini-cone slump test. Comparison of BE and VMA2+BE
sample evolution increasing HRWRA percentage. (Source: Own illustration adapted from Varela et al., 2021)
SCC was evaluated using a pumpability test apparatus sensors (Fig. 3d), designed to measure the lateral pressure
(PU) and a lateral formwork pressure test (LFP). In the PU exerted by SCC samples on the formwork (Kim et al., 2010).
test, a SCC sample was tested in a U-shaped pipe connected The difference between hydrostatic and lateral pressure can
on both ends to an air pressure circuit (Fig. 3c). That air pres- be related to τ0 values.
sure moves the SCC in both directions alternatively. Then,
displacement and air pressure needed to move SCC sam-
ple were measured. Those parameters can be related to τ0 Main Results
values of the sample. Besides, the front profile of the moving
sample can be observed, showing the characteristic rounded Figures 4 and 5 show the main results obtained on cement
velocity profile SCC rheopectic mixtures (Barluenga et al., paste for SCC technology. A high demand of HRWRA was
2017). On the other hand, LFP was performed in a vertical required for NC to achieve the target flowability, especially
formwork instrumented with wall and capillary pressure for pastes with Bentonite (BE) (Varela et al., 2020). However,
Fig. 5 Reversible and irreversible structural build-up effect (thixotropy effect) on VMA2+BE cement paste sample: mini-cone slump test and
DSR (CCR) test over time. (Source: Own illustration adapted from Varela et al., 2021)
the combination of VMAs and NC exhibited positive syner- tural efficiency. Moreover, 3DP increases construction
getic effects on paste rheology. VMA2 with BE cement paste speed and reduce labour, energy and formwork costs
sample (Fig. 4) showed a synergetic effect, reducing the (Wangler et al., 2016).
amount of HRWRA required to reach the high flowability However, CBS 3D printing presents some issues regard-
required by SCC samples regarding to the paste sample only ing material’s technological requirements for pumpability,
with BE (Varela et al., 2021). extrudability, layer deposition and buildability. To fulfil these
The structural build-up (effective thixotropy) of the requirements, printable CBS should show first low yield
SCC pastes was assessed over time (Fig. 5). Reversible stress and semi-liquid state to be pumped and extruded. But
and irreversible structural build-up was evaluated on sam- then, it should increase yield stress quickly and change to a
ples left at rest and stirred, respectively. Paste with VMA2 semi-solid material to maintain its shape after deposition and
and BE showed a remarkable increase of reversible struc- to be able to bear the weight of the upper layers (Perrot &
tural build-up on samples left at rest, whereas stirred sam- Rangeard, 2019; Perrot et al., 2018; Roussel, 2018).
ples showed a low increase of the irreversible part of the To obtain the material appropriate consistency in each
structural build-up. Hence, when sample was left at rest, a phase of the cast-in-place process, it is essential to control
quick increase of yield stress over time was produced rheological and mechanical parameters of fresh CBS (Perrot
(Varela et al., 2021). This type of synergetic effect could et al., 2018; Roussel, 2018). Shear yield stress, viscosity and
be effective to reduce lateral pressure on SCC structural build-up are the rheological parameters, and com-
cast-in-place. pressive yield stress, Young modulus and critical strain are
the mechanical material that have to be experimentally mea-
sured (Perrot & Rangeard, 2019; Roussel, 2018).
3D-Printing Technology Nano-modification was again used as a design method to
control CBS rheology. In this study, nanoclays (NC) and
Context VMAs were used to control initial drainage issues at extru-
sion (increase of force) (Kuder & Shah, 2007) and then,
Digital fabrication consists of the generation of a physic nanoclays could produce an increase of shear and compres-
object from a 3D digital model and corresponds to a set of sive yield stress (Varela et al., 2020, 2021). Actually, some
the construction technologies that are receiving more and NC could be able to replace cellulose ether-based VMAs to
more interest in the last decades, due to its free shaping control 3D-printing parameters (Kuder & Shah, 2007).
possibilities and highly sustainable performance. Among Figure 6 plots the process, design parameters, require-
digital fabrication techniques, 3D printing (3DP) is charac- ments, issues and components related to 3D-printing tech-
terized by creating objects superposing layers of extruded nology. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects and
material. This new cast-in-place technology allows gener- synergies of NC and VMAs on cement paste rheology for
ating architectural elements with freedom design and struc- 3D-printing technology.
B)3D Printing Structural resistance Cold joints
Surface defects/
2 plastic cracking
4
1
3
Phase process Rheological Mechanical Issues Requirements Components
1 Pumpability Shear yield stress; - Plug; slip layer; low yield HRWRA, w/b
viscosity segregation stress VMAs
2 Extrudability Shear yield stress; - Plug; drainage; Avoid drainage; low HRWRA,
viscosity time windows yield stress VMAs
3 Deposition Shear yield stress; Compressive yield Discontinuity; low yield stress; Nanoclays;
first layer viscosity stress; surface defects; high viscosity; high VMAs
Young modulus Geometry young modulus
control
4 Buildability Thixotropy index Compressive yield Cold joints; High structural Nanoclays
stress; Buckling build-up; high
Young modulus compressive yield
stress; low young
modulus
Fig. 6 Summary of the main features of 3D printing technology. (Source: Own illustration partially adapted from Perrot & Rangeard, 2019)
Material Experimental Test Methods and Evaluation
Figure 7 describes the CBS compositions proposed for the Figure 8 plots the four experimental tests that were carried
3D-printing study. The 3D-printing material was evaluated at out on cement paste in this 3D-printing evaluation.
two scales: a cement paste phase and a mortar phase. A cone penetration test (CPT) was used to evaluate τ0 of
A reference cement paste (cement type CEM I 52.5R) and CBS. The tip cone fall into the sample and depth penetration
another blended (3:1) with fly ash (FA) were designed. A low was measured to calculate τ0 value (Mazhoud et al., 2019).
water to binder ratio was selected (0.27) and HRWRA was The test was repeated three times for each measurement.
used to reach the target consistency for 3D printing, ranging This method was carried out over time, from 10 to 90 min-
between 0 and 5% by binder weight. The target yield stress utes, to evaluate the τ0 evolution and the structural build-up
measured using the cone-penetrometer test was fixed at of cement paste. A DSR controlled constant rate test (CCR)
1 kPa. Then three NC, an attapulgite, a sepiolite and a ben- was also carried out to assess τ0 of cement paste. A rate of
tonite, were added in a 2% by binder weight and two VMAs, 0.5 s−1 and a four-vane geometry was used. The torque value
0.1% of a polyacrylamide-co-acrylate-based (VMA1) and was used to calculate τ0 of sample through a formulation
0.5% of a cellulose ether-based (VMA4), were included by described in the literature (Perrot et al., 2018). This test was
binder weight to the reference paste with FA. also performed over time (10–90 min) to obtain structural
On the other hand, mortar was designed incorporating build-up of mixtures. On the other hand, squeeze test (SQT)
river sand with a maximum size particle of 1mm. Besides, carried out in a DSR was used to evaluate compressive
natural fibres could be added to improve material strenght (σ0) at fresh state. A plate geometry was used to
buildability. squeeze a cylinder cement sample with a constant velocity of
Fig. 7 Material compositions

of 3D-printing samples:
II. 3D Printing
cement paste and mortar SCC.
(Source: Own illustration) I. Cement Paste
a. Cement I 52.5R
b. Filler: fly ash (3:1)
c. Water: low ratio of w/b (0.27)
CEMENT d. HRWRA: between 0-5%
a. BASED f.
e. Nanoclays: 2 %
e. f. VMAs: between 0.1-0.5%
SYSTEM d. II. Aggregates:
- River sand (1mm)
I. - Natural fibres
c.
b.
a) Cone-penetration test b) Squeeze test c) Rheometer test (CCR) d) Extrusion test

Rheometer Rheometer Piston
depth (mm)
Geometry Barrel
Cylinder
sample Nozzle
Cone
Sample Data Data
Register Register
Fig. 8 Experimental test methods used to evaluate 3DP: cement paste and mortar tests. (Source: Own illustration)
0.1 mm/s. The normal force obtained in the compression was yield stress. Nevertheless, sepiolite (SEP) also produced a
used to compute σ0 value. SQT was performed over time force reduction effect avoiding drainage in the piston of
(10–90 min) to measure σ0 evolution over time. In addition, extrusion test, although it showed a higher increase of τ0 over
a paste extrusion test (EXT) was carried out at 10 min. The time. Other NC were not able to produce the same effect than
extrusion force and the displacement were measured to cal- SEP. The combination of VMA4 and SEP showed a syner-
culate both τ0 and σ0 (Perrot et al., 2018). getic effect, being able to be extruded appropriately but pro-
duced higher τ0 values over time at EXT and CCR than
pastes without SEP.
Main Results On the other hand, VMAs reduced σ0 evolution over time.
VMA4 showed a low increase of σ0 over time but sample
Figure 9 summarizes the main results of cement paste with with SEP and VMA4 increased σ0 values. In general, SEP
NC and VMAs for 3D printing. All samples in this study increased initial σ0, but over time (from 70 min), samples
showed an initial τ0 stress of 1 kPa. The use of FA reduced τ0 with lower amount of HRWRA showed a higher σ0 evolu-
over time. However, FA did not reduce much the force extru- tion. That is the case of FA reference, which setting started
sion. That reduction was reached in all samples with cellu- probably earlier than SEP samples setting due to they have
lose ether-based (VMA4) being the samples with lower shear high amount of HRWRA.
Fig. 9 Main results of

cement paste samples of 3DP FA VMA4 SEP VMA4+SEP
study. FA reference, SEP,
VMA4 and VMA4+SEP 25 500
samples as a resume of 3DP CPt EXt
Yield Stress (kPa)

samples evaluation. (Source: 20 400
Own illustration)
Force (N)
15 300
10 200
5 100
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Time (min) Displacement (mm)
25 120
CCR SQt
Yield Stress (kPa)

Yield Stress (kPa)
20 90
15
60
10
30
5
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Time (min) Time (min)
Conclusions BE combined with VMA2 presented a synergetic effect on

