PS3242 Environmental psychology

Syllabus :
Environmental Attitudes and ecological concern: Nature and characteristics of Environmental
perception, Social and cultural influences, Psychosocial determinants of Environmental Attitude
Pro-environmental Behaviour: Role of Environmental Education and Awareness, Models of
Pro-environmental Behaviour, Application of environmental psychology in solution of
environmental problems.

Unit 1

Environmental Psychology: Nature and Characteristics; Indian perspective on human-

environment relationship.

Introduction :

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY studies the relationship between environments and human

behavior as well as how they affect one another. Environmental psychology deals with
“environment” at two different levels:
Environment as the context of behaviour-Why are some spaces comfortable and others
threatening? How can we enhance our environments to reduce stress, create more efficiency,
and minimize accidents?
The consequence of behaviour on environment- The large scale problems like pollution,
recycling, ecosystem issues,etc.
The attempt to establish empirical and theoretical relationships between behaviour and
experience of the person and his built environment. (Proshansky,1976)
The study of human behaviour and well-being in relation to the socio-physical environment. The
branch of Psychology concerned with providing a systematic account of the relationship
between a person and the environment (Russell &
Snodgrass, 1987)
Humans react both consciously and unconsciously to the area in which they
live and work. Their environment, whether it be natural, or man made, has a profound

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effect on:

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feelings,

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behaviors,

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general health issues, and
productivity.

Environmental psychology is the study of molar relationships between behaviour and

experience and the built and natural environments. Molar theory incorporates the notion that
behavior produces consequences that in turn affect the behavior,
the notion that behavior and environment together constitute a feedback system. A feedback
function specifies the dependence of consequences on behavior, thereby describing properties
of the environment.
History of Environmental Psychology :

Hellpach was one of the first scholars who introduced the term ‘environmental

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psychology’ in the first half of the 20th century (Pol, 2006).
Hellpach (1911) studied the impact of different environmental stimuli, such as

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color and form, the sun and the moon, and extreme environments, on human activities.
Brunswick (1903–1955) and Lewin (1890–1947) are generally regarded as the ‘founding

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fathers’ of environmental psychology).
Their ideas, such as the interaction between the physical environment and psychological
processes and studying human behaviors in real-life settings instead of artificial environments,
were influential for many later studies on

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human-environment interactions.
The studies focused on how different environments influenced people’s perceptions and
behaviors, they were labeled as studies in architectural psychology. This collaboration between

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architects and psychologists created a field called Architectural Psychology.
The second period of rapid growth in environmental psychology started during the late 1960s
when people became aware of environmental problems (influences of human activity on the

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biophysical environment). This was known as the phase of green psychology
In the 1970s onwards the topics further widened with issues of energy supply and demand
(Zube, Brush, & Fabos, 1975) and perceptions of risks and risk assessment associated with

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growing (energy) technologies
In the 1980s the first studies arrived that focused on efforts promoting conservation behavior,
such as relationships between consumer attitudes and behavior (Cone & Hayes, 1980; Stern &
Gardner, 1981).

Characteristics of Environmental Psychology

⚫ Two primary distinctions from the other fields of psychology: Perspective – studies of
behaviour in built and natural environment. Kinds of problems and settings that are selected for
study- how humans adjust or do not adjust to the normal or disturbed features of the

⚫
environment.
Focus on human-environment

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interactions

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An interdisciplinary approach

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An applied focus
Use of a diversity of methods

Focus on human-environment interactions

⚫ Interactive Approach-
Interaction between humans and the built and natural environment, and explicitly considers how
the environment influences behaviour as well as how behaviour results in changes in the
environment.

An interdisciplinary approach

Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Many environmental

psychologists work in interdisciplinary settings, and closely collaborate with scholars from other

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disciplines.
First, environmental psychology has always worked closely with the disciplines of

⚫
architecture and geography.
Second, theoretical and methodological development in environmental psychology has been

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influenced strongly by social and cognitive psychology.
Third, when studying and encouraging pro‐environmental behaviour (see Part III of this
book), environmental psychologists have collaborated with environmental scientists.

