MECHANOTECHNICS

N6
MECHANOTECHNICS N6
GAV Schmidlin

TROUPANT
Publishers
Copyright © 1990 by the author

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior permission by the publisher.

ISBN 978-19197-803-13; eISBN: 978-1-43080-269-3

First edition, first impression 1998

Eleventh impression 2012

Published by
Troupant Publishers
Suite 10
Private Bag X12
Cresta 2118

Previously published by
Southern Book Publishers
First edition 1990

Cover design by Alix Gracie

Set in 9 on 11 Times Roman
Typesetting by Unifoto (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town
Printed and bound by Ultra Litho (Pty) Limited
Preface

This book covers a wide field in the revised syllabus,of Mechanotechnics N6 of 1990. It has been my aim to
present material in such a way that even the student who works on his own will be able to follow the course
without undue difficulties.
Although the syllabus only requires calculations, basic theory as background is included. The first chapter
consists of a summary of definitions and principles already known to the student.
I would like to thank everyone who contributed towards making the writing of this book possible. In
particular my thanks to Mr A. Fouche, a former colleague and good friend, for his·assistance and guidance
and to Mr C. W. von Wielligh for his assistance with the sketches.
A special word of thanks to my wife Susie, to whom I dedicate this book for many hours spent in typing this
manuscript.
I would welcome any constructive criticism and comments from colleagues at other colleges.
THE AUTHOR
Contents

. Some basics 1 7.2 Rail resistance terms 51

7.3 Locomotive traction effort 52
1.1 Symbols and abbreviations I
7.4 Calculations on rail traction 52
1.2 Summ'!ry of principles and definitions I
2 7.5 Skidding and overturning on curved
1.3 Summary of formulae
1.4 ,Values for some moment of inertia 3 tracks 59
7.6 Summary of formulae 64 -
. Clutches 4 7.7 Vehicle dynamics ·66
4 7.8 Load transfer during braking 68
2.1 General introd uction
2.2 Plate clutches 4 7.9 Load transfer during acceleration 70
2.3 7 7.10 Load transfer when cornering 70
Cone clutches
10 7.11 Vehicles on curved tracks 75
2.4 Centrifugal clutches

Brakes 13 8. Balancing 78

3.1 General introd uction 13 8.1 Balancing of a single rotating mass 78

3.2 Band brakes 13 8.2 Balancing of several masses rotating
3.3 Block brakes 19 in the same plane 79
3.4 Block and band brake 22 8.3 Summary 80
8.4 Balancing of rotating coplanar
Line shafts 24 masses 81
4.1 General introduction 24 8.5 Balancing of masses rotating in
4.2 Gear drives 28 different planes 81
8.6 Dynamic forces at bearings 82
I. Flywheels 36
36 9. Kinematics 89
5.1 General introd uction
9.1 Motion 89
I. Reduction gearboxes 44 9.2 Definitions 89
6.1 General introduction 44 9.3 Relative velocity and acceleration 91
6.2 Functions 44 9.4 Adding and subtracting of vectors 92
6.3 Gear trains 44 9.5 Relative velocity and acceleration 93
6.4 Acceleration of gear trains 45 9.6 Velocity diagrams 93
6.5 Torque on gear trains 46 9.7 Velocity diagrams for points on a link 94
6.6 Worm-gear drives 47 9.8 Instantaneous centre of a link 95
9.9 Centripetal acceleration 97
Rail traction and vehicle-dynamics 51 9.10 Tangential acceleration 98
7.1 Rail traction 51 9.11 Acceleration of links 99
1. Some basics