SCC cement pastes that produce a reduction of HRWRA
In this study, the rheological and mechanical properties of percentage regarding samples only with BE. Besides, the
cement-based system (CBS) with nanocomponents (NC) and BE and VMA2 sample showed a huge increase of revers-
viscosity modifying admixtures (VMAs) for self-compacting ible build-up over time (effective thixotropy).
(SCC) and 3D-printing (3DP) cast-in-place technologies Opposite to FA reference, SEP and VMA4 produced a good
were evaluated. The experimental test methods used to mea- extrusion in 3D-printing cement samples. Also, SEP sam-
sure rheological and mechanical parameters were described. ples showed an earlier increase of τ0 over time but did not
From these results, some conclusions can be drawn: show the same effect with σ0 due to probably their high
amount of HRWRA required.
The study of rheological and mechanical parameters is nec-
essary to understand the change of material consistency
and solve the cast-in-place issues of SCC and 3DP.
The use of experimental test methods in laboratory is essen- References
tial to carry out an appropriate evaluation of rheology of
CBS. Each technology needs its own specific evaluating Barluenga, G., Giménez, M., Rodríguez, A., & Rio, O. (2017). Quality
control parameters for on-site evaluation of pumped self-compacting
test methods.
concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 154, 1112–1120.
Nano-modification is able to adjust the rheological and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.223
mechanical parameters of CBS in the fresh state. Ferron, R. (2008). Formwork pressure of self-consolidating con-
Especially, NC (as nanoclays and nanosilica) and VMAs crete: Influence of flocculation mechanisms, structural rebuild-
ing, thixotropy and rheology [Doctoral Dissertation, Northwestern
are able to modify these parameters on CBS. University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
The combination of NC and VMAs can produce synergies to Hou, P. K., Kawashima, S., Wang, K. J., Corr, D. J., Qian, J. S., &
control the initial yield stress and the structural build-up Shah, S. P. (2013). Effects of colloidal nanosilica on rheologi-
of CBS. cal and mechanical properties of fly ash–cement mortar. Cement
and Concrete Composites, 35, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Hugo Varela is a researcher in

cemconcomp.2012.08.027 Architecture at the University of
Kim, J. H., Beacraft, M., & Shah, S. P. (2010). Effect of mineral Alcalá, Spain. He is working as Ph.D.
admixtures on formwork pressure of self-consolidating concrete. Student in the research group of
Cement and Concrete Composites, 32(9), 665–671. https://doi. Professor Ph.D. Gonzalo Barluenga.
org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.07.018 The main research lines of the group
Kuder, K. G., & Shah, S. P. (2007). Rheology of extruded cement-based are about rheology and fresh state of
materials. ACI Materials Journal, 104(3), 283–290. advanced construction materials
Mazhoud, B., Perrot, A., Picandet, V., Rangeard, D., Courteille, cement-based, working on technolo-
E. (2019). Underwater 3D printing of cement-based mortar. gies such as self-compacting concrete
Construction and Building Materials, 214, 458–467. https://doi. and 3D Printing. He has been contrib-
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.134 uting in two national researches and
Okamura, H., & Ouchi, M. (2003). Self-compacting concrete. Journal one regional project of the group, pub-
of Advanced Concrete Technology, 1, 5–15. lishing two journal papers (Q1), four
Palacios, M., & Flatt, R. J. (2016). Working mechanism of viscosity- book chapters and one patent. He has
modifying admixtures. In P.-C. Aïtcin & R. J. Flatt (Eds.), attended several international conferences with three oral communica-
Science and technology of concrete admixtures (pp. 415– tions associated and has carried out two international short stays granted
432). Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/ by the University of Alcalá, under the supervision of Prof. Ph.D. A.
B978-0-08-100693-1.00020-5 Perrot (France, 2021) and Prof. Dr. M. Sonebi (UK, 2022).
Perrot, A., & Rangeard, D. (2019). 3D Printing in concrete: Techniques
for extrusion/casting. In A. Perrot (Ed.), 3D Printing of concrete. Gonzalo Barluenga holds a Ph.D. in
ISTE/Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119610755.ch2 Architecture and is Full Professor of
Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., Nerella, V. N., & Mechtcherine, V. Construction and Building Materials
(2018). Extrusion of cement-based materials – An overview. at the School of Architecture of the
RILEM Technical Letters, 3, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.21809/ University of Alcalá (Madrid, Spain).
rilemtechlett.2018.75 His lines of research involve
Roussel, N. (2018). Rheological requirements for printable con- Sustainability and Resilience of
cretes. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 76–85. https://doi. Innovative Building Materials and
org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.005 Architectural Technologies. He has
Sanchez, F., & Sobolev, K. (2010). Nanotechnology in concrete – A led multidisciplinary research projects
review. Construction and Building Materials, 24(11), 2060–2071. on innovative, fire resistance, sustain-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.03.014 able, energy efficient and resilient
Varela, H., Barluenga, G., & Palomar, I. (2020). Influence of nano- cement-based materials and construc-
clays on flowability and rheology of SCC pastes. Construction tion technologies. He leads a research
and Building Materials, 243, 118285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. team that collaborates with several national and international groups on
conbuildmat.2020.118285 bio-based and bio-inspired smart building materials and digital fabrica-
Varela, H., Barluenga, G., Palomar, I., & Sepulcre, A. (2021). Synergies tion for architecture. He has published more than 100 articles and book
on rheology and structural build-up of fresh cement pastes with chapters and he holds several patents.
nanoclays, nanosilica and viscosity modifying admixtures.
Construction and Building Materials, 308, 125097. https://doi. Arnaud Perrot holds a Ph.D. in
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125097 Civil Engineering and is Full Professor
Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, at the University of Southern Brittany
M., Bernhard, M., Dillenburger, B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N., (Lorient, France). His research lines
& Flatt, R. (2016). Digital concrete: Opportunities and chal- lead with rheology of cement- based
lenges. RILEM Technical Letter, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.21809/ and raw earth material on digital fabri-
rilemtechlett.2016.16 cation and underwater 3D printing. He
is leading a research team that collabo-
rates with many researchers and insti-
tutions worldwide involved in digital
fabrication technologies with con-
crete. He has published numerous
highly cited contributions (beyond 500
citations per year in 2021 and 2022)
and has more than 130 co-authors in his background. In addition, he is
a member of the editorial board of Materials and Structures journal
(Springer) and has been in charge of a special issue about digital fabri-
cation on the journal Materials (MDPI).
Bacteria Encapsulation Method
for Achieving Post-Fire Self-Healing
in Concrete
Ajitanshu Vedrtnam and Gonzalo Barluenga
Abstract working for fire protection of concrete structures was

proposed.
Fire is a noteworthy threat to human life and civil infra-
structures. Civil engineers are craving for safer sustain- Keywords
able replacements of concrete that fulfill the fire safety Bacteria · Concrete · Fire · PET · Self-healing · Waste
requirements without compromising their intended
design. Firstly, the article reports development of cement-
based composites consisting on processed plastic (PET) Introduction
bottle residuals with improved residual compressive per-
formance. The PET bottles are processed using novel The requirement for fire safe structural materials is evident
constraint oxygen heating and residual condensation pro- due to consistent unfortunate fire disasters (www.nfpa.org).
cess. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micro- Although concrete structures are safer than other construc-
graphs were used to establish structure-property relations, tion materials, fire exposure deteriorates concrete properties
and the reasons of improved residual compressive perfor- (Shah & Sharma, 2017; Haddad et al., 2008). Concrete per-
mance were recognized. formance in fire is widely studied as occupants and structural
It is well known that the fire exposure deteriorates and safety depend on concrete behavior in fire (Abid et al., 2017;
selected bacteria can self-heal concrete. The concrete Anand & Godwin, 2016; Li et al., 2004; Ma et al., 2015).
rehydration allows pore structures recovery to an extent Concrete deteriorates due to cement paste interface and
but with minor improvement in the mechanical perfor- aggregate debonding, aggregate deformation, thermal
mance. The present work also reports the post-fire self- incompatibility of constituents, cement paste chemical trans-
healing of concrete for the first time in literature. Novel formation, CSH gel disruption, and internal pressure due to
encapsulation strategy is suggested for protecting bacteria entrapped steam (Chu et al., 2016). The concrete perfor-
incorporated into concrete samples during fire and later mance deterioration depends also on concrete grade. The
facilitating bacteria activation for self-healing. The pre- lower concrete grade deteriorates lesser in comparison to
and post-fire residual compressive strength of samples higher concrete grades (Shah & Sharma, 2017). The heating
was described. Concrete deterioration with fire duration rate and duration also determine concrete performance
and intensity along with recovery in mechanical perfor- (Thanaraj et al., 2019). Fire-resistant concrete is commer-
mance due to self-healing for 1 month was assessed. cially available these days. Post-fire curing is successful to
Finally, a new research direction to the professionals some extent. Besides, active fire control methods such as
sprinklers also combat fire in buildings.
A. Vedrtnam (*) The plastic production is peaking all the time and solid
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Invertis University, plastic waste, posing a challenge for research community.
Bareilly, UP, India
For achieving circular economy and sustainability, it is
Department of Architecture, University of Alcala, essential to develop effective methods for converting waste
Alcalá de Henares, Spain
plastics into useful products as presently more than 90% of
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
solid plastic waste is either landfilled or incinerated. The effi-
G. Barluenga
cient utilization of waste plastic in construction products is
Department of Architecture, University of Alcala,
Alcalá de Henares, Spain rewarding but challenging due to compatibility issues. In the
e-mail: [email protected] present work, constrained oxygen heating and residual con-
216 A. Vedrtnam and G. Barluenga
densation (COH-RC) method (www.nationalgeographic. with water that allows the condensing exhaust gases. The
com) is utilized for producing the waste polyethylene tere- temperature range was 500 ° C to 600 ° C for 30 minutes.
phthalate (PET) residual. The PET residual was utilized as The porous plastic residual includes carbon-rich content that
reinforcement to produce cement-based composites (CBC) is not converted into exhaust gases during constraint oxygen
with an aim to achieve fire retardancy. heating. The porous plastic residual was left in the container
The application of self-healing concrete is growing com- where plastic was heated. The gases are condensed into
mercially. Healing agents that consist of dormant bacterial another closed container filled with water. This condensation
spores are commercially available. The water penetrates in process results into three separate layers inside the container
cracks of concrete structure and the dormant bacteria are of grease, oil, and water. The porous plastic residual from
activated. The bacterial activity results in calcium carbonate PET is shown in Fig. 2. The residual oil and grease are used
formation that self-heals the concrete up to specific dimen- for biodiesel/foam production and as lubricant, respectively.
sions (Vedrtnam et al., 2020). Since post-fire self-healing are However, they are yet not characterized fully to identify their
yet not tried in cited literature, the use of bacteria for post- further applications. The residual oil was having flammabil-
fire healing is considered as the objective of the present ity and may have many other possible applications. An inten-
work. This is to be noted that the protection of bacteria dur- sive experimentation is required to achieve the stated
ing the fire and further controlled activation of bacteria for objectives in the next section.
self-healing is challenging. Novel encapsulation method is The PET residual was converted into a powder before
attempted in the present work to achieve this in CBC with being used as reinforcement in CBCs.
bacteria. The present work reports fire-resistant construction All the samples were heated for 1 hour in fire (Fig. 3a–c)
products with post-fire self-healing features. These construc- and also in furnace following ISO 834. Figure 3d shows the
tion products will be a promising alternative with superior thermal loading scheme. Fig. 4 shows comparison of time-
safety features to the existing concrete. temperature variation in furnace and recommended by
ISO834.
The surface temperature of the samples was measured
Material and Methods using an infrared and K-type thermocouples. The nonuni-
form surface temperature was post-processed to determine
Cubical samples of reference concrete, CBC-PET (10% PET average temperature at the mid of each sample face. In
by volume) and CBC-PET samples having 10% (by volume) Fig. 3d:
proportions of bacteria + calcium lactate + encapsulation
were prepared for fire and compression testing, by casting • T1, average temperature at bottom (exposed) face
them in wooden molds (150 mm3) with the assistance of a • T2, T3, T4, and T5, four-side cube face temperatures
vibrator. The samples were removed from the wooden molds • T6, denoting the top face temperature
after 24 hours and cured in water up to 28 days at 26–32 °C
(ambient conditions). The standard ASTM test procedures A standard compression testing machine (loading rate = 3
are used for evaluating the physical properties of concrete. KN/min) was used for determining the residual compressive
Cement, sand, aggregate (>19 mm), and water were strength of samples. SEM micrographs of the fractured sam-
345 kg/m3, 881 kg/m3, 1081 kg/m3, and 228 kg/m3, respec- ples were used to establish structure-property relationship.
tively, in the concrete samples. Water to cement ratio was The CBC-PET samples with gelatin capsules for encap-
0.6. Cement, natural sand, and aggregate conformed to sulating the bacteria as a replacement for the natural sand
ASTM C150 and ASTM C33-16, respectively. The specific and coarse aggregates based on filler sizes were casted, the
gravity and loose density (kg/m3) of natural sand and aggre- 400 mg, “#1” size of gelatin capsules immobilized bacteria.
gate were 2.39 and 2.61, 2002.4, and 1818.1, respectively. The gelatin capsules were filled with 70% bacteria and 30%
CBC samples included PET plastic bottle residual as a calcium lactate mixture in the first encapsulation method.
replacement for natural sand in 10% by volume. The particle These capsules were coated with cement paste as shown in
size of PET residuals was less than 1.18 mm, as measured by Fig. 5 before their incorporation into the concrete samples.
the sieve analysis.
The PET residual was produced using constraint oxygen
heating and residual condensation (COH-RC) method. Results and Discussion
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram and products of plastic
recycling used in COH-RC method. COH-RC method The average natural, submerged, and saturated weights of
includes heating plastics at different temperatures into a concrete, CBC-PET, and CBC-PET with bacteria encapsula-
closed container with air but no air supply during the process tion were 2230, 1278, 2276 g; 2180, 1270, 2210 g; and 2076,
and directing the exhaust gases into another chamber filled 1242, 2164 g. Figure 6 shows the average time-temperature
Bacteria Encapsulation Method for Achieving Post-Fire Self-Healing in Concrete 217
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of