An applied focus

⚫Problem‐Focused Approach- Environmental psychologists do not conduct studies merely out

of scientific curiosity about some phenomenon, but also to try to contribute
towards solving real‐life problems.

Environmental psychology studies human– environment interactions at different scale levels,

from domestic surroundings and the neighborhood to cities, nature reserves and countries, and
even the planet as a whole.

Use of a diversity of methods

⚫ Diversity of Methods- Environmental psychology largely uses the same quantitative and
qualitative methods as other psychological disciplines.
Methods of Environmental Psychology

⚫ Questionnaire Studies-
Questionnaire studies aim to describe behaviours and to gather people’s perceptions, opinions,
attitudes, and beliefs about different issues.
Questionnaire studies are popular in environmental psychology for several
reasons. First, manipulation of environmental conditions (as in experimental
research), is often unethical or impossible.
Secondly, external validity of questionnaire studies tends to be high, which is often regarded as
crucial in studies on environmental issues.
Finally, questionnaire studies are relatively easy to apply at low cost.

⚫Laboratory Experiments- Laboratory experiments are conducted in a controlled,

mostly artificial, Environment created for the purpose of the research. Laboratory experiments
enable the establishment of causal relationships between variables, because of two basic
features of experiments: manipulation and
random assignment.

⚫ Computer Simulation Studies- Sometimes it is impossible to conduct research with real

individuals or realistic environmental stimuli. In this type of research aspects of environments
and/or humans are simulated as accurately and realistically as possible. Simulations may
include immersive virtual environments, created with computers, that give the participant a
realistic impression of what it would be like to experience particular environments or events. In
general, simulations make it possible to keep some control over the environment, thereby
increasing internal validity, while external validity is not compromised too much.

⚫ Field Studies- In order to achieve high external validity without compromising too much on
internal validity, many environmental psychologists use field studies and
experiments.

⚫Case Studies- A case study is an in‐depth study of a particular situation. It is

a method used to narrow down a very broad topic of research into one single case, i.e. a
person, setting, situation, or event. The main purpose of case studies and other types of
qualitative research is to explore and understand the meaning that individuals or groups ascribe
to a phenomenon.

Goal of Envıronmental Psychology

⚫ The goal of the field is to solve problems involving human-environmental interactions and to
⚫ Researchers diagnose problem situations and recommend solutions.
create, manage, protect, and restore environments that promote proper behavior.

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How Do Envıronmental Psychologısts Work?
A great majority of research in Environmental Psychology is done in the field rather than in

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the lab.
Environmental psychologists assess, analyze, and advise on personal space and

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environments in general.
They usually work in teams with other professionals such as urban and city planners,
architects, economists, engineers, and designers, etc.
Indian perspective on human environment relationships

Environmental psychology from an Indian perspective encompasses a holistic understanding of

the intricate relationship between humans and their natural and built environments within the
cultural, social, and spiritual context of India. In a country marked by diverse ecosystems,
ranging from dense forests to urban landscapes, environmental psychology emphasizes the
dynamic interplay between individuals and their surroundings, aiming to enhance well-being and
sustainability.

One key aspect of the Indian perspective on environmental psychology is the recognition of the
sacredness of nature. Influenced by indigenous philosophies such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism, Indians often view nature as divine and hold a deep reverence for natural elements like
rivers, mountains, and trees. This spiritual connection fosters a sense of stewardship and
environmental responsibility, shaping attitudes and behaviors towards conservation and
preservation.

The Indian perspective of environmental psychology and the Western perspective share
commonalities while also reflecting unique cultural, philosophical, and contextual influences. In
India, environmental psychology incorporates indigenous philosophies and cultural traditions,
emphasizing the spiritual connection between humans and nature. Concepts like ahimsa
(non-violence) and dharma (duty) guide attitudes and behaviors towards environmental
stewardship and sustainability. Additionally, India’s diverse socio-economic landscape
underscores the importance of addressing environmental justice and equity issues in research
and practice.