1.1 Symbols and abbreviations Displacement: Is the distance between two points
QUANTITY SYMBOL BASIC SI UNIT when direction is considered.
radius ror R m Speed: Is the distance travelled during a time in-
diameter dorD m terval and is a scalar quantity.
height h m Seed == dis~ance
p time
length lor L m
area aorA m2 Velocity: Is the displacement (distance in a specific
mass m kg direction) per unit of time and is a vector quan-
force F N tity.
pressure N/m 2 or Pa V I .t displacement
e OCI y ==
p
time
time t seconds
distance S m Acceleration: Is the rate of change of velocity with
initial velocity u m/s respect to time. When the rate of change remains
final velocity v m/s constant, the acceleration is said to be uniform.
speed of rotation N r/min In this course, we shall only deal with cases
acceleration or where the acceleration is uniform. Acceleration
deceleration ' a m/s 2 is regarded as positive.
angular velocity w (omega) rad/s Deceleration: A uniform decrease in velocity is call-
angular ed deceleration. (Deceleration (slowing down)' is
acceleration a (alpha) radl S2 regarded as negative.)
moment of inertia I kg.m 2 ]j I . . change in velocity
radius of gyration k m ece eration :::;: time taken
torque T N.m
Mass: The mass of a body is defined as the quantity
power P WorkW
of ~atter which it contains. It is usually meas-
coefficient of
ured in kg or ton.
friction J.l(mu)
density p (Rho) kg/m 3 Weight: The weight of a body is the force with
pla~e angle or which the earth attracts it. It is usually measured
angle of contact 0 rad in N or kN.
Momentum: The product of the mass of a moving
body and its velocity.
1.2 Principles and definitions Momentum == mv
The students should be familiar with most of these Rate of change of momentum ==
mv - mu
t
principles and definitions. This is just a brief sum-
mary as an introduction. ma
Rest: When an object remains stationary relative to Force: The influence that changes or tries to change
another object, the first object is at rest with re- either the position of a body at rest or the uni-
spect to the second object. form movement of the body in a straight line.
Motion: Motion is a change in position of an object Force is a vector quantity.
with respect to a reference plane (can be linear or Force == rate of change of momentum
angular). F == ma
Gravitational force: Always points towards the cen- Angular acceleration: (a-alpha). Angular accelera-
tre of the earth. tion is the rate of change of angular velocity with
weight == gravitational force respect to time. Thus if the initial angular
W == rng velocity is WI and if after time t, it has a final
and g == gravitational acceleration value of W2, then the average angular acceler-
== 9,81 ml S2 ation
Work done: The product of a force and the dis- a == WI
W2 - or W2 == WI + a t
placement of its point of application in the direc- t
tion of the force. Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia of a
work done == force x distance body about an axis, is equal to the mass times
the square of the radius of gyration about that
Energy: axis.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (whilst stationary). The The symbols for moment of inertia is I and for
capaci~y for doing work; the energy a body pos- radius of gyration is k. Moment of inertia is
sesses because of gravity and its relative position measured in kg.m
with respect to a reference plane. I == rn.k 2
Ep == rngh h == height or distance in m
rn == mass of body in kg Centripetal acceleration: A body moving at a
constant peripheral speed v along the circumfe-
KINETIC ENERGY (whilst in motion). The energy rence of a circle with radius r must be accelerated
a body possesses because of its ~otion. towards the centre of the circle or else it will
Ek == 1/2 rn. v 2 travel on along a straight line that is tangential to
Power: The rate of doing work, usually measured in the circle. This acceleration towards the centre is
WorkW. called centripetal acceleration.
P work done
rv
2
ower == time taken Centripetal acceleration: or w 2 r where
21TN
Newton's laws W 60
Law 1: A body remains in its state of rest or uni- Centrifugal force: The imaginary reversed effective
form motion in a straight line unless it is acted force applied to the body is known as the centri-
upon by an unbalanced external force. fugal force.
2
Law 2: The rate of change of momentum of a body Centrifugal force F c == m~v or mw 2 r
-is proportional to the external force acting on
the body and in the direction of the working line Note: Centrifugal force acts radially outwa~ds and
of the force. centripetal force is directed to the centre of the
Law 3: For every action there is an equal and oppo- circle.
site reaction. w
Newton: The force which, when applied to a mass
of I kg, gives it an acceleration of 1 ml s 2•
Angular velocity: Angular velocity is defined as the
rate of change of angular displacement about an shaft
axis with respect to time. Normally the speed of
rotation of shafts etc. is expressed in r I min, but
---~.--
m
- ---
centripetal
for many purposes in engineering science, it is centrifugal force force inward
outwards on shaft on mass
more convenient to express it in radians per
second. A radian is the angle subtended at the Fig. 1
centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal
to the radius of the circle. 1.3 ~ummary of formulae
Number of radians in a circle or 1 revolution
Linear motion SI Unit Angular motion SI Unit
21T radians == 360° or 1 revolution
1 radian == 57,3° (approx.) displacement S m angular dis-
The symbol for angular velocity is W (omega) placement 0 rad
and the unit is rad Is . dS
velocIty v == t:i mj s angular velocity
21TN
W == 60 rad/s
(J
W =='t rad/s

2
acceleration a angular acceleration v == u + at W2 == WI + at
v - u WI - W2 S == 1/ 2 at + u t
2 o == 1/2at2 + Wit
a == t radls 2aS == v2 - u2 2aO == W2 2 - WI 2
momentum momentum
1.4 Values for some moments of inertia
== m.v kg.m/s (angular) ==
I + W kg.m 2 rad/s (a) Solid disc of uniform thickness and total mass
force (a) F == mg N I == 112 m.,2 , == radius of disc
(b) F == rna N , ,2
- k2
== v'2
=:::-
torque torque also k or 2
T == F + R N.m T == I x a N.m
(b) Hollow disc of uniform thickness and total
potential energy
mass
Ep == rngh
I I I 2m (R 2 - r 2)
kinetic energy kinetic energy
R outside radius
Ek == 1/2 m.v 2 J Ek == 1/2 Iw2
, - inside radius
power power
P==Fxv W P==Txw W == _j(R2 + ,2)
also k V (2)
moment of inertia
I == m.k 2 kg.m 2 (c) A small body of mass concentrated at distance

s =( v ~ U) t 8 = (WI ; W2) X t
, from centre of rotation
I == m.,2

3
2. Clutches

2.1 General introduction 2.1.2 Uniform pressure theory .

The primary function of a friction clutch is to This theory gives a higher friction torque than the
connect a rotating gear toa stationary one. It must uniform wear theory and is therefore more
be done in such a manner that inertia will be applicable to collar and footstep bearings. This
overcome smoothly and the coupled gears are theory is based on the assumption that the pressure
accelerated to the required speed. It must also be is distributed uniformly across the contact surface
done with a minimum of stress on the parts of the and resembles conditions as they are found on new
mechanism. unworn clutches.
A clutch enables two coaxial shafts to be engaged or
disengaged while at rest or in relative motion. 2.2 Plate clutches
Friction clutches may be of plate, conical or A multi-plate clutch is shown in Fig. 2.1. Clutches
centrifugal types. In each type slippage will occur are also available in a single-plate form. The plates
until the two shafts rotate at the same speed. This are subjected to an axial force when the clutch is
feature permits gradual engagement of the driven engaged. Therefore a torque is transmitted by fric-
shaft and also limits the torque demanded from the tion at the side of each plate. In a single-plate clutch
driving shaft. both sides of the plate are effective and two pai;s of
The driving torque is transmitted by friction surfaces are in contact. In a multi-plate clutch all the
between the two contact surfaces and the maximum pairs with contact surfaces will transmit the torque.
torque that can be transmitted from the driving
shaft to the driven shaft is limited by the maximum
frictional force between the contact surfaces.
In the theory of plate and cone clutches there are
two different terms in which the normal pressure
distribution across' the contact surfaces can be
described, namely the uniform wear theory and the
uniform pressure theory.