COH-RC method and
photograph of residual
products
exposure and also after keeping sample for post-fire self-

healing for 28 days in ambient conditions. Concrete samples
were having highest compressive strength followed by CBC-
PET and CBC-PET with bacteria-encapsulated samples. The
post-fire average residual compressive strength was the max-
imum in CBC-PET samples followed by CBC-PET samples
with encapsulated bacteria. For both furnace heating and fire
exposure, the concrete samples were degraded most.
The possible reason for better post-fire performance of
CBC samples with PET residual could be the limited deterio-
ration due to presence of carbon-rich burnt porous residual
that allows passage of entrapped steam and observed limited
deterioration during fire. The samples were kept in ambient
condition for 28 days post-fire exposure. The most signifi-
cant recovery is observed in the samples with bacteria.
The post-fire recovery in CC-PET bacteria samples was
Fig. 2 PET bottle residual
greater in fire-exposed samples than in furnace-heated sam-
ples. The possible reason of survival of encapsulated bacteria
could be the protection by the cement coating on gelatin cap-
variation of all faces of the samples when subjected to fire sules. During fire, the water in cement paste might have lost
exposure for an hour. that causes cracks in the coating. The gelatin might have
Figure 7 shows two infrared thermometer images of the melted during fire. Later, the cracks in cement coating might
samples during fire exposure. Along with K-type thermo- have allowed penetration of moisture and activation of bacte-
couple infrared, thermocouple images were also used for ria for self-healing. However, additional investigation is
observing the temperature across the dimensions of the required to confirm the same.
samples. Further, the weight of samples post-fire and post-fire
Figure 8 shows the images of sample after fire exposure. recovery were measured. Up to 2% weight gain is observed
It is evident from the images that the bottom face of the sam- in CBC-PET with bacteria self-healed samples in compari-
ples was severely deteriorated due to fire exposure. son to weights just after fire exposure. Insignificant change
Table 1 shows the average compressive strength of the in weights post fire and after keeping the samples 28 days for
samples (minimum three of each type) pre- and post-fire recovery was observed in concrete and CBC-PET sample.
Fig. 3 Selected photographs of fire testing for the CBC specimens: (a) furnace view, (b) setup, and (c) heating stage, with (d) thermal loading
scheme (Vedrtnam et al., 2020)
Fig. 4 Time-temperature in
experiment vs. standard ISO
834 fire curve (Vedrtnam
et al., 2020)
Fig. 5 Cement paste-coated gelatin capsules encapsulating bacteria
800
T1 ther detailed study is needed to establish mechanism of post-
T2,T3,T4,T5 fire self-healing of encapsulated CBC-PET samples.
600
T6
Temperature (°C)
Conclusions
400
The present work reports utilizing PET residual produced by
COH-RC method for producing fire-retardant cement-based
200 composites and possibility of post-fire self-healing by inno-
vative encapsulation strategies. The performance of con-
crete, CBC-PET, and CBC-PET with encapsulated bacteria
0 was reported during ISO 834 furnace heating and nonuni-
0 20 40 60 form direct fire exposure for 1 h. The following are the main
Time (min) conclusions:
Fig. 6 Average time-temperature variation at all edges of samples sub- • Concrete samples have the highest compressive strength
jected to fire followed by CBC-PET samples and CBC-PET with
bacteria-encapsulated samples.
• CBC-PET bottle residual have highest residual compres-
The increase in weight of self-healed CBC-PET with bacte- sive strength followed by CBC-PET with encapsulated
ria samples gives an indication of bacteria activation and bacteria and concrete samples.
formation of calcium carbonate in these samples that
• The concrete and CBC-PET samples have shown more
accounts for better residual compressive strength. surface cracks in nonuniform fire exposure compared to
Figure 9 shows the SEM images of concrete, CBC-PET, furnace heating for same fire duration.
and CBC-PET with encapsulated bacteria samples. The • CBC-PET samples with encapsulated bacteria gained up
SEM image of CBC-PET sample shows porous phases in to 2% of weight 28 days after curing in ambient condi-
comparison to concrete sample SEM image. This support the tions from post-fire weight.
logic that entrapped steam during fire might be escaped from • The CBC-PET samples with encapsulatedbacteria
the CBC-PET samples that resulted in lesser undue internal regained 7.76% compressive strength in furnace-heated
stresses and lesser degradation of these samples. Figure 9c samples and 7.96% in fire-exposed samples.
shows the presence of coated gelatin capsules. The irregular • The SEM micrographs have shown pores in the micro-
surface texture is further exaggerated due to the cement paste structure of CBC-PET sample that has resulted in lesser
coating on the gelatin capsule in CBC-PET bacteria encap- compressive strength but superior residual compressive
sulated samples. The post-fire recovery achieved in current strength in CBC-PET samples compared to concrete
investigation encourages for a detailed investigation. A fur- samples.
Fig. 7 Infrared thermometer images during fire exposure
Fig. 8 Sample images post-fire exposure
Table 1 Compressive strength of samples pre- and post-fire exposure and post self-healing
Average compressive strength
(MPa)
Concrete CBC
PET PET-bacteria
Temperature (°C)/proportion (%) – 10 10
27 (ambient) 19.21 18.6 18.4
1 h heating in furnace 6.11 7.9 7.4
1 h heating in fire 5.77 7.1 6.9
28 days post fire (furnace samples) 6.12 7.96 8.78
28 days post fire (fire exposed samples) 5.81 7.17 8.96
References
Abid, M., Hou, X., Zheng, W., et al. (2017). High temperature and resid-
ual properties of reactive powder concrete – A review. Construction
and Building Materials, 147, 339–351.
Anand, N., & Godwin, A. (2016). Influence of mineral admixtures on
mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete under elevated
temperature. Fire and Materials, 7(40), 940–958.
Chu, H. Y., Jiang, J. Y., Sun, W., et al. (2016). Mechanical and physico-
chemical properties of ferro-siliceous concrete subjected to elevated
temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 122, 743–752.
Haddad, R. H., Al-Saleh, R. J., & Al-Akhras, N. M. (2008). Effect of
elevated temperature on bond between steel reinforcement and fiber
reinforced concrete. Fire Safety Journal, 43, 334–343.
Li, M., Qian, C., & Sun, W. (2004). Mechanical properties of high-
strength concrete after fire. Cement and Concrete Research, 34,
1001–1005.
Ma, Q., Guo, R., Zhao, Z., et al. (2015). Mechanical properties of con-
crete at high temperature—A review. Construction and Building
Materials, 93, 371–383.
Shah, A. H., & Sharma, U. K. (2017). Fire resistance and spalling per-
formance of confined concrete columns. Construction and Building
Materials, 156, 161–174.
Thanaraj, D. P., Anand, N., Prince Arulraj, G., & Zalok, E. (2019).
Post-fire damage assessment and capacity based model-
ing of concrete exposed to elevated temperature. International
Journal of Damage Mechanics, 105678951988148. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1056789519881484
Vedrtnam, A., Bedon, C., & Barluenga, G. (2020). Study on the com-
pressive behaviour of sustainable cement-based composites under
one-hour of direct flame exposure. Sustainability, 12(24), 10548.
Ajitanshu Vedrtnam has more than

