C H A P T E R X V I I I

T E A C H E R S A N D S C H O O L
O R G A N I Z A T I O N

ORGANIZATION AS SHAPED BY SOCIAL IDEAL

' A H E school felt and thought out its way as i t went along.
Its principles and practices were quite unlike those of con­
temporary method whether i n the teaching or administrative
area. The school was a social institution. Parents, teachers, ad­
ministrators were joined i n a search for a better way of school­
ing, where each individual, whether child or adult, could have
his chance for normal, happy growth and the satisfactions of
creative expression that was social i n its character and pur­
pose. I n such a school, cooperation must replace competition,
and the efforts of each must align, not vie, w i t h one another i n
a search for a common end. A l l this meant new planning, new
setting of the stage for daily activities which should permit
and promote a socially motivated school life. T h e following
statements, made by M r . Dewey at the request of the writers,
help to clarify the theory of the school as i t developed i n his
m i n d and its method of operation.
"The principles of the school's plan were not intended as defi­
nite rules for what was to be done i n school. They pointed out
the general direction i n which i t was to move. . . . As the out­
come of such conditions and others such as changes i n the
teaching staff, equipment, or building, the 'principles' formed
a k i n d of working hypothesis rather than a fixed program and
schedule. T h e i r application was i n the hands of the teachers,
and this application was i n fact equivalent to their develop-
365
366 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
merit and modification by teachers. T h e latter had not only
1

great freedom i n adapting principles to actual conditions, but

if anything, too much responsibility was imposed upon them.
I n avoiding hard and fast plans to be executed and dictation
of methods to be followed, individual teachers were, i f any­
thing, not given enough assistance either i n advance or by
way of critical supervision. There might well have been condi­
tions fairer to teachers and more favorable to the success of
the experiment. But i f i t had to be tried over again, I am con­
fident that all concerned would prefer to err i n this direction
rather than i n that of too definite formulation of syllabi and
elaboration i n advance of methods to use i n teaching and dis­
cipline. Whatever else was lost, vitality and constant growth
were gained.
"These remarks are not meant to shift responsibility for the
mistakes and defects inevitably incident to a pioneer educa­
tional undertaking to the teaching corps. They are made to
offset the impression which the formal statement of prin­
ciples might otherwise occasion, that of a scheme of instruc­
tion fixed i n advance. I n an experimental school i t is more
difficult than elsewhere to avoid extremes. One of them re­
sults i n a continual improvisation that is destructive of conti­
nuity and i n the end of steady development of power. T h e
other relies upon definite presentation of ends and methods
for reaching them to which teachers are expected to conform.

TEACHERS* SHARE I N SELECTING SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHODS

"The connecting link between these considerations and the

original statements of the principles of the school was worked
out by the teachers themselves cooperatively, with consider-

i " M r . Dewey h a d the greatest real faith of any educator I have k n o w n

i n the classroom teacher's judgment as to what c h i l d r e n can a n d s h o u l d
do" was the o p i n i o n of George W . Myers, Professor of Mathematics i n the
C h i c a g o Institute a n d later i n the School of E d u c a t i o n . M r . Myers h a d a n
u n u s u a l appreciation of the trends i n C o l o n e l Parker's a n d M r . Dewey's
points of view a n d , therefore, saw more clearly t h a n most where the two
m e n c o n c u r r e d a n d how they differed b o t h intellectually a n d a d m i n i s t r a ­
tively.
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 367

able use of the trial-and-error method. General suggestions

were made by the directors, and of course the spirit of the
school, its emphasis upon the connection of learning w i t h
active work, almost automatically controlled judgment as to
what projects were suitable and what were not. But w i t h i n
these limits, the development of concrete material and of
methods of dealing with it was wholly i n the hands of the
teachers. For each line of work, especially after the school
reached a suitable size, there was a head who was primarily
responsible. But she worked i n cooperation w i t h all teachers
carrying out the details i n that line, and also with heads of
other lines i n order to insure coordination.
"While constant conference was needed to achieve unity, the
movement of the school as a whole secured correlation of the
work i n different branches more automatically than would be
supposed by one who has not seen the principle of activity i n
operation. Any large discrepancies of aim and procedure soon
revealed themselves i n a sort of disintegration i n the children's
attitudes and thus led to revision. I t is very difficult to put i n
words the extent to which the spirit and life of a school can
control, by means of its own developing movement, the work
of different individuals and thus effect a reasonable degree of
unity i n the whole. Of course, the unity came far short of rat­
ing one hundred per cent. But experience showed that there
are checks upon dispersion and centrifugal effort that are more
effective than are the rigid planning i n advance and the close
supervision usually relied upon. One such check was the
weekly teachers' meeting i n which the work of the prior week
was gone over i n the light of the general plan, and i n which
teachers reported the difficulties met i n carrying i t out. Modi­
fications and adaptations followed. Discussion i n these meet­
ings was a large means i n translating generalities about aims
and subject-matter into definite form. Almost unconsciously
teachers of native ability, even i f they were without much
previous experience, gained confidence i n their own inde­
pendent and original powers and at the same time learned to
work i n a cooperative way as participants i n a common plan."
368 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL

TEACHERS* MEETINGS

The role of the teachers' meetings is illustrated by the fol­

lowing outline i n question form of one of these, which were i n
fact seminars i n method.
OUTLINE OF TEACHERS' MEETING 2