Conversely, the Western perspective of environmental psychology often focuses on cognitive

and behavioral processes, examining how individuals perceive, understand, and interact with
their environment. Influenced by disciplines like psychology, sociology, and urban planning,
Western environmental psychology emphasizes empirical research and theoretical frameworks
such as environmental stressors, place attachment, and environmental identity. Furthermore,
Western societies often prioritize technological solutions and policy interventions to address
environmental challenges, with an emphasis on individual behavior change and collective
action.

Furthermore, environmental psychology in India acknowledges the socio-economic disparities

prevalent in the country and their impact on environmental experiences. Issues such as access
to green spaces, air and water pollution, and climate change disproportionately affect
marginalized communities, highlighting the importance of addressing environmental justice and
equity in research and practice.

Cultural traditions and rituals also play a significant role in shaping environmental attitudes and
behaviors. Practices like tree worship (e.g., Bishnois' reverence for khejri trees) and festivals
like Holi and Diwali reflect the deep-rooted connection between culture, spirituality, and the
environment, influencing perceptions and interactions with the natural world.
Overall, the Indian perspective of environmental psychology emphasizes the
interconnectedness of humans and their environment, grounded in cultural, spiritual, and
socio-economic contexts, with a focus on promoting harmony, sustainability, and social justice.

Theories of Environment and Behaviour arousal, Environmental load, adaptation levels

and ecological approach.

The assumptions that we see as underlying all environmental science, independently of specific
orientation, are:
1) The earth is the only suitable habitat we have;
2) The earth’s resources are limited;
3) The earth as a planet has been and continues to be profoundly affected by life;
4) The effects of land use by humans are cumulative;
5) Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystems and not of individual organisms or
populations.
Implicit in these assumptions is a call not only for multidisciplinary but also for interdisciplinary
strategies, methods, and philosophical perspectives in perceiving, understanding, and
maintaining the delicate relationships that exists between humans and their environments.
1. The earth is the only suitable habitat we have, and its resources are limited. Throughout the
history of the earth, various forms of life have begun, evolved, prospered, and died out, with the
present dominance of humans being a very recent development. But, despite this current
domination, we must face two fundamental truths:
(a) Humans, too, will succumb to extinction either through geologic, meteorological, or
interstellar cataclysm, natural biological processes, internecine quarrels, or because the earth’s
resources will no longer support human life in its present form.
(b) Althoughtheremaybeotherhabitableislandsinthecosmicsea,theyare spaced at such great
distances throughout the universe as to be virtually irrelevant to human survival.
Notwithstanding these certainties, the earth is very important to those of us who are now living
and to the coming generations. We must learn to live with the opportunities and the limitations
the earth affords, with the inexorable fact that it is dynamic. And we must do so in a way that
allows for continued human existence. The newly emerging area of environmental psychology
holds the promise of providing information that will allow sustained human tenure on earth.
2. The earth as life has profoundly affected the planet. Human contributions to the visual
landscape of the planet are everywhere: tall skyscrapers, intricate networks of highways and
electrical lines/ engineered lakes/ and the vapour trails of high- flying jet planes are constant
reminders of human presence. More subtle indicators are the changing quality of the chemical
composition of the atmosphere, geologic changes in the earth’s crust engineering changes in
hydrologic processes and chemical changes in the waters that cover the planet.

In environmental psychology, the term ‘environment’ is referred to as a tangible and imagined

interpretation of the world, which includes both architectural and social surroundings. It also
includes natural environments, social settings, and constructed environments as well as
considers the learning and informational environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that throws
light on human beings and their surroundings. It also deals with one’s ability to adapt both
physically and mentally to the various changes that continue to take place in our environment.
Further, environmental psychology is a multi-disciplinary paradigm that draws a lot from the
knowledge of people from other disciplines. It relies on the findings of geographers, economists,
geologists, policymakers, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, etc.
Environmental psychology is also popular as human factor science or cognitive ergonomics, or
environmental social sciences.
It explores dissimilar issues which are of great significance. Some issues are listed here:
Common property resource management
The effect of environmental stress on human performance
The characteristics of restorative environments
Human information processing
The promotion of durable conservation behaviour.