2.1.1 Uniform wear theory

Assuming the fit between the two contact surfaces is
perfect, then the normal intensity of pressure will be
the same at all points on' the contact surfaces of a
new clutch. For worn clutches the uniform wear
theory is used.
The rate of wear between the contact surfaces must Fig. 2.1 Multi-plate clutch
depend on the intensity of the pressure and also on
the velocity of the rubbing between the surfaces.
Wear is therefore proportional to the product of the
normal pressure and the rubbing velocity. This 2.2.1 Symbols
means that the maximum pressure occurs on the R == external radius inm
inner radius. r == internal radius inm

4
 Rm == uniform pressure theory 2.2.3 Examples on plate clutches
Rf == uniform wear theory Example 1
FA == axial force to engage inN
T == torque inN.m A plate clutch has 3 plates and is fitted in a driven
P == pressure between plates inPa drum with two plates. There are therefore 4 contact
I == moment of inertia in kg.m 2 pairs. The outside radius of the friction material is
k == radius of gyration inm 120 mm and the inside radius is 60 mm. Calculate
a == angular acceleration in rad/s 2 the force required to press the plates together to
n == number of surface pairs transmit 25 kW at 1 575 r/min. Assume uniform
w == (omega) angular velocity in radl s pressure theory and J.l == 0,3.
F n == normal reaction force between Solution
each' pair of contact surfaces inN
t == time in s Calculate torque
P == 2rrNT
,60
2.2.2 Formulae T == 25 X 10 3 X 60
2 X rr X 1 575
I == m.k 2 == 151,58 N.m
N == a s X Ne
Calculate uniform pressure (R m )
a e + a s
N == final speed in r Is
Rm
_~3 (R;R -- rr
-
3
)
ae ==
2
angular acceleration of engine in rad Is 2
as == angular acceleration of shaft in rad / s 2 == ? [(0,12)3 - (0,06)3]
N e == engine speed in r Is 3 (0,12)2 - (0,06)2
t == a
w
Rm == 0,093 m
Uniform wear theory Calculate the force applied to the plates (FA)
T == Jl X FAX R m X 4 (surface pairs)
Rf =R ; r = mean radius
151 ,58
constant c == pr (wear is constant) 0,3 X 0,093 X 4
FA == c X 2rr(R - r) 1358 N
T ~ J.l X FAX Rf X n Example 2
T == J.l X C X rr (R 2 - r 2) n
Calculate the number of contact pairs required in a
Uniform pressure theory plate clutch to transmit 24 kW at 1 200 r I min. The

Rm = t( ~~
== P
=;~)
rr(R2 - r 2)
diameters of the friction plates are 240 mm and
180 mm respectively. Assume the coefficient of fric-
FA X tion' as 0,2 and the normal pressure between the
T == J.l X FAX R m X n contact surfaces as 400 kPa. Wear is uniform.
2
T== J.l X P X 3rr(R3 r 3)n
Solution
Note p == 2 rr NT
60
(1) The axial force applied to engage the clutch is 24 X 10 3 X 60
equal to the normal force between each pair of T == 2 X rr X 1 200
contact surfaces. == 190,99 N.m
(FA == Fn )
(2) A surface pair is two friction surfaces. Calculate torque I pair
(3) Normally the uniform wear theory is used un- FA == pressure X area
less it is stated the uniform pressure theory == 400 X 10 3 X rr (R2 - r 2 )
must be used. The uniform' pressure theory re- == 400 X 10 3 X rr [(0,12)2 - (0,09)2]
sembles a new unworn clutch. == 7916,8 N
(4) When wear occurs on a plate clutch there will T == J.l X FAX Rf X n
be an increase in spring length resulting in a
= 0,2 x 7916,8 (0,12 ; 0,09) x 1
reduction in spring force. Assume equal wear
on all surfaces. == 166,25 N.m

5
Calculate number of pairs Solution
~otal == Tper pair X n (a) Calculate torque
190,99 == 166,25 X n
T == JJ. X FAX Rf x 2surfaces
say n == 1 pair
Example 3
= 0,3 x 2 x 10 3 X ( R ; ') x 2

A single-plate clutch with contact surfaces on both = 1 200 (0,175 t 0,09)