Q u e s t i o n s w h i c h suggest p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e to b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e s e
a r e n o t to c o v e r t h e t o p i c s i n a n y l i t e r a l w a y , b u t w i l l get y o u r m i n d s
t h i n k i n g a l o n g l i n e s t h a t w i l l b e of use to y o u .
1. I s t h e r e any common denominator in the teaching process?
H e r e a r e p e o p l e t e a c h i n g c h i l d r e n of d i f f e r e n t ages, d i f f e r e n t sub­
j e c t s ; o n e is t e a c h i n g m u s i c , a n o t h e r a r t , a n o t h e r c o o k i n g , L a t i n , etc.
N o w is t h e r e a n y c o m m o n e n d w h i c h c a n b e s t a t e d w h i c h is c o m m o n
to a l l ? T h i s is m e a n t i n a n i n t e l l e c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n a m o r a l w a y .
Is there a n intellectual result w h i c h ought to b e obtained in all
o f these d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s a n d at these d i f f e r e n t ages?
2. I s the intellectual a i m single or multiple? Is there any end
w h i c h is c o m p r e h e n s i v e e n o u g h a n d definite e n o u g h to m e a n any­
t h i n g ? B y m u l t i p l e I m e a n d o w e w a n t to t r a i n o b s e r v a t i o n , m e m o r y ,
j u d g m e n t , etc.? A r e these s e p a r a t e e n d s ? I f t h e e n d is s i n g l e , how
s h a l l w e r e l a t e a l l the s u b s i d i a r y e n d s , s u c h as m e m o r y , attention,
observation, reasoning power, to it? I f i t is m u l t i p l e , w h a t is the
effect o f t h a t i n p r a c t i c e ; is o n e s t u d y e s p e c i a l l y to r e a c h o n e end
and another another? D o w e w o r k for m e m o r y i n one recitation
a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a n d r e a s o n i n g p o w e r i n o t h e r s ? A n d i f so, h o w s h a l l
we regulate their balance?
3. I s t h e r e a n y n o r m a l p r o c e s s of t h e m i n d w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to
t h i s e n d w h i c h w e w a n t to r e a c h , a n d if so, w h a t is it? I f t h e r e is a
n o r m a l p r o c e s s , if the m i n d a c t u a l l y w o r k s t o w a r d it, j u s t as the b o d y
is w o r k i n g t o w a r d h e a l t h , what is t h e use of a teacher anyway?
W h e r e does t h e t e a c h e r c o m e i n ? I f it is a n a t u r a l p r o c e s s , w h y d o e s
i t n o t t a k e c a r e of itself? W h a t is t h e r e l a t i o n t o w a r d t h i s movement
i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e t e a c h e r ? W h a t is
t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p to the teacher?
W h a t is t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p to the
class? W h a t h a v e they to d o w i t h e a c h o t h e r i n w o r k i n g o u t this
end?
4. W h a t is t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of the v a r i o u s l i n e s of s t u d y t a k e n up
t o w a r d t h e r e a c h i n g of t h i s e n d ?
Discussion: Use of past e x p e r i e n c e to g a i n e n l a r g e d experience
t h r o u g h c o n t r o l w a s a r r i v e d at as the a i m o r c o m m o n denominator.

2 L e d by M r . Dewey, 1899.
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 369
The s e c u r i n g of a b i l i t y w a s a n o t h e r r e a s o n g i v e n , b u t i t w a s seen
that by ability was m e a n t c o n t r o l , a n d that the e x p e r i e n c e to be
g a i n e d w a s to b e g a i n e d t h r o u g h u t i l i z a t i o n of f o r m e r e x p e r i e n c e s .
Knowledge was suggested as the aim, and the question asked
whether knowledge was separate from experience.
Mr. D e w e y suggested that i f the end is k n o w l e d g e , how much
k n o w l e d g e is to b e g a i n e d ? W h e r e w i l l y o u d r a w t h e l i n e ? A s m u c h
k n o w l e d g e as y o u c a n stuff i n ? A n d w h a t k n o w l e d g e ? I t w a s a r g u e d
t h a t the m e t h o d t h a t b r i n g s the d e s i r e for m o r e k n o w l e d g e should
obtain.
If knowledge is m a d e the e n d , h a v e y o u a n y a s s u r a n c e t h a t the
e n d is n o t g o i n g to s t o p w h e n t h e l e s s o n does? T h e k n o w l e d g e that
is left i n s u c h s h a p e as to g i v e a m e t h o d for f u r t h e r k n o w l e d g e is
t h e test o f g o o d t e a c h i n g .
If t h e r e is i n t e l l e c t u a l s y m p a t h y b e t w e e n t h e w o r k of different
t e a c h e r s , m u s t t h e r e n o t be s o m e c o m m o n e n d , i n o r d e r to relate
t h e i r w o r k to t h a t of t h e o t h e r s ?
Mr. Dewey: " I s t h e r e a n y w a y to get a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of as­
s u r a n c e t h a t w e a r e h a v i n g t h e c h i l d get e x p e r i e n c e i n s u c h a w a y
as to a d d to h i s p o w e r of c o n t r o l ? I f t h e r e is a n y s u c h t h i n g as
m e t h o d i n i n s t r u c t i o n , c a n it be a n y t h i n g else t h a n t h a t c o n t r o l o f
t h e e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h is the t e a c h e r ' s c o n t r o l of t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of
t h e c h i l d , a n d t h i s s h o u l d b e s u c h as to a d d to t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t
t h e c h i l d is g o i n g to get c o n t r o l ?
1. U n l e s s t h e r e is s o m e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t c a n b e got at w h i c h
gives us some assurance that w e c a n n o t o n l y give m o r e experience,
b u t also m o r e c o n t r o l , is t h e r e a n y s u c h t h i n g as a r e a l a r t o r s c i e n c e
of teaching?
2. T h e o b j e c t is to g i v e t h e c h i l d t h e e x p e r i e n c e so t h a t h e will
get p o w e r of c o n t r o l t h r o u g h n e w e x p e r i e n c e s . W h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n
i n p a r t i c u l a r ? W h a t is i n v o l v e d i n t h e a d a p t i n g o f o l d experiences
so as to get a n e w ?
T h e f c h i l d is to get a c o n s c i o u s n e s s of h i s o w n p o w e r a n d a b i l i t y .
I f h e does n o t get i t h i m s e l f f r o m t h e r e a l i t i e s , t h e t e a c h e r w i l l h a v e
to h e l p h i m m a k e t h e s t e p f r o m h i s o l d e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e n give
him a s i m i l a r s t e p to m a k e a l o n e .
How is t h e g a i n i n g of c o n t r o l a n d of n e w e x p e r i e n c e s -to b e se­
cured?
T h r o u g h t h e s e l e c t i o n of s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , a n d m e t h o d w i t h i n the
subject-matter.
W h a t is m e a n t b y b r i n g i n g i n s o m e t h i n g n e w ? T h e r e m u s t b e a
p o i n t of c o n t a c t , a p l a c e w h e r e the o l d e x p e r i e n c e s c o m e s u p to the
n e w , a n d f r o m the c h i l d ' s p o i n t of v i e w , w h a t is t h e n e w ?
The n e w is s o m e t h i n g p r e s e n t e d to t h e c h i l d as a p r o b l e m , a dif­
ficulty, something t h a t is d o u b t f u l , w h i c h h a s e n o u g h connection
37° T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
with the old to make the thing continuous. Does i t make any differ­
ence whether this is i n arithmetic or L a t i n or art?
The new is not new because i t is new physical or intellectual
material. Unless the lessons suggest a problem, a difficulty, i t is not
psychologically new. W o u l d there be any learning unless there was
some obstacle, some effort on the child's part?"