Environmental psychology believes that we should interpret the environment as a major factor in
the development and ongoing conduct of people.
1. Environmental psychology gives more attention to the environment which has focused only
on micro-level stimuli and events like people’s homes, neighbourhoods, and work and
community settings.
2. Kurt Lewin’s ‘action research’ orientation (1946), sets scientific goals for analysing and
explaining people and environmental transactions with the more practical goalmof enhancing. It
optimises and enhances peoples’ relationships with their environment through effective
planning.
3. Environmental psychology is a multidisciplinary approach to the study of environment and
behaviour since it focuses on analysing and enhancing the quality of people’s relationships with
their physical environments. It also incorporates the perspectives of architecture, urban
planning, psychology, anthropology, sociology, geography, and other fields.
The ‘fundamental significance of environmental psychology for the design professions lies in its
potential capacity to provide a body of knowledge conceptual and empirical for understanding
the relationships between human behaviour and experience in the built environment.

Arousal theories

Arousal theories have typically been concerned with the influence of arousal on
performance.They maximize performance at intermediate levels of arousal but falls off as
arousal is increased or decreased. This relationship sometimes referred to as an inverted-U
relationship, has been shown to differ slightly depending on whether performance is measured
on simple or complex tasks and is often referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson law. These
relationships are consistent with other findings that humans seek intermediate levels of
stimulation, and are reminiscent of Toynbee’s assertion, referred to earlier, that cultures only
develop in environments that provide intermediate environmental challenges.
One explanation of these findings is that increase in ambient temperature leads to increase in
arousal levels.Initially, the higher arousal leads to performance enhancement, but as it increases
further, over-arousal occurs, causing performance decrements. Similarly, it has been shown that
personal space invasions lead to increases in arousal and performance decrements. Increases
in noise level have been associated with changes in arousal and performance. Thus, several
variables associated with arousal changes are related to performance changes, and
performance has consistently been curvilinear related to arousal.
Other theorists using an arousal perspective have featured physiological responses to
environmental stimulation. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, galvanic skin
response, and adrenaline secretion, among others, have been shown to occur with changes in
the environment.Increased ambient temperature leads to blood vessel dilation, perspiration,
increased heart rate, and, in extreme conditions, lowered blood pressure and insufficient oxygen
supply to the brain. It has linked personal space invasion to delayed onset and shorter duration
of maturation for males. And noise exposure alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and the flow of
gastric juices to the stomach.

Performance is predicted to be optimal for both simple and complex tasks at intermediate levels
of arousal. Arousal above the level, leads to decrements in performance.

Factors affecting Arousal Level

Furthering the point, various researchers have tried to identify the impact of different
environmental factors on the arousal level:
i. TemperatureAn increase in ambient temperatures leads to increases in arousal levels. Usually,
higher arousal leads to performance enhancement, but as it increases, further over-arousal
occurs, causing performance decrements.Increased ambient temperature leads to the following
physiological changes: blood vessel dilation, pupil dilation, perspiration, increased heart rate.
Extreme conditions also lead to lowered blood pressure and insufficient oxygen reaching to the
brain.
ii. Personal Space InvasionAn increase in personal space invasion leads to an increase in
arousal and performance decrements (Middlemist, Knowels& Matter 1976).
iii. Noise LevelAn increase in noise level leads to an increase in arousal and performance
decrements(Evans & Kohen 1987). It alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and the flow of gastric
juices to the stomach.