18 years of research and teaching
experience. He has completed B.E.
(Mechanical Engineering), MBA
(Marketing), M.E. (Manufacturing)-
Gold Medalist, GATE (M.E) and
Ph.D. (Applied Mechanics). Vedrtnam
has published more than 100 articles
including 50 articles in high impact
journals, holds 2 patents and authored
2 books. Vedrtnam has been actively
involved in research for building state-
of-the-art technological systems to
handle key challenges related to struc-
tural materials, energy supply and environmental issues. Vedrtnam is
the recipient of prestigious fellowships including Marie-Curie grant,
post-doctoral fellowships by University of California, USA, Technion
Israel institute of Technology, Israel, Institute of advanced Materials,
Fig. 9 SEM images of (a) concrete, (b) CBC-PET, and (c) CBC-PET Sweden, Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India, etc. He serves as a scientific
with encapsulated bacteria evaluator, member of experts in several panels and committees to vari-
ous entities; member of Ph.D. committees, and has been invited for
100+ plenary, keynote and invited lectures in international conferences.
He has guided a good number of students on Cement-Based Composites,
Acknowledgments This project has received funding from the Energy storage materials, Bio- fuels, Structural glass, Additive
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program Manufacturing, Composite Materials, and Aerodynamics. He is serving
under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 754382, GOT as editor-in-chief, editor, editorial board member and reviewer for many
ENERGY TALENT. The content of this article does not reflect the offi- peer-reviewed international journals. Vedrtnam was PI/Co-PI of multi-
cial opinion of the European Union. Responsibility for the information ple research projects sponsored by the Department of Science and
and views expressed herein lies entirely with the author(s). The waste Technology, Govt. of India, IC IMPACT, Canada, Ministry of HRD,
PET recycling section of the study is supported by the Department of India, NAVA, Poland, etc.
Science and Technology, India.
Gonzalo Barluenga holds a Ph.D.

in Architecture and is Full Professor
of Construction and Building
Materials at the School of Archi
tecture of the University of Alcalá
(Madrid, Spain). His lines of research
involve Sustainability and Resilience
of Innovative Building Materials and
Architectural Technologies. He has
led multidisciplinary research proj-
ects on innovative, fire resistance,
sustainable, energy efficient and
resilient cement-based materials and
construction technologies. He leads
a research team that collaborates
with several national and international groups on bio-based and bio-
inspired smart building materials and digital fabrication for architec-
ture. He has published more than 100 articles and book chapters and he
holds several patents.
Adaptative and Bioinspired Materials:
Cement-Based Materials
with Self-Modulating and Self-Sensing
Properties
Javier Puentes, Irene Palomar, Gonzalo Barluenga,

and Cynthia Guardia Martin
Abstract
Keywords
The approach to sustainability in architecture can be con- Cement-based material · Energy efficiency · Phase
sidered as the reduction of the use of resources during the change material · Self-sensing materials · Carbon-based
whole life of buildings. For cement-based materials, the fibers
strategy is focused on material optimization related to raw
materials extraction, manufacturing process, life span,
and finally the possibility of reuse or recycling. This chap- Introduction
ter shows the possibility of achieving the objective
through novel and alternative ways where the environment- The development of materials with self-responsive proper-
material interaction is the basis of this development for ties is an alternative within the strategy for the reduction of
new cement-based materials. This adaptability results in energy consumption in construction materials (Bekzhanova
materials with self-responsive properties: self-sensitive, et al., 2021). To reach this objective, the life cycle of the
self-healing, self-modulating, and self-cleaning. In the material must be considered, from its design, its placement
present paper, two self-responsive materials are shown. In on site, the extension of its life span and reduction of main-
the first case, material design is based on reducing energy tenance, and finally its reuse or recycling, reducing the over-
consumption through energy efficiency, by accumulating all environmental footprint.
heat in a dynamic environment. The second material Self-responsive materials are useful once the material has
investigates the self-sensitivity capacity that can diagnose been placed in the element/object, collaborating to the reduc-
and identify changes of mechanical properties that could tion of energy consumption.
compromise durability, saving maintenance resources. Accordingly, self-responsive materials are the example of
In both studies, the search for new properties is the search for sustainability and durability in construction
achieved using different additions that incorporate new through these three aspects:
capabilities to the cement-based materials. Phase change
materials (PCM) were used as self-modulating materials 1. Expanded life span
in cement-lime mortar for thermal regulation, while micro 2. Reduction of energy consumption with durable materials
and nano carbon-based fibers (CNF) were used in self- and constructions
compacting concrete (SCC) to vary the electrical proper- 3. Application throughout its life span of the benefits that
ties, turning the material into a real-time sensor. These are part of a system to reduce the energy footprint without
nano- and microscale modified materials are presented as sacrificing the comfort of the user
real alternatives in the search for dynamic materials
applied to sustainable construction. These initiatives, either directly or indirectly, are the alter-
natives proposed together with the human actions of the
maintenance or use of the architectural element that pursue
energy efficiency.
J. Puentes (*) · I. Palomar · G. Barluenga · C. G. Martin
Self-responsive materials can be classified based on their
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; main purpose, mode of action, and form of action. This cat-
[email protected]; [email protected] egorization comprises the different types of materials, as
224 J. Puentes et al.
well as the latest technological developments. The self-

responsive materials presented in this article are categorized
by the type of response action: self-modulating materials and
self-sensing materials.
The paper describes the development of two types of
cement-based materials. The first one is a cement-lime mor-
tar for multilayer wall coatings and its thermal performance
by taking advantage of the heat storage capacity of the mate-
rial (Cabeza et al., 2011). The second material is a self-
compacting concrete (SSC) with self-sensing capabilities.
The material incorporates carbon-based material additions,
carbon nanofibers and carbon microfibers, to provide electri-
cal properties and transform SCC into a real-time sensor of Fig. 1 Phase change process and operation of a PCM (Guardia et al.,
the architectural element. 2019)
These studies present two research lines for different
building material applications seeking energy efficiency
through different routes. Nevertheless, they present a single perlite (LWA) were also incorporated to the mortar in differ-
objective: energy efficiency and savings approached from ent proportions to improve the thermal insulation of the mix-
totally different visions in the development of new materials ture. A total of 12 mortars were studied.
research.
Methodology and Testing

Self-Modulating Cement-Lime Mortar
The testing techniques used in this study focused on the eval-
To achieve self-modulating capacity, the reference mortar uation of the energy storage capacity developed by the PCM
incorporates a phase change material (PCM) in the form of mortars when the melting temperature was reached during
microencapsulated paraffin wax. This mortar performs as a heating and cooling cycles. The experimental work com-
self-modulating material that provides energy efficiency by prised three phases. The first phase involved the character-
reducing energy consumption, offering thermal comfort. ization of the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of
This is the role of self-modulating materials, where the the mortars (Palomar et al., 2019; Guardia et al., 2019). In
objective is to provide the material with an adaptability that the second phase, an analysis of the thermal behavior of the
allows responding to temperature and humidity changes mortar under different environmental conditions was carried
without requiring energy consumption. Paraffin wax-based out. Finally, the mortar was evaluated incorporated in a mul-
PCM main characteristics are thermal and chemical stability, tilayered building enclosure subjected to different environ-
noncorrosive, recyclable, and low cost in the commercial mental conditions (Guardia et al., 2020).
market. The ease of mixing microencapsulated materials The fresh and hardened properties of the material, physi-
with other components allows the cement-lime mortar for cal properties of density, open porosity, capillary absorption,
rendering applications to absorb and accumulate energy due and water vapor permeability were characterized. Also, the
to external temperature variation, balancing the heat varia- mechanical strength in compression, flexural strength, and
tions produced by day/night cycles as shown in Fig. 1. elastic constants of the material were evaluated. Finally, the
thermal properties of conductivity and enthalpy were also
assessed (Guardia et al., 2019). Within the series of tests, an
Materials evaluation of the heat flow through the multilayer wall, simu-
lating a multilayered enclosure, was carried out using a cli-
Micronal DS 5040X microencapsulated paraffin waxes sup- mate chamber as shown in Fig. 4.
plied by BASF were used in this study, with microcapsule Twelve different mortar mixtures were used in combina-
sizes ranging 50–300 μm. The melting point for the phase tion with a multilayer enclosure building system composed
change of this commercially available wax is 23 °C, which is by a hollow brick masonry layer, PCM mortar, and extruded
near the human comfort temperature (Fig. 2). The main polystyrene insulation (XPS), where the mortar was the vari-
properties of the microcapsules are presented in Fig. 3. able of the system in order to compare the performance of
A 10% and 20% PCM was added to a reference cement- the different mortar compositions under different indoor/out-
lime (type BLII/B-L 32.5 N and CL90-S, respectively) ren- door environmental conditions as cycles of heating and cool-
dering mortar, with a silica sand 0–4. Cellulose fibers (F) and ing. Each cycle lasted 1400 min.
Adaptative and Bioinspired Materials: Cement-Based Materials with Self-Modulating and Self-Sensing Properties 225
Fig. 2 PCM performance characteristics (Guardia et al., 2019)
Paraffin wax (MICRONAL DS 5040X)

Appearance Powder
Bulk density 300-400
kg/m3
Melting point 23ªc
Enthalpy 96 KJ/kg
Heat capacity (10ºC-30ºC) 136KJ/kg
Size 50-300µm
Fig. 3 Basic properties of paraffin wax microcapsules

Fig. 4 Experimental setup of a constructive solution at different temperature conditions (Guardia et al., 2020)
Results
Table 1 summarizes the main experimental results for tem-

perature and heat flux (HF) for enclosure specimens with
an intermediate mortar layer with 20% of PCM, LWA, and
cellulose fibers under heating and cooling cycles, com-
pared to the reference mortar without PCM. The multilayer
wall with cement-lime mortar with 20% PCM and LWA
(CL20) showed the best thermal performance, storing
more heat, taking advantage of the material storage capac-
ity as shown in Table 1. The increase of heat storage and
heat wave delay regarding the reference mortar is plotted
in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Heat flux of multilayer cladding with lime mortar C20 and lime
Conclusions mortar with lightweight aggregates CL20. (Guardia et al., 2020)
The addition of PCM to a reference cement-lime mortar Table 1 Evaluation results of heating-cooling processes for multilayer
modifies physical, mechanical, and thermal properties, enclosure with different types of PCM mortars in climatic chamber
reducing density and strength while increasing the heat stor- cycles
age capacity. The use of lightweight aggregates and cellulose C C20 CF20 CL20 CLF20
fibers improved the PCM mortar properties. Multilayered Heating (15–30 °C)
enclosures can benefit from the thermal behavior of PCM HF max. ext. 105 90 95 140 110
(W/m2)
cement-lime mortar, improving inner comfort during heat-
Inflection point int. 370 400 580 440 540
ing/cooling cycles without additional energy consumption, (min)
increasing building energy efficiency. Cooling (30–15 °C)
HF max. ext. 100 90 110 95 105
(W/m2)
Inflection point int. (min) 320 450 270 540 270
elf-Compacting Concrete with Self-Sensing