sides is required to transmit 125 kW at 20 rls. The
T == 159 N.m
outside diameter of the contact surface is 350 mm
and the coefficient of friction is 0,4. The uniform Calculate the retardation torque (engine) T Re
pressure on the contact surfaces is 170 kPa. Cal- T Re == 159 - 45
culate the inner diameter of the friction surface. TRe == 114 N.m
Assume uniform pressure theory. T Re == I~ x ire
114
Solution a e == 2,3
Calculate torque == 49,57 radl S2
T == P Calculate the retardation torque (shaft) TRs
2rr X N T Rs == 159 - 10
_ 125 X 10 3
-2xrrx20
== 149N.m
T Rs == Is x as
T == 994,72 N.m for 2 surfaces
149
T == 497,4 N.m for each surface as == 9
Calculate inner diameter (d) == 16,56 radl S2
T == J.l X Fn x R m Combined speed (N)
where Fn ,== P x area
== p x rr(R2 - r 2) N == as X N e.
a e + as
T == 0,4 x 170 x 10 3 _ 16,56 x 8,333
X 1r (R2 -
497,4 == 142419 (R3 - r 3)
,2) X ~ (~~ =~~) 49,57 + 16,56
== 2,086 rls
N == 125rjmin
== 142419 x (0,175)3 - r 3
497,4 - 0005 36 3
(b) Calculate time of slip (t)
142419 - , - r
0,003493 == 0,005 36 - r 3 t == Ws
as
r == 3 v'O,OOI 867 2rr x 2,086
== 123 mm 16,56
d == 246 mm == 0,8 s
Example 4
(c) Calculate time taken to reach 500 r j min
An engine is coupled via a single-plate clutch to a
Calculate a after slip
shaft. The plate has contact surfaces at both sides.
T:=Ixa
The outer and inner diameters of the plate are
where T := 45 - 10
350 mm and 180 mm respectively. The coefficient of
:= 35 N.m
friction is 0,3 and the force applied to the plates is
2 kN. The engine developes a constant torque of and I == 2,3 + 9
:= 11,3 kg.m 2
45 N.m and the' moment of inertia is 2,3 kg.m 2• The
_ 35
moment of inertia of the driven shaft is 9 kg.m 2 and a - 11,3
exerts a constant resisting torque of ION .m. As-
:= 3,097 rad Is 2
sume uniform wear. When the clutch is engaged at
an engine speed of 500 r I min and the shaft is in-. Let t I == time taken to reach 500 r I min after slip
active, calculate: W
(a) the combined speed between the engine and a
shaft at the moment no slip occurs 500 - 125)
(b) the total time of slip == 2rr ( 3,097 X 60
(c) the time taken for the shaft to reach 500 r/min. == 12,68 s

6
Total time == I + II 2.3 Conical clutches
== 0,8 + 12,68 A conical clutch consists of one pair of friction faces
13,5 s only. ,
Exercise 2.1
1. A single-plate clutch with a contact surface on each 2.3.1 Symbols
side is required to transmit 120 kW at 1 200 r/ min. The
Rf == uniform wear theory
outside diameter of the contact surfaces is 375 mm and
the coefficient of friction is 0,4. Assume uniform sur- R m == uniform pressure theory
face pressure of 180 kPa and calculate the inside dia- FA == axial force to transmit given
meter of the friction surface. torque inN
(d == 302 mm) F n == normal reaction force on contact
2. A shaft is driven by an engine through a friction single- surface inN
plate disc-type clutch. There are friction surfaces on Fengage == total axial force to engage the
both sides of the plate. The inner and outer diameters clutch inN
of the plate are 175 mm and 325 mm respectively. The F main == smallest axial force to maintain
axial force on the clutch is 1,5 kN and the coefficient of engagement in N
friction is 0,3. The engine develops a constant torque of
F == frictional force between contact
50 N.m with a moment of inertia of 4 kg.m 2. The driven
shaft exerts a constant resisting torque of 15 N.m and
surface inN
the moment of inertia is 8 kg.m 2. When the clutch is P == pressure between contact
engaged with the engine speed at 400 r/min and the surface inPa
shaft is at rest, assume uniform wear and calculate: Pmax == maximum pressure at inner
(a) the combined speed when the clutch is fully en- radius inPa
gaged Pmin == minimum pressure at outer
(b) the time taken for the shaft to attain a speed of 400 radius in Pa
r/min. T == torque transmitted by clutch inN.m
(175,3 r/min; 1,51 s) P == power developed by clutch inkW
3. Assume uniform pressure and calculate the internal
and external diameters of a single-plate clutch that will
() == semi-angle of cone in degrees
transmit 45 kW at 3 500 r / min. The coefficient of
A == area of contact surface inm 2
friction is 0,25 and a pressure of 65 kPa is obtained. W == surface width inm
The ratio of the frictional surface diameters is 0,7: 1-. I == moment of inertia in kg.m 2
Both sides of the plate are effective. ()J (omega) == angular velocity in radl s
(D == 280 mm; d == 196 mm) a (alpha) == angular acceleration in rad/s 2

Fig. 2.2

7
2.3.2 Formulae Solution
FA == Fn x sin (J Calculate torque (T)
Fengage == Fn (sin (J + J.l cos (J) T==PX60
J.l 21T x N
== FA (1 + tan (J ) 30 X 10 3 X 60

F main == FA (1 - t:n (J) ==

21T X 1 200
238,5 N.m
A == 1T X W (R + r) Calculate FA
FA J.l x FAX Rf
Pmax == 21T (R - r) r T == sin (J
FA T x sin 12,5°
Pmin == 21T (R - r) R
J.l x Rf
P == 21TNT 238,5 X sin 12,5°
60
0,3 X 0,125
/ == m.k 2
== I 376,6 N
21T N
W == 6() Calculate Fengage
T==/xa
Feng.ge = FA (1 + t.:o lJ)
t== ~
~'~,50)
a
= 1 376,6 (1 + tan
Uniform wear theory
== 3239,4 N
RJ =R ; r = mean radius
Example 6
Constant c == pr (wear is constant)
FA == c X 21T (R - r) The mean diameter of a conical clutch is 450 mm
FA == pressure x area and it rotates at 750 r / min. Calculate the axial force
== P x 1T(R 2 - r 2 ) required on the clutch faces to transmit 12 kW. The
T == J.l x F n x Rf
coefficient of friction at the clutch faces is 0,25 and
the slope of the cone is 1 in 6. Assume uniform
J.l X FAX Rf
wear.
sin (J