Arousal and Nervous System

It linked arousal to increased activity of the reticular activating system of the brain and the
associated changes in arousal with changes in the environment. Pleasant as well as unpleasant
stimulation increases arousal, i.e. room temperatures above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Changes
in arousal lead people to seek information about their internal states. People associate
moderate levels of arousal positively. Individuals use great.
Other theorists using an arousal perspective have featured physiological responses to
environmental stimulation. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, galvanic skin
response, and adrenaline secretion, among others, have been shown to occur with changes in
the environment.Increased ambient temperature leads to blood vessel dilation, perspiration,
increased heart rate, and, in extreme conditions, lowered blood pressure and insufficient oxygen
supply to the brain. It has linked personal space invasion to delayed onset and shorter duration
of maturation for males. And noise exposure alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and the flow of
gastric juices to the stomach.
Independent of the orientation taken concerning arousal, several consistencies are apparent:
1. Theassociated changes in arousal with changes in the environment
2. Pleasant as well as unpleasant stimulation increases arousal — that is, room temperatures
above100 degrees Fahrenheit and obnoxious noises influence arousal in ways similar to a
rollercoasterrides and such other stimulating situations.
3. Changes in arousal lead people to seek information about their internal states (Schacter &
Singer, 1962) as well as to seek information from others (Festinger, 1954).
4. People evaluate moderate levels of arousal positively.
5. Often, great expenditures of energy are used by individuals to bring the environment to alevel
of moderate stimulation.
Performance is predicted to be optimal for both simple and complex tasks at intermediate levels
of arousal. Arousal above the level, leads to decrements in performance.

Factors affecting Arousal Level

Furthering the point, various researchers have tried to identify the impact of different
environmental factors on the arousal level:
i. TemperatureAn increase in ambient temperatures leads to increases in arousal levels. Usually,
higher arousal leads to performance enhancement, but as it increases, further over-arousal
occurs, causing performance decrements.Increased ambient temperature leads to the following
physiological changes: blood vessel dilation, pupil dilation, perspiration, increased heart rate.
Extreme conditions also lead to lowered blood pressure and insufficient oxygen reaching to the
brain.
ii. Personal Space InvasionAn increase in personal space invasion leads to an increase in
arousal and performance decrements (Middlemist, Knowels& Matter 1976).
iii. Noise LevelAn increase in noise level leads to an increase in arousal and performance
decrements(Evans & Kohen 1987). It alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and the flow of gastric
juices to the stomach.

Arousal and Nervous System

It linked arousal to increased activity of the reticular activating system of the brain and the
associated changes in arousal with changes in the environment. Pleasant as well as unpleasant
stimulation increases arousal, i.e. room temperatures above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Changes
in arousal lead people to seek information about their internal states. People associate
moderate levels of arousal positively. Individuals use great expenditure of energy to bring the
environment to a moderate level of stimulation.

Stimulus Load Theories

Central to stimulus load theories is the notion that humans have a limited capacity to process
information. When inputs exceed that capacity, people ignore some inputs and devote more
attention to others. These theories account for responses to environmental stimulation in terms
of the organism’s momentary capacity to attend to and deal with salient features of its
milieu.The stimuli most important to the task are in the focus of attention whereas the others are
in the margin.For example, while driving during heavy traffic, we invest attention in the vehicles
and road signs around us, and we pay less attention to the commentator on the car radio,
people in the back seat, or the clouds in the sky. Once attentional capacities have been
depleted, even small demands for attention can be draining. Thus, behavioural aftereffects,
including errors in judgment, decreased tolerance for frustration, ignoring others in need of help,
can be accounted for by these theories. Decreased tolerance for frustration may lead to “laying
on the horn” or “lane hopping” and motorists in the break-down lane may be ignored, if not
looked upon with disdain.
Stimulus load theories can also account for behavioural effects in stimulus-deprived
environments (e.g., certain behaviours occurring aboard submarines and in prisons). This
approach suggests that under-stimulation can be just as aversive as overstimulation. So-called
cabin fever resulting from monotonous living conditions can also be seen as the result of
under-stimulation.

Adaptation-Level Theories

The Theories of Environment-Behaviour Relationship. Adaptation level theories assume that

each of us has a minimum threshold for a certain level of environmental stimulus. A slight rise or
fall in this threshold is a focus of arousal, overload, under load or stress. Variations in behaviour
will therefore occur if the stimulus
load is outside our experienced adaptation levels.Major proponents of this position
include:
Helson (1964) and Wohlwill (1974). While all environmental psychologists emphasize the
interrelationship of humans to their environment, adaptation-level theorists speak specifically of
two processes that make up this relationship-the processes of adaptation and change.
Organisms either adapt (i.e., change their response to the environment) or they adjust (i.e.,
change the environment with which they are interacting). Adaptation to decreases in ambient
temperature includes piloerection (hair on the body standing up or what is commonly called
getting “goose pimples”), muscle rigidity, increased motor activity, vasoconstriction; adjustments
include throwing another log on the fire or turning up the thermostat. Either process brings the
organism back to equilibrium with its environment.