S Real-time monitoring is not a new approach of diagnos-
Properties tics (Taheri, 2019). The sensors used in concrete can be
embedded or bonded to the surface with the limitations of
Concrete can develop self-sensitivity through the incorpora- use they may have (Fig. 6). However, the development of
tion of additions that can modify its electrical properties sensors where the material itself is the sensor is the result
(Han et al., 2015). The objective is to transform a material shown in the present work (Azhari & Banthia, 2012).
into a real-time sensor that allows data collection and analy- This material is known as intrinsic self-sensing concrete
sis to detect damages and to locate and quantify them in a (ISSC) and refers to a material that uses its microstructure to
predictive and preventive way. This property would allow to self-monitoring without any connection or remote-integrated
predict and to increase the life span of the structure with effi- sensors (Han et al., 2015). Piezoresistivity (PZR) relates the
cient performance levels. This type of application could electrical properties of concrete to its mechanical properties,
determine changes in the material by normal use and acci- linking the action-reaction effect to a tensile stress.
dental changes by external aggressive agents. For this type of This property is incorporated in cement-based materials
material, a number of factors must be taken into account, as with conductive additions that contribute to the concrete/
(a) parameter to be measured, (b) aggressiveness of the envi- mortar the piezoelectric capacity (PZE). This incorporation
ronment, (c) time and sequence of monitoring, and (d) struc- is made to the concrete paste and is limited to the percentage
tural typology. of paste in the total content of the mixture. That is why the
Fig. 6 Different types of control and monitoring systems for structures (Taheri, 2019)
use of SCC, with higher paste content than conventional con- Methodology and Testing
crete, allows a greater volume of addition with regard to the
other components of the concrete mix. The use of carbon- The self-sensing test was performed following the direct
based nanocomponents improves the electrical conductivity method test, Standard UNE 83988-1, used as shown in
of the material based on its size, improving the percolation Fig. 8, in order to determine the variation of the electrical
path from the distribution in the matrix and electron hopping resistivity according to the addition.
between the different CBM added (Bekzhanova et al., 2021). The test can quantify the variation of the electrical resis-
To measure the material electrical and PZE properties, tivity and the improvement versus the amount of CBM in
electrical resistance and resistivity (current-voltage) tests percentage with regard to cement weight. The amount of
were carried out to measure the variation of the direct electri- addition ranged from 0% to 3%, limited by the workability
cal resistivity and PZR (current-voltage and charge) based on and the compromise of the consistency and the self-
Ohm’s law (1): compactibility of the sample (Fig. 8).
R concrete (Ω) : R = V/I Prismatic compression specimens with loading and
unloading cycles were used for the PZR test. The loading
R concrete .m R S / L (1)
speed was 0.1 kN/s and the loading interval for each cycle
varied between 2 kN and 10 kN. Current (2 V) was supplied
This parameter is used to define the variation of the elec- between the outer terminals as shown in Fig. 9 (left). The
trical properties of the material, which are directly related to variation of resistance and resistivity was measured during
the piezoresistivity properties to be achieved by the modified the loading and unloading cycles according to the previously
concrete. published equations (Alonso & Puentes, 2020).
Materials Results
To achieve this objective, several research groups have used The results presented in Fig. 8 (right) show the reduction in
carbon-based materials (CBM) as particles or fibers and in resistivity with the combined use of nanofibers and microfi-
nanometric or micrometric sizes. The addition can be a com- bers in the added proportions of up to 3%. A trend line is
bination of different types, producing a hybrid solution. In observed where the resistivity is reduced indicating an
addition to the different types of fibers, CBM as particles improvement in the electrical conductivity of the material in
such as carbon black and graphene oxide are also used around an order of magnitude.
(Azhari & Banthia, 2012). It was observed that the use of microfibers is limited to
The experimental studies were carried out with carbon percentages around 2%. For higher percentages, the self-
nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, and carbon microfibers in compactibility of the mixture was compromised.
sizes of 6 and 12 mm (Table 2). The self-compacting con- Regarding PZR, a pattern of variation of the resistivity of
crete was made with CEM 1 42.5 and complies with the flu- the material as a function of the applied load can be observed
idity requirements of an SCC. in Fig. 10. A correlation between the electrical conductivity
Tests were performed on cylindrical specimens of and the applied load can be observed. The microstructural
150 × 300 mm and prismatic specimens of 40 × 40 × 160 mm modification produced by the force produced the alignment
as show in Fig. 7. Electrical resistance measurements can be of the atomic structure, allowing an easier transmission of
performed on both specimen geometries. For prismatic spec- electrons as an effect of the PZR property. Figure 10 shows
imens, stainless-steel mesh-embedded terminals are used for the relationship between the load-deformation-resistivity
the connection terminals as shown in Fig. 9. For cylindrical variables and their evident proportionality with respect to the
specimens, wire terminals bonded with conductive paint on magnitude of the applied load.
the specimen surface were used (Fig. 7, right).
Table 2 Main properties of nano and micro carbon-based fibers (CNF) Conclusions
Type CMF CNF
Length 6/12 mm 30 μm An improvement in the electrical conductivity properties of
Diameter 7 μm 20–80 nm concrete has been obtained with the addition of
Carbon content 95% CBM. Accordingly, it was possible to set the property of
Tensile strength 4.0 GPa PZR in a self-compacting concrete by introducing the prop-
Resistivity (Ω.m) 1.5 × 10−4 1 × 10−3 erty of self-sensitivity. However, the incorporation of larger
Density (g/cm3) 1.80 1.97
Fig. 7 Left: specimen of 40 × 40 × 160 mm (Alonso et al., 2021). Right: cylindrical specimen of 150 × 300 mm (Azhari & Banthia, 2012)
Fig. 8 Electrical resistance measurement, direct methods (Alonso & Puentes, 2020)
amounts of carbon-based components could compromise the regulation, seeking energy efficiency to reach a state of equi-
concrete self-compactibility. librium in energy costs, through the reduction of consump-
tion. A promising initial result have been obtained with these
types of mortar and PCM additions.
Final Conclusions Self-sensitive materials include a large number of techno-
logical possibilities, using the material as a sensor. They
Advances in cement-based materials show the ability to make it possible to extend the service life of materials by
approach the objectives of the search for adaptive materials as introducing efficient maintenancesystems for infrastructures,
an alternative to modern needs. These materials are the example rationalizing resources. The objective is to improve the per-
of an answer to the search for energy efficiency and the saving formance of materials for a more eco-sustainable future. The
of material resources from two totally different points of view. future of materials is focused on improving their perfor-
Phase change materials (PCM) were used as self- mance from the ability to interact with the environment and
modulating materials in cement-lime mortar for thermal respond to external inputs.
Fig. 9 PZR test setup measurement of variation of resistance under load stress (Alonso & Puentes, 2020)
Fig. 10 Compressive load cycles and electric conductivity proportional variations

Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the funds provided by Master of Architecture Program, in different Universities in Spain and
the Research Program for the Promotion of Young Researchers, co- Latin America. The research work was complemented with the profes-
funded by Comunidad de Madrid and the University of Alcala (Spain), sional activity in a I+D+I laboratory for construction materials in the
as part of the project IndoorComfort (CM/JIN/2019-46). private sector. It allowed Javier Puentes a specific specialization and a
Also, this study has been partially funded by the European Union by direct relation with the constructive processes.
the action HORIZON-TMA-MSCA-SE “BEST-Bio-based Energy-
efficient materials and Structures for Tomorrow” (grant number Irene Palomar is an Assistant
101086440). Professor in the Department of
Architecture at the University of
Alcalá, Spain, since 2019. Her
References research interests include advanced
building materials, physical-mechan-
ical characterization of cement-based
Alonso, M. C., & Puentes, J. (2020). Self-compacted concrete with building materials, sustainable mate-
self-protection and self-sensing functionality for energy infrastruc- rials and building technologies for
tures. Materials, 13(5), 1106. architectural applications and refur-
Alonso, M. C., Puentes, J., Gómez, A., Chozas, V., & Vera, J. (2021). bishment. She worked in eight proj-
Health monitoring of failure detection of functionalized cementi- ects as a part of research group leaded
tious composites with self-diagnosis additives of CNT+CMF. In by Prof. Gonzalo Barluenga. She has
Proceedings of the international conference on SHMII-10 (Porto, participated in international and
Portugal), 251–258. national conferences and co-authored
Azhari, F., & Banthia, N. (2012). Cement-based sensors with carbon 18 papers in indexed journals.
fibers and carbon nanotube for piezo resistivity sensing. Cement and
Concrete Composites, 34, 866–873. Gonzalo Barluenga holds a Ph.D.
Bekzhanova, Z., Memon, S. A., & Kim, J. R. (2021). Self-sensing in Architecture and is Full Professor
cementitious composites: Review and perspective. Nanomaterials of Construction and Building
(Basel), 11(9), 2355. Materials at the School of Archi
Cabeza, L. F., Castell, A., Cabeza, L. F., De Gracia, A., & Fernandez, tecture of Alcalá (Madrid, Spain).
A. I. (2011). Materials used as PCM in thermal energy storage in His lines of research involve
buildings: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Sustainability and Resilience of
15, 1675–1695. Innovative Building Materials and
Guardia, C., Barluenga, G., Palomar, I., & Diarce, G. (2019). Thermal Architectural Technologies. He has
enhanced cement- lime mortars with phase change materials led multidisciplinary research proj-
(PCM), lightweight aggregate and cellulose fibers. Construction ects on innovative, fire resistance,
and Building Materials, 221, 586–594. sustainable, energy efficient and
Guardia, C., Barluenga, G., & Palomar, I. (2020). PCM cement-lime resilient cement-based materials and
mortars for enhanced energy efficiency of multilayered building construction technologies. He leads a
enclosures under different climatic conditions. Materials, 13, 4043. research team that collaborates with several national and international
Han, B., Ding, S., & Yu, X. (2015). Intrinsic self-sensing concrete and groups on bio-based and bio-inspired smart building materials and digi-
structures: A review. Measurement, 59, 110–128. tal fabrication for architecture. He has published more than 100 articles
Palomar, I., Barluenga, G., Ball, R. J., & Lawrence, M. (2019). and book chapters and he holds several patents.
Laboratory characterization of brick walls rendered with a pervious
lime-cement mortar. Journal of Building Engineering, 23, 241–249. Cynthia Guardia Martin obtained
Taheri, A. (2019). A review on five key sensors for monitoring of the Ph.D. in Architecture with “cum
concrete structures. Construction and Building Materials, 204, laude” and international mention in
492–509. Architecture at the University of
Alcalá (UAH, Spain) in 2021. She has
a Master’s Degree in Pathology and
Javier Puentes is Ph.D. Arch. His Sustainable Refurbishment of Heri
research experience focuses on the tage from Universidad Europea
topic of construction materials. At the (Madrid) and is an architect from IE
predoctoral stage (before 2015), the University.
research focused on the study of the After her doctoral thesis, she
use of nano additions to control and obtained a research contract in com-
modify the hydration action of con- petitive call of Margarita Salas Grants
crete. The processes that affect the for young researchers with Next
durability of concrete, the extension of Generation European funds.
service life through efficient and con- Her research lines focus on the study of innovative, energy-efficient
trolled hydration processes for new and sustainable eco-building materials, systems and technologies for
cements and additions. Currently his architectural applications. She is also interested in the NDT
area of research is complemented techniques.
by the design of concretes with new As PhD student, she studied in the Polytechnic University of Madrid
properties through the incorporation of carbon-based nanomaterials, and Technical University of Darmstadt at Institute of Construction and
nanofibers and supplementary mineral additions. He was selected for a Building Materials.
postdoctoral research position at the CSIC-IETcc in a European project She was visiting professor at Universidad Francisco Marroquin
LORCENIS, N° 685445. Long-lasting Reinforced Concrete for Energy from Guatemala. She has also directed Master’s Final Projects at UEM.
Infrastructure under Severe Operating Conditions. Since 2015 she works as part of research group lead by Prof.
Currently, he is working as a Lecturer at the University of Alcalá, Gonzalo Barluenga at the University of Alcalá.
Spain, at the Architectural School. He participates as a teacher in the
Experimental Bionics Workshops
Mark P. Sarkisian, María Rosa Cervera Sardá,