Uniform pressure theory Solution

Rm
_ £ (R3
- 3
- r 3)
R 2 - r2 Calculate torque
Fn == pressure x area T== Px60
2rr x N
== P x 1T (R2 - r 2)
12 X 10 3 X 60
T == J.l x F n x R m 2rr X 750
_ J.l X FAX R m 152,8 N.m
sin (J
Calculate FA
Note: To obtain complete engagement the oppos- I
tan (J == (;
ing frictional resistance between the two cones must
be overcome and therefore an additional axial force () == 9,5° ()

(Fengage) is required. T X sin (J 6

When the clutch is fully engaged, a smaller force J.l x Rf
(Fmain) is required to maintain engagement. _ 152,8 X sin 9,5°
0,25 x 0,225
2.3.3 Example on conical clutches == 448 N
Example 5
A conical clutch transmits 30 kW at 1.200 r / min. Example 7
The average diameter is 250 mm with an included A flywheel with a mass of 22 kg and a radius of
cone angle of 25°. Calculate the engagement force if gyration of 180 mm is driven by an electric motor
the coefficient of friction is 0,3. Assum~ uniform through a conical clutch. The running speed of the
wear. motor is 950 r / min and the semi-angle of the clutch

8
cone is 15°. The mean diameter of the clutch lining
Rf -- R 2+ r
is 180 mm. The coefficient of friction of the clutch
lining is 0,3 and the axial force applied to the clutch 0,175 + 0,161
is 220 N. Assume uniform wear and calculate: 2
(a) the torque required to engage the clutch == 0,168 m
(b) the time taken for the clutch to attain full speed == 168 mm
from rest. (a) Calculate axial force
J.l x FAX Rf
Solution T==-----~
sin 12,5°
(a) Calculate torque T x si~12,5°
Jl X FAX Rf FA == J.l X ~
T == sin 150 210 x sin 12,5°
_ 0,3 x 220 x 0,09 0,2 x 0,168
- sin 15° == I 353 N
== 22,95 N.m (b) Calculate maximum pressure
FA
(b) Calculate moment of inertia . Pmax
2rr(R - r) r
/ == m.k 2 1 353
== 22(0,18)2 2rr(0,175 - 0,161) 0,161
== 0,71 kg.m 2 == 95,5 kPa
Calculate angular acceleration
Exercise 2.2
T==/xa
1. A conical clutch transmits 15 kW at 1 OQO r/ min. The
22,95 == 0,71 x a outer diameter is 206 mm and the surface width is
a == 32,3 radl S2 70 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0,3 and the in-
Calculate angular velocity (w) cluded angle is 25°. Assume uniform wear 'and cal-
2rrN culate the axial force required to engage the clutch.
w
60 (2549 N)
2rr x 950 2. A conical clutch transmits a torque of 200 N.m at a
speed of 1 200 r/ min. The outer diameter is 300 mm
60
and the surface width is 60 mm. The coefficient of
== 99,5 radls friction for the surfaces is 0,3 and the included angle of
Calculate time the cone is 36°. Assume uniform wear and calculate:
w (a) the inner diameter of the cone
a (b) the axial force required to transmit the given
_ 99,5 torque
32,3 (c) the axial force to engage the clutch
== 3,1 s (d) the smallest axial force required to-keep the clutch
engaged
Example 8 (e) the maximum normal pressure at the inner radius
of the cone
A conical clutch transmits 210 N.m at 1 250 r/min. (f) assume uniform pressure and calculate the axial
The outside diameter of the clutch is 350 mm and force required to transmit the given torque.
the included cone angle is 25°. The clutch surface (263 mm; 1463,7 N; 2815 N; 112,3 N;
width is 65 mm and the coefficient of friction is 0,2. . 95,8 kPa; 1 461 N)
Assume uniform wear and calculate: 3. The mean diameter of the contact surfaces of a conical
(a) the axial force required to transmit 210 N.m friction clutch is 280 mm and the width of the conical
(b) the maximum pressure at the inner ~adius of the surface is 65 mm. The clutch is lined with material
cone. giving a coefficient of friction of 0,3 and the semi-angle
of the cone is 18°. The intensity of the normal pressure
Solution between the contact surfaces is limited to 60 kPa.
I Assume uniform wear and that the maximum pressure
Calculate the mean radius ex: will occur at the inner radius.
sin 12,5°
R-r Calculate:
65 (a) the inner and outer diameters of the cone
r == R - 65 sin 12,5° (b) the torque transmitted by the clutch
175 - 14,07 (c) the power transmitted at a speed of 1 200 r/ min.
say == 161 mm (260 mm; 300 mm; 143 N.m; 18 kW)

9
4. A cone clutch transmits a torque of 240 N.m at a speed m == mass of clutch shoe in kg
of 1 350 r/ min. The cone has a semi-angle of 18° and n == number of clutch shoes
the coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces N 1 == operating speed in r/roin
is 0,3. The cone has an outer diameter of 320 mm and N 2 == % of operating speed in r/roin
the surface width is 90 mm.
T == torque inN.m
Assume uniform wear and calculate:
P == power inkW
(a) the inner diameter of the cone
(b) the axial force required to transmit the 240 N.m
(c) the axial force required to engage the clutch
(d) the minimum axial force required to keep the
clutch engaged centre of
(e) the maximum normal pressure at the inner radius gravity
of the cone
(f) 'assume uniform pressure and calculate the axial
force required to transmit 240 N.m:
(264 mm; 1 692 N; 3254 N; 129,8 N;
73,3 kPa; I 687 N)