M r . Dewey's statement continues:

"Those who have attended discussions among parents and
teachers w i l l readily understand that there was a tendency for
these meetings to devote too much time and attention to the
peculiarities and difficulties of individual children. I n theory,
the reports on individual children were supposed to connect
w i t h the principles involved i n adjustment of subject-matter to
their needs and the cooperative adjustment of children to one
another i n the social give and take of daily life. I n fact, the
younger and less experienced teachers, who served as assist­
ants, often failed to see this connection and were inclined to be
impatient w i t h the personal phase of the discussion when i t
concerned children they d i d not have to deal with. Experience
showed that 'principles' were too much taken for granted as
being already understood by all teachers; i n the later years an
increasing number of meetings were allotted to the specific
discussion of underlying principles and aims. Later results
would have undoubtedly improved had there been more such
meetings as were held i n the earlier years. I n these earlier years
fellows and members of the faculty of the pedagogical depart­
ment, graduate-student assistants, and the regular teaching
staff of the school all met weekly w i t h the directors to discuss
the reports of the school i n relation to theoretical principles
and to revise future plans accordingly.

DAILY CONTACT OF TEACHERS

""A check of a less formal k i n d was found i n the daily contact

o f teachers at luncheon or after school, as they talked over
their work and learned to appreciate the points at which the
activities of different teachers with the same group reinforced
one another or failed to converge. Perhaps the most vital, al-
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 371
though the least formal, influence was provided as children
moved from one teacher to another. Their attitude and re­
sponse i n a new class furnished an almost infallible index of
the quality of conditions of action and learning to which they
had been subject i n their previous class. Subsequent conversa­
tion would bring out a knowledge of the causes of the atti­
tudes displayed and, as i t disclosed that such and such a thing
worked and another did not, would lead to needed modifica­
tions or even to the decision that some line of work must be
begun over again on a different basis. . . .