Elena-Codina Duşoiu, Ana Mohonea, and Tana Nicoleta Lascu
Introduction is not a skyscraper. To learn from nature is to discern the abil-

ity of living species to save energy and use matter efficiently.
Mark P. Sarkisian and R. Cervera To learn from nature is to look for new ways to use natural
resources and to innovate in recycling and reusing processes.
Experimentation and exploration are essential to creative Nature is an open book, placed at our disposal, which con-
architectural design. Research leads to new ideas. tains all the answers and is the ideal framework where scien-
Investigations should range from broad urban plans to spe- tists, philosophers, and artists can, through observation,
cific technologies embedded in small architectural details. ideas, and thoughts, write together the new pages of eco-
Students with limited influence from traditional methodolo- philosophy and biotechnology.
gies are key to the development of inventive ideas through The workshops’ assignments are fast and intuitive and use
the influence of natural organization. With the proper guid- simple and direct resources and materials that lead the young
ance of instruction, results can be remarkable. Tangible tech- student, designer, or architect to shed their clichés in their
niques such as physical modeling and freehand drawing approach to the project. Fresh and stimulating solutions for
allow students to image form, use, and ultimately construc- artistic production, with a new range of aesthetic solutions
tion. Careful considerations for architectural components and optimization of resources, are explored in each work-
and structural and mechanical systems are key to a more sus- shop with the nodal themes that articulate them. The aim is a
tainable future. Buildings, that one day could become self- production that is in harmony with the human being and his
sustaining or even regenerative, is the goal for design. These home: the planet Earth.
buildings could be both expressive of structure and building
services systems that exhibit a natural response to the envi-
ronment. Interconnected development in districts or cities Vertical Structures
could heal individual building deficiencies of energy, water,
or managing waste through locally conceived infrastructure María Rosa Cervera Sardá
networks.
The practical work of the workshops opens new doors to The human aspiration to build vertically dates back to
the approach to architectural, structural, and constructive prehistoric times. Nowadays, with the exponential urban
design, always starting from a view of nature. Learning from growth that is predatory of nature, it is necessary to find
nature does not imply copying its forms. The wings that alternatives that allow the vertical development of the city in
serve a bird to fly would not serve an airplane, just as a tree environmentally sustainable and human-friendly models.
Nature offers us inspiring models of vertical construction of
M. P. Sarkisian (*) surprising efficiency. Trees, which can reach up to 100 m in
Structural Engineering Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, height, are able to withstand winds and earthquakes and live
San Francisco, CA, USA
for hundreds of years. Their internal structure allows them to
transport water and nutrients vertically and horizontally
M. R. Cervera Sardá
without the need for any external energy. And their base
e-mail: [email protected] material, wood, is of very low density and little mass yet
great strength.
E.-C. Duşoiu · A. Mohonea · T. N. Lascu
University of Architecture and Urbanism “Ion Mincu”, In the search for alternatives for a new vision of high-rise
Bucharest, Romania construction, different families of solutions are proposed.
234 M. P. Sarkisian et al.
Paper and foam make it possible to work with cumulative other, whether the line is straight or curved; that is why, topo-
modules in an innovative approach to verticality. Wooden logically, a doughnut, or torus, is the same as a sewing nee-
rods or wires build three-dimensional frameworks of great dle, or a circle is the same as an ellipse. It is a geometry that
lightness and stability that explore heights and shapes. The does not depend on shape. The shape can vary, stretch,
examples are reinterpreted in the light of architecture, gener- shrink, and deform, and as long as it maintains its connecting
ating proposals that, inspired by the principles of nature, relationships, it remains identical to itself. And architecture
achieve new expressiveness. is nothing more than the continuity and discontinuity of
spaces, which is why it allows the exploration of forms from
a topological approach.
Bioinspired Forms Folds, stretching, or shrinking of a surface or a volume
does not modify the relationship of continuity of the points
Elena-Codina Duşoiu and Ana Mohonea in them, even if the distance is altered, and does not modify
the form from a topological point of view, while cuts imply
The studies aim to research functioning mechanisms from discontinuities and, therefore, formal alterations. Probing the
nature realized on the basis of spatial structures that are both effects of simple actions on volumes and sufaces allows us to
rational and aesthetic, for example, an inflorescence, a fruit, explore compositions beyond Cartesian Geometry. If archi-
an insect wing, crustaceans, a leaf, the skeleton of a fish or tectural form is no longer conceived from its fixed coordi-
scales of a fish, etc. The transformation of a natural organism nates and positions, it can be adapted, with fluid formal
into a structure with architectural application (support, roof- variations, to the changing conditions of the environment,
ing, partition, wall frame, etc.) can be realized through just as nature does.
essentialism and abstraction. The details of the chosen object Exercises with folded paper, with papyro-flexible distor-
(joints of the limbs, pincers, ramifications) can also be stud- tions, with elastic meshes, and with pieces adaptable to vari-
ied and will be adapted as joints for the proposed structure. able and changing forms introduce us to resilient
Further on, the research can be applied in a more detailed, composition.
practical and focused way. The documentation of a natural
structure can be continued, focusing on the details of some
specific organisms (e.g., the claws of a lobster, an insect’s Designing with Fractal Geometry
legs, the role of bones in a skeleton, the compliance of woody
tissue of a tree, etc.). Details can be later taken into architec- María Rosa Cervera Sardá
tural context, considering a variety of scales (from landscape
and urban planning to architectural structures, interior Fractal geometry interprets the formal complexity of
design, furniture, etc.) nature. Its scaling and iterative character, with continuous
The objective of this approach is to gather documentation repetition of a form at different scales, replicates natural pro-
on the structures and growing laws of nature. Catching cesses of self-organization. The forms in nature are always
details of the elements they form can be used as possible the result of a process of evolution and growth, which
devices in product design or considered for details in archi- demands geometry of a dynamic nature capable of respond-
tectural structures. The documentation related to self- ing to variation. Nature functions as a complex system in
supporting structural forms is based on extracting structural which predictions are not possible and in which determinism
principles related to the used materials, natural geometry and has great limitations. It must therefore be built with systems
structures, mechanisms, and physiological laws. that admit change as intrinsic to its reality. That is why frac-
tal geometry allows us a new approach to the understanding
of natural forms. Its flexible nature, admitting change as
Fluid Topological Compositions something intrinsic, connects with the dynamic being of the
universe. Simple codes and laws, which can be represented
María Rosa Cervera Sardá by simple mathematical functions, transmit the information
to each unit, however small, and to the whole. The result is a
Topology is the mathematics of position (situs geometry) coherent form that allows for variation and adaptability.
and distortion, which deals with the fundamental geometri- Simple exercises based on laws of formal self-similarity
cal properties of objects in which relationships remain con- with dimensional variation make it possible to achieve a
stant, regardless of any distortion to which they are subjected. great display of forms of expressive richness. The formal
To put it in mathematical terms, topology deals with the exuberance, however, is based on the repetition of elements,
transformation of invariant relations. In topology, two points which guarantees the minimization of efforts and, therefore,
on a line maintain the same continuity relationship to each savings and economy. The choice of the module or base
Experimental Bionics Workshops 235
piece and its geometric configuration is the initial step, and nately used to call “garbage” (e.g., wrappers, boxes, resi-
the establishment of the law of scalar variation is the second dues, and other objects that may be used again). Such
action. From there, we proceed to the self-organized genera- gestures aim to educate people in the spirit of natural and
tion of the form, which, after a certain number of iterations, cultural values of the planet, which may constitute the true
ends up reaching its maximum complexity and opening the definition of ecology.
door to different modes of architectural composition. We can tell the history of recycling in architecture and
construction from antiquity until now. The historical reuse of
building materials and construction elements, known in
Building with Modules architectural history with the Italian term “Reimpiego dei
materiali,” is nothing else but large-scale recycling, trans-
Tana Lascu forming architecture into a huge mosaique of pieces and
techniques.
If at first glance nature appears to us as a marvelous but Modern and contemporary architects and designers pro-
incomprehensible and irregular world of forms, the reality is duced original styles starting from recycling, such as
that they all come from a codified system that is capable of A. Gaudi, who used small ceramic and glass pieces taken
organizing and ordering everything that exists on the basis of literally from garbage, or Shigeru Ban, who recently received
simple laws. Thus, in the process of morphogenesis, nature the Pritzker Prize for imposing an architectural conception
develops strategies that we could call “genetics of the mini- based on recycling and reuse of containers, boxes, modules,
mum,” leading to simplifying and economizing through and other materials.
order. Concepts that we usually associate with art, and there- Recycling can be adapted to a variety of scales, from
fore with human production, such as symmetry, rhythm, pro- urban conception to the architectural scale (e.g., walls includ-
portion, etc., are nothing more than refined mechanisms of ing bottles, rubber wheels, pets, etc.) and design. There are
efficiency. For example, symmetry is a system of savings, several famous contemporary prototypes of furniture con-
which means that once an optimum form has been defined, it ceived and made solely with recycled materials (e.g., Frank
is repeated as many times as necessary. Rhythm, like sym- Gehry, Shigeru Ban, etc.). Urban furniture has embraced the
metry, is another efficiency mechanism, now developed in idea of recycling as well, promoting this type of conception
the temporal field instead of the spatial field. Rhythmic regu- in public space and turning the city into a setting for educa-
larity not only organizes but also facilitates efforts. Thus, the tion. Visual artists have also produced many installations and
cosmos tends toward a process of cadentiality, just as the sculptures created by assembling recycled products and con-
everyday life of the human earthly world is governed, in both tainers. With the use of common waste materials that belong
physiological and voluntary acts, by temporal symmetry. to our everyday life, such as cans, cartons, plastics, dispos-
The module or piece to be repeated is a formal shaping strat- able cups etc., artistic and architectural composition can be
egy of nature. Based on the efficient and economical concept stimulated while, at the same time, the importance of recy-
of the module, maximum expressiveness can be achieved. cling is promoted.
Compositions made from simple modules and their repe-
tition make it possible to generate fabrics, self-supporting
surfaces, and volumes of surprising aesthetic richness as ionic Perception of Light: From Nature
B
inspiration for new architecture. to Design
Elena-Codina Duşoiu
ecycling: A Tool of Nature Adapted
R
to Design The presence of light is fundamental in the perception of
architecture and public space. Le Corbusier included light as
Elena-Codina Duşoiu an essential element in the definition of architec-
ture: “Architecture is the masterly, correct and magnificent
Sustainability, ecology, and sustainable development are play of masses brought together in light”.
just notions trying to express a reality that we are obliged to We can also question ourselves how deep our perception
live with: ensuring the continuity of life on our planet (and of light is and how it influences our representation of space.
its quality). From this perspective, urbanism, architecture, The human sight is based on the detection of different
and design are requested to bring solutions for life in har- wavelengths of light using three receptors from our eyes
mony with the environment, and art rarely sounds the alarm (cone cells): shortwave (blue light), mediumwave (green
regarding the ecological disasters that menace our planet, for light), and longwave (red light). And the specific stimulation
example, by trying to reuse raw material that we are unfortu- of these types of receptors provokes the colored ambience
236 M. P. Sarkisian et al.
we perceive. This has been the basis of the digital, computer- Mark P. Sarkisian PE, SE, NAE,
LEED BD+C, Partner of Seismic and
controlled image (RGB spectrum). However, there are spe-
Structural Engineering in the San
cies of animals endowed with much more accuracy. Francisco office of Skidmore, Owings
Mammifers as the mandrills, birds as the peacock, or insects & Merrill LLP, has developed innova-
as some species of butterfly have four types of cone cells tive engineering solutions for over 100
major building projects around the
instead of three, which provides them with a much more
world including some of the tallest and
accurate perception of the colors. Other species are provided most complex. Mark holds ten US
with a complete system of sight different to the camera-type Patents and five International Patents
eye of humans (e.g., the composed eye of the insects, which for high-performance seismic struc-
tural mechanisms designed to protect
are made out of a number of tiny lenses, or the multitude of
buildings in areas of high seismicity
ocelli, which spread over the body of certain species of and for seismic and environmentally
insects and mollusks). Some “eyes” of reptiles also have responsible structural systems. In
thermoregulating functions (as is the case of the tuatara). It is 2021, Mark was elected to the prestigious United States’ National
Academy of Engineering. He is the author of Designing Tall Buildings –
a challenge to translate all these patterns to architectural
Structure as Architecture, and teaches at UC Berkeley, California
space, studying it in terms of color spectrum, multiplication College of the Arts, Stanford University, Cal Poly, Northeastern
of image, focalization, polarization, geometric 180 or 360 University, NC State University, the Pratt Institute and Alcala University
degrees perception, etc. in Madrid. He has a BS-CE Degree from the University of Connecticut
and is a Fellow of the Academy of Distinguished Engineers, an MS-SE
Six different approaches of working with light in architec-
Degree from Lehigh University, an Honorary Doctorate Degree from
tural space are presented: control of different wavelengths; Clarkson University and an Honorary Master’s degree from the
light conceived as a flexible membrane; the relation between Politecnico di Milano.
sun and shadow; and light reflected in the sky, for example,
María Rosa Cervera Sardá Ph.D.
the pattern of clouds; the relation of the skin with light; and
Architect, Professor and former Dean
light in the dark (“The myth of the cavern” by Plato). of the School of Architecture of the
University of Alcalá. Current Director
of the Master’s degree in Advanced
Architecture and City Projects. She is
Lightweight Structures the author of writings and books on
architecture, among which we high-
María Rosa Cervera Sardá light: Bionics, Biomimetics and
Architecture (2019); Space and Time
in Architectural Composition (2018);
Rarely do we find massive and heavy structural forms in
Recycling Mumbai. Re-envisioning
nature. Generating matter consumes a great deal of energy the Slum (2012); Madrid, Recycled
and nature tends to minimize stress. For this reason, their City (2011); Iron in 19th Century
forms are spongy, using air as a cooperating element of the Madrid Architecture (2006). A regu-
lar speaker in professional and academic circles, she has given lectures
structure. And for this reason, their shapes are made up of
in Spain, China, India, USA, Bolivia, Peru, El Salvador, Venezuela,
multiple light and cooperating elements. The principle is Romania, Italy, etc.
very simple, not to start from any excessive gesture and to As an architect, Rosa Cervera has received several awards – the
achieve the maximum performance with the minimum. If we “Antonio Maura” award, the COAM award, the “Transfer of
Knowledge” award – and has won several international architecture
apply this theory to the structural field, we will realize the
competitions.
existence of a system, which we can call bio-structure, in Rosa Cervera is a pioneer in the research of Bionics, Biomimetics
which the concept of “all-resistant” cooperation prevails, and the application of biological structures to innovative and efficient
generating an interweaving of multiple resistant elements in architecture and urban design. A direct result of these studies is the
Self-Sustainable Vertical Garden City, Bionic Tower.
such a way that, as the solicitations increase, this framework
implements the number of its structural pieces and reduces Elena-Codina Duşoiu is an Archi
its size, becoming a structure of great resistance and, at the tect (graduated in 2000, IMUAU) and
same time, of great lightness. The structures of bones, plant Professor within the “Ion Mincu”
University of Architecture and Urban
tissues, and wood fibers are all made up of fine elements of
Planning from Bucharest, Romania.
fractal arrangement, where the void is as important as the She also accomplished study periods
matter. within the Polytechnic University of
Resistance can be obtained with extremely light materi- Catalonia, Barcelona (Master in
Restoration of Monuments, 2001)
als, such as a sheet of paper or a soda straw. Simply by the
and Venice International University
geometric organization or by the collaboration of the ele- (Dottorato di Eccelenza. Storia
ments, unexpected weights and loads can be supported, della Citta, dell’Architettura e del
which opens doors to new understandings of structural Restauro, 2004). Her main fields of
research are: rehabilitation and con-
systems.
Experimental Bionics Workshops 237
version of buildings (published books: The Dynamics of the Sacred international workshops and received many awards, among which was
Space. The Influence of Function, 3 Breweries and Their Destiny, Ion the first Prize at National Level of the 8th edition of the Design compe-
Mincu Publishing House, 2009), vernacular architecture and ecology tition for avant-garde furniture for her Guitar Chair.
(organizer of 12 editions of Spanish-Romanian workshops on vernacu-
lar architecture 2006-2018), design and bionics (research studies real- Tana Nicoleta Lascu Ph.D. Arc
ized within the IMUAU and the Alcalá University, 2021–2022). She hitect and Urban Planner, Lecturer at
received various research grants and published about 100 scientific the Basics of Architectural Design
articles and 8 authored and co-authored books in the mentioned research Department, Faculty of Architecture
fields. Outstanding activity as visiting professor in Spain, Italy, Greece, of the “Ion Mincu” University of
Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Argentina etc. Several national and Architecture and Urban Planning
international prizes and nominations in architectural research and archi- from Bucharest.
tectural design, owner of a personal architecture studio since 2003. Graduated at IMUAU in 1992 and
having a postgraduate specialization
Ana Mohonea is an Interior in restoration and conservation
Architect, graduated from the Faculty of monuments and historic sites, she
of Interior Architecture of the “Ion has been involved in several restora-
Mincu” University of Architecture tion projects in Romania, France, and
and Urban Planning in Bucharest, Italy, thereafter developing more than
Romania. 100 projects during the 7-year activity at Cornelis de Jong
She studied her undergraduate, Architektenburo bna, Middenbeemster, Noord-Holland, the most sig-
master and doctorate at the “Ion nificant in Urk, De Rijp, Marken and Beemster, elaborating the project
Mincu” University, where she is cur- for the listing of Beemster polder on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
rently working as an Assistant Prof. She was a Visiting Professor at the University of Liège (2014), the
Ph.D. Arch. She was awarded the University of Architecture in Venice – IUAV, and the University of
“Bene Merenti” distinction for the Alcalá (2021).
high grades obtained in her studies Since 2012, she has represented IMUAU within The Network of
and the Medal of the “Ion Mincu” Universities for Studies and Education according to the European
University for her diploma project. Landscape Convention – UNISCAPE.
Ana Mohonea was a pioneer of research in bionic architecture in Her doctoral thesis “Landscape as an Integrated Concept in the
Romania. Her doctorate thesis is titled: “Bionic Architecture. Premises Sustainable Development”, finalized in 2011, and her studies published
for Sustainable Building”, IMUAU. in four books and over 20 international conference Proceedings, as well
She is a member of the Interior Architecture Society from Romania, as the three research grants and more than 50 international curated exhi-
collaborator with ROGBC (Romania Green Building Council) and for- bitions, seminars and workshops emerged as a result of her constant
mer BREEAM international assessor. She participated in many compe- interest in connecting architecture and landscape within a transdisci-
titions, projects, summer schools, architecture biennales and plinary integrated approach.
Index
A Cosmetics, 184, 185