Wohlwill(1974) distinguished three categories of stimulation: sensory, social and movement;

along the three dimensions of intensity, diversity and patterning. Amongst these; optimal or
intermediate level of arousal or stimulation is desirable for positive responses and task
performance. For instance, if aloofness and gregariousness are the two poles of a social
interaction scale then either of them can be desired by a subject at some span of time
depending on the level of exposure he/she is facing. The urge to spend some time alone or
nowadays known as “My time” either in a quiet resort or in an aloof place by the working young
generation of today is probably getting its ideas from this theory only.

Another value of this approach is that it recognizes individual differences in adaptation level (i.e.,
the level of stimulation/arousal that the individual has become accustomed to and expects or
desires in an environment). Thus, this approach can explain the different responses of two
individuals to the same environment.

However there may be some variations in the optimal level in different individuals depending on
their experience and proximity with a given environment. For example: the heat and
temperature of a bangle factory can be too overpowering for a person on entering for the first
time; while the workers of the place are quite immune to it. Similarly, people of hilly areas when
settled in lowlands have a high resistance to cold temperature as compared to the native
residents of that place. This variation in optimal level is termed as adaptation.

According to Wohlwill(1974), adaptation is a quantitative shift in the distribution of judgmental or

affective responses along a stimulus continuum as a function of continued exposure to a
stimulus.Dubos(1980) defines adaptation as the process which allows people to adjust to their
environment, variations in the perception of the environment and coping mechanisms
undertaken to overcome the problems it creates. Adaptation involves physiological as well as
psychological processes. The phenomenon of light and dark adaptation accomplished by the
human eye is a classic example of physiological adaptation to intense stimuli of light. An
individual previously residing in an area close to railway station may perceive his/her new house
in the centre of the city as much quieter,

The process of defensive re-appraisal or defensive re-evaluation can be very useful in dealing
with stress emancipating from the extreme environmental stimuli. In this reappraisal, the
environmental conditions which were once perceived as overwhelming or threatening ; over a
period of time may be re-evaluated as bearable or less threatening. Defensive re-appraisals are
self generated; they arise from needs within the person rather than from environmental
pressures. In a study conducted on a flock of sheep, it was observed that when the paddock of
the sheep was near the highway, initially the sheep used to run hither-thither on the arrival of
any motor vehicle. However with the passage of time the approaching vehicles were perceived
as less threatening and they used to continue with their grazing. Appraisal focused strategies
occur when persons modify the way they think, for example, employing denial or distancing
oneself from the problem. People may also alter the way they think about a problem by altering
their goals, values such as by seeing humour in a situation. So, defensive reappraisal consists
of any effort made to interpret the past more effectively or to deal with present harms and
threats by viewing them in a less damaging and threateningway.

The theory of adaptation presents an active and dynamic relation of the individual with his/her
environment. However, the postulates of this theory cannot be generalized as it does not explain
variation in adaptation levels across individuals, so precise prediction of behaviour with respect
to environment becomes difficult.

Ecological Theories
Central to the thinking of ecological theorists (Barker, 1963, 1968) is the notion of
organism-environment-fit. Environments are designed or grow to accommodate certain
behaviours. Behaviour settings, as Barker termed them, are evaluated in terms of the goodness
of fit between the interdependent environmental features and the behaviours that take place.
Ecological theories explain that there is a symbiotic relationship between a person and their
environment i.e., they are dependent on each other. Human behaviour and responses are
directly related to the environmental settings and slight alterations or modifications can lead to a
change in the characteristics of the former. Ecological perception is described as the process by
which people relate to and respond to their environment. It describes organisms and their
environment as mutually reciprocal. This concept suggests that the environment merely
represents itself and that one’s own perception permits further investigation of the environment.