ORGANIZATION

"Cooperative social organization applied to the teaching

body of the school as well as to the pupils. Indeed, i t could not
apply to the latter unless i t had first taken effect with the former.
Association and exchange among teachers was our substitute
for what is called supervision, critic teaching, and technical
training. I n spite of all defects and mistakes, whether due to
external or internal conditions, experience and reflection
have convinced me that this principle is fundamental i n school
organization and administration. There is no substitute for
it, and the tendency to magnify the authority of the super­
intendent, principal, or director is both the cause and the effect
of the failure of our schools to direct their work on the basis
of cooperative social organization of teachers. The latter
method makes unnecessary the grading and judging of teachers
by the devices often used. I t soon becomes evident under con­
ditions of genuine cooperation whether a given person has the
required flexibility and capacity of growth. Those who did not
were eliminated because of the demonstration that they d i d
not 'belong/
"Cooperation must, however, have a marked intellectual
quality i n the exchange of experiences and ideas. Many of our
early failures were due to the fact that i t was too 'practical,'
too much given to matters of immediate import and not suffi­
ciently intellectual i n content. When the school grew larger,
there was more definite departmental organization and more
372 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
definite discussion of programs; i n 1901 this tendency was
further supplemented by the appointment of Ella F. Young as
general supervisor and of Alice C. Dewey as principal. T h e i r
personalities and methods were such as to introduce more
intellectual organization without impeding the freedom of in­
dividual teachers. . . . The use of the word 'departmental'
i n describing the organization of the school is unfortunate.
I t suggests a kind of compartmentalizing and isolation of forms
of work that should be integrated with one another. But ex­
perience has convinced me that there cannot be all-around
development of either teachers or pupils without something
for which the only available word is departmental teaching,
though I should prefer to speak of lines of activity carried on
by persons with special aptitude, interest, and skill i n them.
I t is the absence of cooperative intellectual relations among
teachers that causes the present belief that young children
must be taught everything by one teacher, and that leads to
so-called departmental teaching being strictly corn par tmentai
with older ones.
"Primary teachers should have the same power, the same
freedom (and the same pecuniary recompense that now goes
to university and, i n less measure, to high-school teachers).
Persons selected on the basis of their ability to respond to the
needs of an educational situation and to cooperate socially and
intellectually with others develop ability to work out and
organize subject-matter and methods. Our 'higher' education
w i l l not be really higher u n t i l elementary teachers have the
same right and power to select and organize proper subject-
matter, and invent and use their own methods as is now ac­
corded i n some degree to teachers of older students. I n recol­
lection of many things i n our school practice and results that
I could wish had been otherwise, there is compensation i n the
proof our experience affords that the union of intellectual
freedom and cooperation w i l l develop the spirit that is prized
i n university teachers, and that is sometimes mistakenly sup­
posed to be a monopoly of theirs."
This testing i n practice of the educational theories set forth
i n its hypothesis made the teachers of this school also investi-
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 373

gators. They were both men and women, who usually varied
widely i n age and experience. Their previous preparation had
generally consisted of a college education or of training i n a
technical school such as Pratt, Drexel Institute, or Armour.
T h e experience of teaching i n a conventional school had been
a part of the preparation of most of them, and their own edu­
cational upbringing had been full of free activity with a rich
childhood experience. They came, for the most part, naturally
into the school w i t h a feeling of joy i n its adventure. There
were some, however, who, i n spite of an experience exactly op­
posite i n nature, had won an even greater appreciation of the
value and opportunity of its freedom. A l l were selected as
carefully as possible with reference to their social fitness, and
the result seemed to suit, i n a rather remarkable manner, the
needs of the pupils.

GROWTH AND ADMINISTRATION

Unhurried and unhampered as i t was by arbitrary require­

ments imposed from above or by irritating delays i n getting
necessary equipment or material, the school grew i n three years,
from fifteen to one hundred and twenty-five children, from two
full-time teachers and two assistants on a part-time basis to a
staff of fifteen full-time teachers and sixteen assistants. Some
of these were salaried assistants, others, as graduate students,
received their University tuitions for help given. There were
also usually a number of undergraduate student assistants. T h e
amount of time given by these assistants varied from one half
to three hours a day. 3

T h e increasing demands for administration were met, as the

school grew, by a natural division of labor among the teachers
according to individual interest and ability. A t the end of the
third year the administration, so far as the curriculum was
concerned, assumed a departmental form, analogous to that

a W h i l e often l a c k i n g i n finish, the laboratories a n d studios of the school

had good equipments so far as essentials were concerned. T h e result was
that c h i l d r e n a n d teachers of necessity constructed m u c h of the a d d i t i o n a l
e q u i p m e n t needful i n the activities.
374 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
of the University. These departments were the kindergarten,
history, science and mathematics, domestic sciences and in­
dustries, manual training, art, music, the languages, and
physical culture. Each department was headed by a director
qualified by social and technical training, as well as by life
experience, to utilize the data of her special field i n dealing
intellectually with the problems met with i n carrying on the
activities of her classroom. This director was also a trained in­
vestigator, who realized that her intelligent reports of the
results of testing certain educational theories i n the actual
practices of her classroom were to constitute scientific findings
for study and revision by other teachers, administrators, and
students of educational science. As an investigator she had no
fixed or final set of objectives, but each day of teaching enabled
her i n the light of her successes or failures to revise and better
these objectives.
The reports, made weekly i n typewritten form, furnished
the data of the problems for study and discussion i n the weekly
informal conference of teachers, as well as i n the more formal
seminar groups and larger pedagogical club meetings. Thus all
the teachers i n actual daily contact with children of all ages
furnished, i n these reports, the data for further inquiries and
conclusions. The value of such material to the Department of
Pedagogy of the University, engaged as i t was with the prob­
lems of educational science, became almost like the systematic
and cumulative clinical records of medical science.

SUPERVISION OF CHILDREN AND TEACHERS

I n the early years of the school, supervision of both the chil­

dren and the teachers of the school had been informal i n char­
acter. T h e children recognized that the teachers were there to
help them i n their own self-initiated activities. T h e i r energies
being fully engaged i n these activities there was seldom occa­
sion for "discipline." Responsibility for supervision of the
4