AlgaEnergy, 183–185, 188, 189 Cultural identity, 132
Archetypal garden, 157 Cyborg culture, 103–108
Architectural conception, 79–90, 235
Architectural photobioreactor, 192
Architectural space, 80, 83, 90, 97, 236 D
Architecture, 3, 4, 6, 12, 17, 19, 37, 49, 69, 70, 75, 79–90, 93, 97–99, Design, 4, 5, 13, 19–47, 63, 64, 70–90, 93–100, 105, 107, 112,
104, 107, 108, 111, 112, 117, 118, 121–125, 131, 133, 135, 115–118, 122–125, 129, 131, 152–153, 155–158, 161–168,
136, 156–158, 168, 171, 172, 178, 180, 192, 205, 234, 235 172, 173, 178, 180, 184, 192, 194, 195, 205, 206, 209, 223,
Architecture design, 121–125 233–236
Design with light, 79–90
Development, 36, 41, 95, 103, 104, 107, 116, 140, 142, 147–153,
B 155–158, 162, 163, 166–168, 171, 175, 178, 183–185, 192,
Bacteria, 97, 148, 216, 217, 219, 221 223, 224, 227, 233, 235
Biodigital architecture, 93–100 Digital architecture, 93–100
Biodigital design, 94, 97, 100 Digital design, 94, 100
Bio-inspired architecture, 3–17 Digital fabrication, 94, 95, 100, 209
Biomass, 168, 183–185, 191, 192, 194, 197–202 Ductile, 24, 25, 29, 200
Bionic design, 69–77, 172
Bionic principles, 171–178
Biophilic cities, 161–168 E
Biostimulants, 184 Ecologically sustainable design, 70
Biotechnology, 100, 107, 116, 184, 233 Elastic, 24, 35, 36, 44, 47, 98, 224, 234
Biotope, 139–145 Ellipse, 114, 116, 234
Branching structures, 49–66 Energy efficiency, 223, 224, 226, 229
BREEAM, 172, 173, 175–180 Environment, 19, 28, 30, 33, 37, 70, 72, 73, 80, 81, 83–86, 89, 90, 94,
Buildings, 3, 4, 10, 13, 17, 19–47, 49, 63, 70, 79, 80, 83, 87–90, 94, 96, 98–100, 103, 108, 121–125, 129–133, 139, 140, 148,
97–99, 107, 111, 114, 116, 117, 122–124, 132, 135, 140, 152–153, 162, 163, 166, 168, 171, 172, 178, 180, 183, 192,
152, 163, 171–180, 192–195, 199, 215, 224, 226, 233, 235 197, 227, 229, 233–235
Environmental liabilities, 139, 144
Experiments, 49–66, 80, 87–90, 107, 108, 124, 167–168, 218
C Extended reality (XR), 107, 108
Carbon, 6, 19, 22, 28, 30, 32–35, 43, 106, 107, 151, 191–202, 224,
228
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 44, 147, 151, 152, 183–185, 191–202 F
Carbon-based fibers (CNF), 228 Feed, 40, 99, 184
Cement based material, 205, 223–229 Fire, 35, 151, 215–220
Circular economy, 148, 151, 163, 189, 215 Food, 147, 148, 153, 163, 164, 168, 183, 184
Climate change, 151–153, 161, 183 Frame, 19–22, 24–29, 36, 44, 50, 70, 112, 162, 200, 234
CO2 biofixation, 183–185 Friction, 37, 44, 52
Cognitive revolution, 107–108 Funicular forms, 49–66
Concrete, 4, 5, 12, 19–22, 28, 29, 33, 35, 36, 41, 43, 44, 70, 80, 97,
111, 168, 175, 200, 206–208, 215–221, 227–229
Conoid, 111–118 G
Construction, 3–5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 19, 22, 29, 30, 33, 35–37, 39–40, 49, Generative adversarial networks (GANs), 95, 99, 100, 122, 123
59, 80, 83, 93, 94, 97, 98, 111–118, 132, 140, 142, Generative algorithm (GA), 125
152–153, 157, 172, 175, 177, 178, 192, 205–212, 215, 216, Generative design, 94–96, 99, 100
223, 233, 235 Genetic algorithms (GA), 95, 124
Construction technologies, 209 Genetic architectures, 98
CO2 sink, 192–197 Green facades, 163
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 239
M. R. Cervera Sarda et al. (eds.), Architecture Inspired by Nature, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33144-2
240 Index
I R
Interstice, 139–141, 144 Renewable criteria, 175
Research, 4, 19, 22, 36, 49, 70–78, 83, 98, 99, 106, 116, 122–124,
130, 139, 151, 152, 155–157, 162, 166–168, 178, 183–185,
K 192, 197, 199, 201, 215, 221, 224, 228, 233, 234
Knowledge society, 158 Resilience, 4, 10, 11, 33, 161, 164, 166, 168
Rheology, 205, 206, 209, 212
Rímac River, 140, 143–145
L
Landscape perception as sign, 129–136
Landscape planning, 158, 168 S
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), 172, Seismic, 20–22, 24–26, 28–30, 33, 35–37, 41, 44, 47
174–180 Self-compacting concrete (SSC), 205–209, 224, 227–229
Light perception, 79, 80, 89 Self-healing, 97, 98, 216–220
Lightweight structure, 4–6, 95, 236 Self-sensing materials, 224
Linear economy, 148–152 Soap solutions, 49–66
Lost Heritage, 140 Steel, 4, 11, 20, 24, 25, 28, 29, 33, 35, 36, 39–41, 43, 47, 50, 57, 59,
114, 200
Structural design, 19, 30–33, 43, 49
M Structural micro-vacuum, 6–13
Machine learning, 19, 37–41, 47, 99, 100, 121–125 Structural system, 3–17, 19–22, 27, 28, 30, 37, 41, 42, 44, 47, 236
Microalgae, 183–185, 191–202 Sustainability, 35, 96–98, 112, 115, 134, 163, 167, 171–175, 178–180,
Models, 4, 6, 12, 37, 39–41, 57–64, 66, 70, 73, 94, 95, 99, 100, 105, 215, 223, 235
122–125, 131, 133, 148, 155–158, 162–163, 167, 185, 189, Sustainable architecture, 96, 171, 178
197, 201, 209, 233 Sustainable labelling, 171–180
Morphology, 70–72, 75, 87, 148, 150, 162 Systems, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 19, 21–25, 28, 30, 31, 33–37, 41, 43, 44, 46,
Multidimensional education, 155–158 47, 51, 57, 59, 60, 70, 72, 75, 80, 87, 94–97, 99, 105, 107,
108, 114, 115, 121, 124, 130–134, 143, 144, 148, 152, 157,
158, 162, 163, 166–168, 172–175, 183–185, 191, 192, 194,
N 195, 198–202, 205, 212, 223, 224, 227, 229, 233–236
Nano-modified materials, 205–212
Natural mechanism, 72
Nature, 3, 4, 6–13, 17, 49–66, 69–78, 97, 98, 107, 116, 121, 123–125, T
130, 133, 139–144, 148, 152, 153, 155–158, 161–168, 171, Thixotropy, 209, 212
172, 175, 178, 180, 192, 233–236 3D printing (3DP), 95, 98–100, 205–212
Nature and communities, 162 Tower, 19–24, 27, 28, 30–32, 41–43, 116, 117, 123, 124
Number Pi (π), 116, 118 Tree trunk, 4, 8, 10–13, 74
O U
Optimization, 19, 21, 33, 95, 122, 233 Urban metabolism, 155
Otto, F., 4, 6, 49–66, 95 Urban organism, 155, 157, 158, 162
P V
Parametric design, 64, 95, 111–118 Vacuum/void, 6–17
Phase change material (PCM), 31, 33, 34, 224–226, 229 Viscous fluids, 49–66
Phytoplankton, 183 Vision system, 84–86
Pin-fuse, 33, 36
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 216, 217, 219–221
Post-tensioning, 22–26 W
Process, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9–12, 19, 20, 30, 37, 41, 47, 49–66, 70, 83, Waste, 140, 142, 144, 147, 148, 152, 163, 172, 175, 194, 215, 216,
87, 88, 94–100, 103, 104, 106, 118, 121–125, 129–136, 221, 233, 235
143, 144, 147, 148, 152, 155–158, 162, 163, 166–168, 172,
173, 184, 191, 199, 205, 206, 209, 216, 224, 226,
233–235