2.4 Centrifugal clutches

The centrifugal clutch consists of a number of shoes
which can slide radially in guides and bear on the in-
side of an annular rim. See Fig. 2.3. The outer IS
surfaces of the shoes are covered with friction Fig. 2.4
material which comes into contact with the inside of
the drum.
As the speed increases, centrifugal force on the 2.4.2 Formulae
shoes causes them to transmit power by friction to
the rim. The torque that the clutch can transmit is Centrifugal force
proportional to the centrifugal force and the torque Fe == mass x w 2 X r
is thus regulated by the speed. F == m.v
2
Retracting springs are fitted to keep the shoes clear e r
of the rim at low speeds and thus allow the motor to
Force on spring
gain speed before taking the load.
S == spring tension x wear x number of
shoes
S == mass (% of operating speed x w)2 X r

shoe Frictional force

centre of gravity FM == (Fe - S)
S == m [(w,)2 - (W2)2]
r-(21r;2 r]
Fe X r
F; S =m X r [(21r~1
":::;"~~-4-~--""r- spring
Torque
T == J.l (Fe S) R x number of shoes
p == 2rrNT
60

Fig. 2.3 s 2.4.3 Examples on~centrifugal clutches

Example 9
2.4.1 Symbols A centrifugal clutch rotating at 800 r/ min transmits
Fe == centrifugal force on each shoe inN 30 k W. If the clutch starts transmitting at 70 % of its
S == spring force inN working velocity, calculate the mass of each shoe
FM == frictional force inN required if the drum has an inside diameter of
w == angular velocity in rad/ s 325 mm. The shoes are made of a frictional material
internal drum diameter with a coefficient of friction of 0,3. Four shoes are
R inm used and the centre of gravity of each shoe is
2
r == centre of gravity radius inm 130 mm from the driving shaft centre.

10
Solution Calculate the mass (m)
Calculate torque (Fc - S)== (m x Wt 2 X r) - (m x W2 2 X r)
p == 2r: NT 1 812 = [m (2 x 7T~ 650) 2 x 0,12]
60
T == 30 X 10 3 X 60
2 x rr X 800
== 358,1 N.m
- [m (2 7T x d50
f 0,12]

Calculate angular velocity 1 812 == 555,99 m - 161,2 m

2rrN m == 4,6 kg
w ==W Calculate the spring force (S)
S == m x W2 2 X r
2 x rr X 800
60
== 83,75 radl s
Calculate centrifugal force (Fc )
= 4,6 x ( 2 x
== 741,54 N
7T r: 350 r x 0,12

F c == m (w 2 ) r Calculate power (P)

== m (83,75)2 x 0,13 Spring force increase because of wear
Fc == 912,39 x m N == 155 x 10 3 X 0,0025
Calculate spring force (S) == 387,5 N
S == m (0,7 x w)2 X r
New spring force
== m (0,7 x 83,75)2 x 0,13
== 446,8 X m N
== 741,54 + 387,5
== I 129,04 N
Calculate mass 2rrNT
T == Il (Fc - S) x R x n Power
60
358,1 == Il (Fc - S) x R x n _ 2 x rr X 650 x (Fc - S) x R x Il
358,1 == 0,3(912,39 - 446,8)m x 0,1625 x 4 60
358,1 == 90,9 ·x m Fc·· == m x Wt
2
X r
m == 3,9 kg
= 4,6 x(27T ~ 650r x 0,12
Example 10
A centrifugal clutch transmits 18,5 k W at 650 r I min == 2557,54 N
2 x rr X 650 x (2 557,54 - 1 129,04)
with 4 shoes. The springs allow contact to be made
P == 60
at 350 r I min. The drum diameter is 300 mm and the
coefficient of friction is 0,25. The centre of gravity of
x 0,15 x 0,25
each shoe is 120 mm from the centre of the drive == 3,65 kW I shoe
shaft. Calculate:
== 14,58 kW for 4 shoes
(a) the shoe mass
(b) the spring force applied on the shoes
(c) the power transmitted at 650 r I min if the spring Example 11
force is 155 kN/m and each shoe is worn
A centrifugal clutch has 4 shoes which slide radially
2,5mm.
in a spider keyed to the driving shaft. They make
Solution contact with the internal cylindrical surface of a
Calculate torque drum which is keyed to the driven shaft. When the
P == 2rrNT clutch is at rest, each shoe is held 3 mm clear of the
60 drum by means of a retracting spring exerting in this
T == 18,5 X 10 3 X 60 position a tension of 350 N.
2 x rr X 650 The centre of gravity of each shoe in this position is
== 271,79 N.m 120 mm from the axis of the clutch. The internal
Calculate force (Fc - S) diameter of the drum is 300 mm and the mass of
T == p- x (Fe - S)R x n each shoe is 2 kg. Il == 0,3.
Calculate:
(F - S)- T
c -p-xRxn (a) the speed at which the shoes contact the drum.
271,79 The stiffness of each spring is 30 kN 1m
0,15 x 0,25 x 4 (b) the maximum power the clutch can transmit at
== 1 812 N 900 r/min.