* A frequent visitor i n the School, Miss K a t h e r i n e D o p p , writes, " I t may

not be amiss to m e n t i o n that at times I heard r u m o r s to the effect that
the c h i l d r e n of the L a b o r a t o r y School were disorderly. I h a d observed sev-
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 375
children before and after school fell to the lot of the senior
teachers under the supervision of the principal. There was
daily and hourly exchange of results of classroom experience;
a certain child was ailing and needed rest; another was in­
hibited by shyness and needed encouragement; certain subject-
matter was going well or i l l with certain groups; or a science
teacher would suggest to the one i n charge of number work
that the children of a group were ready to mark the Fahren­
heit and Centigrade scale divisions on their thermometers,
then i n the making i n shop and laboratory. Accordingly, this
topic would be taken up for work i n number as opportunity
presented.
Such informal interchange, together with the weekly teach­
ers' meeting, performed the function of integrating and coor­
dinating those matters usually called disciplinary, as well as
those necessary to the growth of the program. T h e importance
of this continual exchange of news was felt to be so great that
the teachers' work was arranged with periods free from class
work of twenty to thirty minutes every day for each teacher.
I n these she could visit and advise with other groups and
teachers.
Great flexibility of organization was necessary for the work­
ing out of so complicated a program of activities. This was
made possible only by the willingness of the teachers to assume,
when need arose, extra responsibilities to meet emergencies.
I n addition to the informal interchange between the teachers,
there was, as already stated, the weekly meeting with Mr. Dewey
and later with Mrs. Young and Mrs. Dewey present. As the

eral groups m a n y times a n d h a d not gained such a n impression. B u t to

m a k e sure that I was not mistaken I visited the same group for a week
from the first m o r n i n g session u n t i l noon. D u r i n g that time a l l the c h i l d r e n
were thoroughly interested i n their work a n d u n u s u a l l y attentive. I ob­
served n o t h i n g that could be interpreted as disorder a n d only one instance
of inattention a n d that on the part of one c h i l d for only a few moments.
T o be sure the c h i l d r e n were not r e q u i r e d to toe the line, nor was their
attention distracted from the work at h a n d by r e m a r k s about the position
of feet a n d hands—remarks w h i c h were still prevalent a m o n g so-called
good disciplinarians at that time. T h e conduct of these c h i l d r e n was above
criticism. A l l eagerly cooperated w i t h the instructors w h o m they regarded
as friends."
376 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
school and staff of teachers grew larger, this meeting assumed
more formality.
GROUPING OF CHILDREN

The children of the elementary school were grouped accord­

ing to their interests and social compatibility which implied
some correspondence to chronological age. These groupings
replaced the ordinary public-school division into grades,
where promotion was dependent upon a marking system.
There were no comparisons of the work of children, who,
w i t h some few exceptions, never asked the teacher for judg­
ments or rankings or even comments on their work. T h e i r
activities were such that they could themselves judge of their
success or failure, and they were always fairly well aware of
variations of ability i n the group. Owing probably to the fact
that there were almost no children who d i d not excel i n some
one activity, however, few overt comparisons by children were
noted or can be recalled. Some of the children desired ex­
ternal marks as proofs of their own development. These, at
the time, were perhaps not sufficiently met. I t might have
helped for children to have kept some record of their suc­
cesses so as to objectify their own advance and thus answer
their need of some basis for judgment that should take the
place of an ordinary system of marks and grading. As a factor
i n the general treatment of all the children, however, this
lack was possibly more than balanced by the greater happi­
ness of the whole. A sense of inferiority rarely developed
overtly enough to present a classroom difficulty. Even i n the
last year of the school, w i t h the effort necessary to meet col­
lege requirements, stimulation by marks was never used. Writ­
ten or oral review on completion of the piece of work to be
done took the place of examination.
T h e difficulties of adjustment, which arose from having
young children under the care of more than one teacher, were
met by having one person responsible for the coordination
of each child's program and physical care, w i t h whom eight
hours or more a week were spent. Intellectual integrity and
continuity i n the treatment of subject-matter seemed of
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 377

greater benefit than the hovering care of one person. Just as

i n homes, children instinctively select certain people as sources
for certain kinds of response, the children learned to take
their difficulties to those teachers who had specialized i n the
line where the problem belonged. When manual training,
art, science, and literature were all taught, i t was found that
one person could not be competent i n all directions, even i f
this had been desirable.

CLASSROOM METHOD

A successful method of conducting classes gradually de­

veloped. This varied with the personality of the teacher, her
training, her background of experience and that of the chil­
dren. I t was also conditioned by the availability of the ma­
terials and equipment. W i t h all the younger classes, the first
few minutes of each recitation were spent i n a kind of coun­
cil meeting with the teacher, picking up the threads of the
previous period, planning and assigning the work of the
present hour. The children developed their own impersonal
methods of distributing important privileges, assigning the
waiter at luncheon or the leader of the class for the day, etc.,
by alphabetical order. The leader's responsibility entailed
5