Barker and Wright(1955) exemplified their work on ecological theories to understand human
behaviour and focused on behavioural setting. A behavioural setting is a self referenced
(internally interdependent and self defined) entity that consists of one or more standing patterns
of behaviour such as classroom, library, temple, recreational areas etc. Barker(1951)
documented a day in the life of several young children, observing how even without prompting;
their modes of expression and outward behaviour seem to change dramatically when their
events were varied. It was observed that the children unconsciously manifested different coping
strategies and behaviour depending on the type of events they were encountering.

Barker argued that there are certain mechanisms that guide adaptive behaviour in settings and
help people to predict behaviour in a setting. He named these mechanisms as circuits and
divided them into four types:
(a) Programmecircuits:syllabus,playprogramme,schedule.
(b) Goalcircuits:peopleinasettinghavecertaingoalssotheybehaveinaparticular way to achieve that
goal.
(c) Deviation-counteringcircuits:thesearethebehaviourspeopledoorfollowto achieve the setting
goals.
(d) Vetoingcircuits.occurwhenpeopleareexcludedfromthebehavioursetting.
Barker’s theory of behavioural setting is molar and contextual in nature. It tries to emphasize on
the similarity of behaviours between people in the same setting, and describe the rules that
seem to exist.
A derivative of the behavioural setting theory is the manning theory which has been used to
explain human crowding. According to the theory an individual’s behaviour is determined by the
supply and demand of the social roles existing in a setting. An individual will experience more
crowding when a setting is overmanned (i.e., when the number of occupants of the setting
exceeds that required for the normal functioning of the setting)
than when it is undermanned synthesizes the salient aspects of the effects of undermanned
settings: in general terms, undermanned behaviour settings in comparison with optimally
manned behaviour settings impose more and stronger forces on their inhabitants in more varied
functions; the forces are, however, more prevailingly directed inwards and towards other
inhabitants.
Synomorphy which is the degree of fit between a behaviour setting and the individual within it, is
an important concept in staffing theory. When a place is high in synomorphy, the number of
people and the types of tasks being performed match what the behaviour setting provides, and
the individuals can achieve maximum productivity.
The Ecological perspective has its share of advantages and disadvantages. The theory has high
external validity as it has been tested in real life behavioural settings. However, the number of
extraneous variables being very high, it may be difficult to establish a precise causal relationship
between various predictions and outcomes. The ecological theory has proved to be very useful
in understanding human behaviour and can be applied in assessing the layout and designing of
residential areas to avoid congestion and ensure safety.

Conclusion
Each of the theoretical stance has its costs and benefits. The arousal, stimulus load, and
adaptation level approaches all share the advantage of the ability to incorporate a wide variety
of physical and social environmental characteristics under the rubric of
overall stimulation level. Thus, diverse factors such as noise, temperature extremes, room
colour, verbal information rate, and crowding can all be conceptualized as contributing to
environmental stimulation levels. Further, all three approaches are useful in predicting potential
adverse responses when environmental stimulation deviates from some optimal level. The
arousal approach is the most general in identifying physiological and affective mediators of the
environment-behaviour relationship that is, increases or decreases in stimulation produce
corresponding changes in physiological and psychological arousal, written produce predictable
variations in behaviours such as task performance and aggression.
The stimulus load approach is synaptic, focusing on cognitive in information-processing abilities,
and yields predictions regardingthe social/behavioural consequences of over/
unstimulating—excessive attentional demands have differential effects on performing primary
versus secondary tasks and the likelihood of attending to various social stimuli.
The adaptation level approaches to the most specific, predicting that the consequences of a
particular stimulation level depend on the specific level to which an individual has become
adapted. The generality-specificity dimension is a theoretical trade-off. The more general
theories account for aggregate responses of large numbers of people to the same
environmental conditions, but in doing so gloss over some potentially important individual
differences in people’s responses to those conditions.

Unit 2
Environmental Stressors: Nature and Characteristics; Type of stressors, Natural disasters,
technological catastrophe, noise, and air pollution, Crowding and Personal Space.

Introduction