Architecture Inspired by Nature

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architecture Inspired by Nature

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architecture Inspired by Nature

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

María Rosa Cervera Sardá

ISBN 978-3-031-33143-5 ISBN 978-3-031-33144-2 (eBook)

Alcalá de Henares, Spain María Rosa Cervera Sardá

December 22, 2022

University of Alcalá Antonio Ruiz de Elvira

Part II Establishing the Tools: Parametric and Biodigital Architectural Design

Part III Studying Scales in Territory: Bionics and Landscape

Part IV Researching on Materials: From Macro to Nano

María Rosa Cervera Sardá Ph.D. Architect, Professor and for-

Elena-Codina Duşoiu is an Architect (graduated in 2000,

Tana Nicoleta Lascu Ph.D. Architect and Urban Planner,

María Rosa Cervera Sardá and Iván Curiel Martínez

Abstract tigation that establishes bridges with nature towards

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

which succeeds in covering a space of 45 m by 111.5 m with

Fig. 4 Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome, Italy. (Photo R. Cervera)

Fig. 8 Church Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, Madrid. (Photo R. Cervera)

Figs. 9 and 10 Hyperbolic paraboloid in a leaf. (Cervera & Pioz)

able to withstand the stresses of flying. If we take a feather

Despite this characteristic, and thanks to its ribs, it is highly

Table 1 Study of macro-­vacuum

Fig. 13 Pneumatic structure in birds. (Cervera & Pioz)

lution and recent scientific advances in bio- and nano materi-

Reducing the embedded or embodied energy in architectural

Table 2 Summary of the study

Table 3 Hardwood case study.

Table 4 Softwood case study.

est natural shapes in the planet, of mighty resistance and lon-

María Rosa Cervera

Fig. 17 Torsion growth of the cellulose cell. (Cervera & Pioz)

Abstract architecture (Fig. 1). Historically, natural growth patterns

Recent research inspired by natural form and support by

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 19

Fig. 1 Natural plant formation

Fig. 2 Woven basket

Further refinement of the initial concept resulted in a

1. Included a wider perimeter, reinforced concrete column

Fig. 4 Optimization analysis and potential lateral load-resisting frames

Fig. 7 1111 Sunset Boulevard Towers, Los Angeles, CA

applied in any direction. This placement of post-tensioning

Fig. 10 Overlay of potential lines of post-tensioning over optimized slab analysis

frames or could use a modified link-fuse joint that is designed

Fig. 13 Vertical post-­

Fig. 14 Post-tensioning in moment-resisting frames subjected to seismic loading

Fig. 15 Citic Financial Tower

Fig. 16 Evolution of theory to concept for structural system

Fig. 17 Braced frames interconnected with seismic fuses

Fig. 18 Ductile steel seismic

Fig. 19 Rendering of Citic

Fig. 20 Citic Financial Tower – floor framing system

Fig. 23 C02eq correlations for structural materials and systems

Fig. 24 Proposed embodied carbon limits (CO2eq)

Fig. 25 Results of PCM analysis at the district scale

Fig. 27 Timber Pin-Fuse®

Fig. 31 Shear studs identified with object detection

Fig. 32 Bolts identified from

Fig. 33 Initial structural system concepts – Chengdu Tower, Chengdu, China

Air Foil Concept

Fig. 35 Chengdu Tower rendering

Fig. 37 Structural system

Alcalá de Henares, Spain María Rosa Cervera Sardá

University of Alcalá Antonio Ruiz de Elvira

Part II Establishing the Tools: Parametric and Biodigital Architectural Design

Part III Studying Scales in Territory: Bionics and Landscape

Part IV Researching on Materials: From Macro to Nano

Table 1 Study of macro-vacuum

Fig. 13 Vertical post-

Air Foil Concept

Soap Bubbles inear Addition of Spherical Bubbles

ubbles on Rigid Boundaries

Closed-Mesh Branchings Funicular Forms

Hanging Chains tic, or anticlastic. Series of chains can also be arranged in a

Hanging Chain Nets

Compressive Inverted Shells Concluding Remark

tudy Cases (Form/Morphology)

Dynamics/Function ventilation through respiration, humidity through the per-

tudy Cases (Aesthetics/Proportion)

Interrelation/Network interior of the hexagons is furnished with sofas, allowing

Abstract This chapter presents as well three study cases of well-

uman Sight Versus Animal Sight. Does

enerative Behavioral Design/

Conclusions Bishop, M. C. (2006). Pattern recognition and machine learning.

Repercussions for Technology