considerable independence of the teacher i n following out

the daily program. This was often complicated by unex­
pected changes of room and teachers. I n this way any child
who, as leader, was lacking i n initiative and executive ability
fell naturally into the position of one who must develop
both through his own effort and without any insistence from
the teacher. I n like manner, the naturally executive child,
instead of spending all his energy i n running the school, as
sometimes happens i n schools of this freer type, could put
it into better planning of his work and forwarding of his skill
i n techniques.
5 A b o u t the age of twelve or thirteen the c h i l d r e n v o l u n t a r i l y discarded
the custom of following a leader a n d wished to be allowed to report to
their classes as individuals. I n case of unavoidable delay on the part of
the teachers, the classes of a l l ages, even the youngest, p u t themselves to
w o r k under the direction of a leader.
378 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
Even when accidental delays arose, which were inevitable
i n a school using the services of graduate students and part-
time teachers, the children exhibited intelligence and con­
fidence i n meeting emergencies and would go on with class
work on their own initiative. When, as often happened, they
did care for a situation i n this way, i t was regarded as a
definite indication that the class and teacher were adjusted
and the work was proceeding properly. Such rational conduct
i n emergencies indicated the formation of a thought-in-action
method i n the presence of unusual situations. I t was found
that i n dealing with such problems of development, i n per­
ceiving and meeting the need of the children for right means
of self-expression, a teacher's art of teaching was tested to its
fullest.
This method i n classroom work, the result of the coopera­
tive efforts of teachers and children, had the merit of enlist­
ing the interest and effort of the child both i n planning for
the activity and i n its execution. I n this process of directing
a self-initiated activity great care was necessary to allow the
child freedom to discriminate and select material according
to his own idea of its purpose i n what he was going to do. For
example, i n his pottery making, it was desirable that the form
of the bowl he was making should be determined by h i m
according to the use that he was to make of i t and not ac­
cording to a pattern set for h i m by another. His bowl com­
pleted and proven useful for the purpose which he had for-
seen, he was asked to use it, and his difficulty i n so doing
became his new problem. This recalled to his m i n d the form
of a pitcher so that he himself planned and made the ap­
propriate l i p on the jar, thus carrying his activity forward.
I n this way the child gained the method of thinking and
planning before doing. The stimulation of a successful accom­
plishment was the motive for his next act. He became, i n this
particular instance, conscious that shape was related to the
function of use. He formed an image, i n advance, of the shape
of the jar he must have for the use he wished to make of i t and
perceived that its use should determine its shape.
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 379

This illustrates how general ideas reached the child through

the teacher by means of her foresight, wise direction, or sug­
gestion at the right moment. Always bearing i n mind that
the activity of the child must be self-initiated, the teacher's
responsibility was to provide necessary materials and instruc­
tion i n the technical skills sought by the child to attain his
desired ends. There was also need to remember that there is
a stage of growth when i t is natural for children to acquire
their techniques of construction, communication, and meas­
urement easily and w i t h a degree of pleasure, and that activi­
ties which were graded and adapted to a child's growing
power stimulated his feeling of need and progressively in­
creased his measure of ability. The resulting sense of satis­
faction and clearer vision of achievement opened his eyes
to the extension of his activity.
There was needed, then, as always i n progressive education,
a willingness on the part of both teachers and parents to
watch and wait for the development i n the child of a sense of
need for any skill or technique. I t was necessary to combat
fear of new unproven methods. This Apollyon of progress was
always appearing i n the untrodden trails blazed by the new
psychology. The broad and easy ways of conventional teach­
ing lured the teachers to seemingly pleasant travel. Con­
tinually must they be on their guard against the temptation
to select the old, easy, and habitual forms of activity for which
ready-made materials were at hand, rather than one that
required search for new materials and careful thought. 6

Literacy, interpreted as the ability to read, write, and figure,

has laid the responsibility upon the teacher of developing
early proficiency i n the child's use of these tools. This profi-

e I n m a n y schools this often leads to a misuse of the child's interest i n

a n activity. T h i s is seen w h e n , for example, i n the activity of cooking,
the whole of a child's effort is steered into the acquirement of a skill i n
cooking, instead of directing h i m through his interest i n cooking into a
further apprehension of the m e a n i n g of the activity itself. T h e latter
m e t h o d develops i n the c h i l d more a n d more control of his o w n share
i n what he is reproducing—the activities grouped about the p r o d u c t i o n a n d
consumption of food.
 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
ciency was usually considered necessary before the child could
help himself from the storehouse of learning i n books. The best
known way to lead a child to knowledge had been by the weari­
some road of the alphabet. I n consequence, the efforts of these
trail-breaking teachers i n the elementary school were often
hampered by fear. T h e i r use of these time-honored tools, the "3
Rs," as wholly incidental to their need i n an on-going activity
was new and untried. What i f this way d i d not prove to be
so much more valuable than the old as to justify its use? Was
i t right to try a newfangled method when i t had always been
done the other way? Was i t right to refrain from making a
child learn to read and to wait u n t i l he was really ready to
do so? "What was good enough for my father is good enough
for me/' was often thrown i n the face of the experimenters by
the disturbed parents of a child, who, slow to discover for
himself a reason for using his tools, had been slow i n learning
how to use them, and had not been hurried i n the process.
Such disturbed parents are likely to communicate their
attitude of anxiety to the child. He feels he is under criticism
because he is slow. Desiring to gain approbation instead of
criticism, he demands help i n school, so that he may the
quicker meet his parents' expectations. This is often taken
by the inexperienced teacher as an indication that he has
arrived at the stage of growth where the use of this tool arises
out of a genuine felt need. A n observant teacher, however,
w i l l recognize this as premature, i f i n other situations the
child gives evidence of immaturity. I t was found, for instance,
that when a child was interested i n an activity just for the
sake of the activity, when he played miller without being i n ­
terested i n what the miller did, i t was an indication, i n gen­
eral terms, that he was at the stage of growth when he d i d not
separate means from ends. A t that stage therefore he certainly
would not be interested i n learning how to read as a means
to an end. If, however, as is characteristic of the seven-year-
old, when playing miller he could remember what a miller
does and could plan what he must do i n the character of a
miller, then he would be ready for and would be interested
i n using language as a means to a specific end.
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 381