11
Solution
Calculate (N)
Note: At the point of engagement the spring
tension (S) equals the centrifugal force (Fc )
(a) S == 350 + (30 x 10 3 x 0,(03)
== 440 N
Also Fc == S == m x w2 X r where
r == 123 mm

440 = 2(~r x 0,123

44Ox60x60
N==
2 x 21r X 21r x 0,123
== 404 r/min
(b) Calculate torque
T == J.l X n (Fc - S) R
== J.l x n [(m x w 2 X r) S] R
= 0,3 x 4[2( 21T ~ 900f
x 0,123 - 440] 0,15
== 314 N.m
Calculate power
p
21TNT
60
21T x 900 x 314
60
== 29,6 kW

Exercise 2.3
1. The inside diameter of a cltitch drum is 325 mm and
the centrifugal clutch has four shoes. The spring
tension is not adjustable. The coefficient of friction for
the lining material is 0,3. The clutch has to commence
engagement at 8,3 r/ s and must transmit 30 kW at
12,5 r/ s. The centre of gravity of each shoe is 30 mm
from the contact surface. Calculate:
(a) the mass of each shoe
(b) the power transmitted per shoe at 800 r/ min if the
stiffness of each shoe spring is 160 kN/ m and the
shoe wear is 2 mm.
(m == 4,3 kg; Total P == 34,8 kW or 8,7 kW/
shoe)
2. A centrifugal clutch has four shoes which slide radially
in a spider keyed to the driving shaft. They make
contact with the internal cylindrical surface of a drum
which is keyed to the driven shaft. When the clutch is
at rest, each shoe is held 5 mm clear of the drum by
means of a spring exerting in this position a pull of
250 N. The centre of gravity of each shoe is then
200 mm from the axis of the clutch. The internal
diameter of the drum is 450 mm and the mass of each
shoe is 7 kg. The stiffness of each spring is 25 N/ mm

12
 3. Brakes

3.1 General introduction side being pulled on to the drum. When rotation of
the drum is reversed T, and T2 will change po-
The basic idea of brakes is based on the interaction
sitions.
between two masses. One mass is at rest while the
other moves at a predetermined angular velocity. The tension ratio T 1 eJ.LO always remains the
The function of a brake is to bring the moving T2
same.
angular velocity to rest. Slipping between the sur-
faces in contact is unavoidable because of the high Examples on band brakes
velocity these surfaces move at when the brakes are Example 1
applied. There will be an increase in temperature
The band brake in Fig. 3.2 has a mass of 20 kg
because of the energy that is released. The following
attached to the end of the beam. The diameter of the
elements in brake designs are applied: the applied
brake drum is 750 mm, the coefficient of friction is
force, the torsional ability of the brakes, the energy
0,25 and the angle of contact is 220 0 •
lost and the temperature increase.
Calculate the greatest torque that the brake can
3.2 Band brakes hold and state in which direction the drum must try
to rotate to achieve this torque.
Two types of band brakes are in use:
(a) the simple band brake; and
,(b) the block and band brake which will be di~­
cussed in the section on block brakes.

605

Fig. 3.2

Solution

F
Calculate the torque exerted when the rotation is
clockwise.
J

Fig.3.1

The theory applicable to flat belt drives, neglecting F

centrifugal force, applies also to band brakes.

Tension ratio (Fig. 3.1)

Note: The tight side tension (T1)' is always on the Fig. 3.3

13
Calculate the ratio between T I and T2 (a) the torque exerted when the drum rotates clock-
TI _ I/O wise
T - er-
2 (b) the torque exerted when the drum rotates anti-
0,25 x 220 x
== e 180
1r
clockwise.

TI == 2,612 T2
Take moments about A
Clockwise moments == anti-clockwise moments
(TI x 0,03) + (F x 0,605) == (T2 x 0,1)
(2,612 T 2 x 0,03)
+ (20 x 9,81 x 0,605) == 0,1 T2
0,07836 T2 + 118,7 == 0,1 T2 4,5 kg

T2 == 5485 N
and T 1 == 14 327 N 0,5

Calculate torque
== (T1 - T2) R
Fig. 3.5
T
== (14327 - 5485) 0,375 Solution
== 3316 N.m
(a) Calculate the torque for the clockwise move-
Calculate torque when rotation is anti-elockwise ment. For this movement T, will be at the
fulcrum.

F
T1
Fig. 3.6

Calculate the vertical component (VC) of T2

Fig. 3.4
sin 600 == VC
T2
Take moments about A
VC ==T2 x sin 60°
Anti-elockwise moments == clockwise moments
(TI x 0,1) == (T2 x 0,03)
. + (F x 0,605)
Take moments about
Clockwise moments ==
° anti-clockwise moments
(2,612 T2 x 0,1) == 0,03 T2 + (20 x 9,81 4,5 x 9,81 x 0,7 == T2 x sin 60° x 0,2
x 0,605) 30,9 == 0,17321J
0,261 2 T2 - 0,03 T2 == 118,7 T2 == 178,41 ~
T2 == 513,4 N
and T I == 1 341 N Calculate T I
J TI == eJ.to
Calculate torque T2
T == (TI - T2) R 0,25 x 240 x 1r

== (1 341 - 513,4) 0,375 == e 180

== 310 N.m T1 == 2,85 T2

T I == 2,85 x 178,41
The greatest torque will be exerted .in the clockwise == 508,5 N
direction.
Calculate torque
Example 2 Torque == (Tl - T2) R
The layout of a band brake as used on an elevator == (508,5 - 178,41) 0,3
is shown in Fig. 3.5. The coefficient of friction T == 99 N.m
between the band and drum is 0,25. The contact (b) Calculate the torque for an anti-clockwise
angle of the band is 240° and the drum diameter is movement. With this movement T l will move
600 mm. Calculate: towards the toggle action.