T H E USE OF RECORDS

I n the meantime, making records was a necessary part of

the classroom process. This, however, was not used to stimulate
a child's interest i n learning to write. He was, instead, helped
w i t h the mechanics of making the record sufficiently to hold
his interest i n the process. I t was found to be good practice,
particularly with the younger children, i n the council meet­
ing at either the beginning or end of the period, for the
teacher to write at dictation the children's story of the work
of the hour. This story was arranged and used at the next
period as a reading lesson for review. The children, seeing
their own experience made lasting and useful to them and
others by the written form, gradually awoke to an apprecia­
tion of its use. They were interested by skilful suggestion to
find that other people had had the same experience and had
written i t . The desire to read for themselves was often born i n
children out of the idea that they might find better ways of
doing and thus get more satisfactory results. W i t h this interest
as an urge, the child himself often freely set his attention to
learning to read. A natural need thus became the stimulus to
the gaining of skill i n the use of a tool.
I n such a process, unconscious to h i m and psychologically
right because indirect, the child learns his techniques of read­
ing, writing, and measurement as a means to a desired and im­
mediate end of his own conceiving, and not as something he
must learn because he w i l l need it sometime, somewhere, for
a purpose utterly unimportant to him. Furthermore, by using
his skills to extend his ability to plan and execute his activity,
he integrates his experience and furthers his growth.

REALIZATION OF THEORY I N CLASSROOM METHOD

T o o much emphasis cannot be laid on the constant and in­

telligent attempts to put into classroom use, and thereby test,
the theory of the school. The success or failure of these at­
tempts occupied to a great extent the weekly teachers' meet­
ings and was the subject of the informal daily discussion that
382 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
always went on between the teachers i n hallways and on the
way to and from classrooms. Judgment as to whether there
was a right learning condition i n the classroom was often
based on the attitude (poised and happy, or nervous and i r r i ­
table) of the child as he went to the next class. A quiet and
contented attitude was considered an indication of satisfac­
tion of desire arising from the successful accomplishment of
a planned end. Such an attitude also indicated that the teacher
was fulfilling her function. Although the immediate decision
with regard to treatment of subject-matter and method was
left to the individual teacher, each teacher's method was so
checked and rechecked by cooperative discussion of results
and effect on the children, that changes i n viewpoint con­
tinually took place. Therefore, teachers and children, admin­
istrators and parents, as a result of sharing i n the same social
process, shared also i n the educational benefits therefrom.

ADJUSTMENT OF PROGRAM TO CHILD'S AGE LEVEL

From the beginning, one of the chief problems of those re­

sponsible for the arrangement of the program was to get such
an adjustment of the time devoted to the different activities
as would be i n accord with one of the major principles of the
school. This principle was concerned w i t h the developing
muscular coordinations of the child which determined the
type of activity proper for his stage of growth and i n relation
to his age. T h e need for the study and investigation of this
problem was formulated by M r . Dewey at the end of the first
year of the school. His statement of the problem is based on
the findings of the practice of the school during its first year.
The time given to different kinds of activities i n the accom­
panying tables was the result of the discussions of the weekly
teachers' meetings, of M r . Dewey's own observations i n his
almost daily visits to the school and also those of Mrs. Dewey
and other parents and friends who kept i n close touch w i t h
its daily program, as well as of the comments and reflection
of visiting teachers, administrators, and graduate students.
This distribution applied to Groups I and I I (six and seven
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 383

ADJUSTMENT O F T I M E IN T H E SECOND YEAR O F T H E SCHOOL *

Hours a Period (number a n d

Subject Daily Program
Week and length

2 days a week 2 at 40 m i n .
3 days a week 3 at 30 m i n .
2-3 days a week 2-3 at 45-30 m i n .
3 days a week 1 3 at 20 m i n .
V i s i t i n g Museums, etc. 1 day a week 1 at 1 hr. & 30 m i n .
2 days a week 2 at 1 hr. & 30 m i n .
2 days a week 2 2 at 1 h r .
Expressive Activities,
Art, Modeling . . . 5 days a week 5 at 30 m i n .
"History"—Stories,
Conversations . . . 5 days a week 2% 5 at 30 m i n .
1 day a week 1 at 20 m i n .

Total 3 hrs. a day 15%

years); with older groups the time was the same i n gymnasium,
shop, music, and excursions, while the balance between the
active work and intellectual work changed so that w i t h Group
I I I (eight and nine years) about three and one half hours a
week were spent i n each. W i t h the ten-year-olds active work
occupied four hours, and the formal intellectual work seven
to eight hours a week. The most important principles used
i n determining the time part of the program were (1) the rela­
tive amounts of time to be given to hand-work and the intellec­
tual work and (2) the balancing of the time assigned to hand­
work of the constructive type such as that of the shop, cooking,
sewing, and to the artistic modes of expression such as model­
ing, painting, etc. The next table shows the allotment for these
groups.

GROUP I I I (EIGHT AND NINE YEARS)

Weekly
A. Cooking, Science 3% h r s .
R e l a t e d m o d e s of e x p r e s s i o n 3% h r s .
B. History, Literature 3 ^ hrs.
R e l a t e d modes of expression 3% h r s .

7 D u r i n g the first two years of the school there were no c h i l d r e n u n d e r

six years. G r o u p s I a n d I I (six a n d seven years). T h e last five years, G r o u p s I
a n d I I (four a n d five years).
384 THE DEWEY SCHOOL

GROUPS I V (EIGHT AND NINE YEARS) AND V ( T E N AND ELEVEN YEARS)

Weekly
A 4% hrs.
B 4% hrs.
I V & V Shop 2% hrs.
I V & V Geography 1 hr.
I V & V Free time . 1 hr.