14
 Solution
Calculate T} and T2
T} == elJ.(J
T2
0,28 x 210 x 1r

== e 180

T} == 2,79 T2
Torque == (T} - T2) R
3 800 == (2,79 T2 - T2) 0,45
3 800
T2 == 0,45 x 1,79
Fig. 3.7

Take moments about

Anti-clockwise moments
° == clockwise moments
== 4717,57 N
T1 == 2,79 T2
T 1 x sin 600 x 0,2 == 4,5 x 9,81 x 0,7 == 13 162 N .
T1 == 178,41 N
(a) Calculate the brake force with a clockwise
Calculate T2 direction
T) == 2,85 T2
T - 178,41
Take moments about °
Clockwise moments == anti-clockwise moments
2 - 2,85
(F x 0,68)
== 62,6 N + (T1 x 0,02) == (T2 x 0,08)
Calculate torque 0,68F
Torque == (T) - T2) R + (13 162 x 0,02) == (4717,57 x 0,08)
== (178,41 - 62,6) 0,3 F == 168 N
T == 34,74 N.m (b) Calculate the brake force with an anti-clockwise
direction
Example 3
A band brake layout as used on an elevator drive is
Take moments about °
Clockwise moments == anti-clockwise moments
shown in Fig. 3.8. The brake force F is applied to (F x 0,68)
the one end of the lever. The lever hinges on a fixed + (T2 x 0,02) == (T, x 0,08)
point at 0. The torque exerted is 3 800 N.m, the 0,68F
drum diameter is 900 mm, the coefficient of friction + (4717,57 x 0,02) == (13 162 x 0,08)
is 0,28 and the angle of contact is 2100 • F == 1410 N

Example 4
The winding drum of a crane- has an effective
diameter of 460 mm and carries a brake, wheel of
1,2 m diameter. The contact angle of the brake band
is 2700 and the coefficient of friction between the
F
band and the drum is 0,3. The maximum a.llowable
tension in the band is 15 kN.
Calculate the maximum load which can be applied
on the winding drum.

80 600 Solution
Fig. 3.8 Calculate T2 2700
T where () == 57,3 0
- 1 == eIJ. o
Calculate the brake force F to give a torque of 3 800 T2 == 4,712
N.mif: == e 0,3 x 4,712
(a) the drum rotates clockwise; and T 1 == 4,11 T2
(b) the drum rotates anti-clockwise. T2 == 3,65 kN.

15
Calculate brake torque (Tb ) Calculate Ek
Tb == (TI - T2) R Ek == 1/ 2 I X WI 2
== (15000 - 3 650) 0,6 == .1/ 2 X m.k 2 x W1 2
== 6810 N.m == 1/ 2 X 500 (0,35)2 X (141T)2
Calculate maximum load ( W)
== 30,625 X (14rr)2
_ 30,625 x (14rr)2
T==Wxr
t - 141 X 7rr
6810 == W x 0,23
W == 29,6 kN
== 19,1 s
(c) Calculate revs
ExampleS
() == W mean X t
A band brake is fitted to the circumference of a == 71T x 19,1
wheel with a diameter of 900 mm. The angle of == 420 revs
contact is 227° and the coefficient of friction
between the wheel and the band is 0,25. The band is (d) Calculate Ek absorbed
fixed at one end and a pull of 185 N can be applied Ek == 1/ 2 I X W 2 mean
at the other end. == 0,5 x 500 (0,35)2 X (7rr)2
The mass of the wheel is 500 kg and its radius of == 14,8 kJ
gyration is 350 mm. Before the brake is applied the Example 6
drum rotates at 420 r/ min.
A brake consists of a flexible band on the periphery
Calculate:
of a wheel of 700 mm diameter. One end of the
(a) the brake torque
band is attached to a fixed pin and the other end is
(b) the time required for the wheel to come to rest
subjected to a pull of 200 N. The contact angle be-
if the brake is applied at 420 r/ min
tween the wheel and the band is 270° and the coeffi-
(c) the number of revolutions that the drum com-
cient of friction is 0,2.
pletes from the moment that the brake is
The wheel and the parts attached to it have a
applied until the drum comes to a standstill
moment of inertia of 70 kg.m 2•
(d) the total kinetic energy absorbed by the brake.
Calculate:
Solution (a) the maximum braking torque
(b) the time required for the wheel to come to rest
(a) Calculate brake torque (Tb )
from an initial speed of 540 r/ min if the brake is
TI == eJ.L(J 2270 applied.
T2 where () == 57,3°
== e 0,25 x 3,962 == 3,962 Solution
TI == 2,693 T2
(Hint: Take T2 200 N)
== 2,693 x 185 Calculate T 1
T I == 498,2 N
T, == 270°
Tb == (TI - T2) R T2
eJ.L(J
where () == 57,3°
== (498,2 - 185) 0,45 == e 0,2 x 4,712 == 4,712
== 141 N.m T, == 2,566 T2
(b) Calculate time (t) == 513,2 N
kinetic energy of drum (a) Calculate brake torque (Tb )
t == work done / s Tb == (T, - T2) R
_ 1/ 2 I X WI 2 == (513,2 - 200) 0,35
T x W mean == 109,62 N.m
Calculate angular velocity (b) Calculate angular velocity
2rr x 420 21TN 21T x 540
WI 60 WI 60 60
== 141T rad == 181T rad
141T + 0 +
W mean == 2 W mean ==
WI
2
W2

== 71T rad 181T + 0

Work donejs == T x W mean 2
== 141 X 71T == 91T rad

16