I n the older groups the necessary balance between the two

types of activities became more definite. The total amount
of time actually spent by all children of different ages i n
overt activities was determined. For the younger children
this was from nine to ten hours out of the fifteen, the re­
mainder of their time being taken up with expressive activities
of an intellectual kind. This general proportion was main­
tained throughout the seven years of the school. The prob­
lem of the variations i n this balance demanded by the i n ­
creasing maturity of the children was ever present. I t was
complicated by the necessity of using part-time teachers i n
art, music, and language, and the services of graduate stu­
dents whose university schedules must be respected.
The resulting practice was contrary to the traditional idea
that a little child would attend to one activity for a short
time only. After four years' experimenting it was found that
six-year-olds could carry on their play i n a social occupation
from one to one and a half hours. As the result of careful
experimentation, the following plan was worked out. A few
minutes' discussion of the day's plans, under the teacher's
direction, preceded a half to one hour's play and was fol­
lowed by a summary of what had been done by the group.
This summary was necessary to the child because it involved
plans for the next day and took place three or four times a
week. Later i t was found possible to give the class that seemed
ready for i t to a teacher who had specialized in the tech­
niques of reading, writing, etc. Her time was used in helping
the children to make records of the activity. This furnished
material for reading at the next period. The one hour and
a half previously given to the group teacher was thus reduced
to one hour, without interfering with the intellectual con-
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 385
tinuity of the activity. Development i n the technique of num­
bers, however, was not separately undertaken i n this manner
u n t i l about the middle of the second stage of growth, but was
always considered i n direct connection with the activity in­
volved and was under the group teacher's direction. Separate
teaching of skills i n the first stage of growth did not need
more than three periods of a half hour each week. I t was
found that a group teacher's contact with her group could
not profitably be less than eight to ten hours a week. T h i s
always included one period of an hour and a half each week
i n the group room, i n which the unhurried completion of the
integral parts of the class's activity was made possible.
A t the close of the first stage of growth (from seven to eight
years) the balance i n the day's program seemed to be success­
fully maintained i f the longest period was an hour and one
half. One hour of this was devoted to the carrying out of an
occupation. A half hour was given at least three times a week
to techniques necessary to that activity. The following are
typical programs for the three stages of the elementary period,
during the later years of the school.
T Y P I C A L PROGRAM FOR T H E FIRST STAGS

5 TO 7 YEARS

Subject Hours a Day Hours a Week

1Y2 or 1
P r i m i t i v e Occupations (History a n d
«<

Techniques (Reading and Writing) % (3 times a week)

G y m n a s i u m or G a m e s i n R o o m
«fc
»%
+ 1 (2 times a w e e k ) 1%
E x c u r s i o n s , or Assembly, or Shop 1%

3 15

After the age of eight the periods spent i n artistic work

were lengthened from one-half hour to one hour and occa­
sionally one and a half hours. This work was concentrated i n
one or two quarters of the year and was alternated with some
activity, such as textiles, cooking, or science, while the time
386 THE DEWEY SCHOOL
spent on history, music, French, and English was kept to an
average of two hours a week, i n one-half hour periods. W i t h
TYPICAL PROGRAM FOR T H E TRANSITION STAGE

7 TO 8 YEARS

Subject Hours a Day Hours a Week

l 5
Techniques (Reading and Writing) % (2 times a week) 2
i or (3 times a week) 2
14 a n d 1
1 or (3 times a week) 2
Shop i^or 1 (3 times a week) 2
y> (6 times a week) 3
Vi
Total 4 20

the younger classes up to eight this division also held, but the
work was carried on for an hour with the same teacher i n the
same room four days i n the week. Separate classes i n number
work or arithmetic began with children of eight or nine
years and were never longer than twenty minutes to one-half

TYPICAL PROGRAM FOR T H E SECOND STAGE

9 TO 10 TO 12 YEARS

Subject Hours a Day Hours a Week

1 5

2 or 2%

2
Art »%
1 or 14 1%

4y 2
2214

hour. These so-called d r i l l periods were part of the program

only as the children evinced the need. Otherwise their num­
ber work was occupied with the problems arising i n the other
activities of the school.
T h e varying factors i n the program for the second stage of
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 387
growth are cooking, science, textile and shop-work. The tech­
nique periods varied from one and a half to two and a half
hours a week. Number work as a separate study was added i n
the ninth and tenth years, thus increasing the time given to
technique and lessening the time given to experimental work.
Toward the end of this period, the school day continued to
2:30 p. M., thus giving time for the study of modern languages
and Latin. Another modification for this stage was i n the
time spent i n art and textiles. These subjects, alternating
every three months, occupied the children three to four hours
a week, i n one to one and a half hour periods. I n the latter
part of this period the daily balance was as follows: scholas­
tic, one and a half hours; physical exercise, one and a half
hours; expressive activities, two and a half hours.
The first set of programs represents the arrangement of
studies during the first two years of the school, the second that
during the following five years. Both were planned and
changed from time to time to accord with the balance between
active and more strictly intellectual work involving discussion
and planning found, by experiment, advantageous to the
child. I n the time given to active work, i t was found well
to strike a balance between activities involving the larger
muscles, as those i n the shop, gymnastics, etc., and those of
the expressive arts, reading, writing, painting, modeling, etc.,
which make use of finer muscular control by alternating the
periods of each.
One of the characteristics of the school, which i n retrospect
seems of great importance, was the ease with which changes
i n the program, both as to subject and method, could be made.
Such flexibility and adaptability to the needs of children or
circumstances could only have been possible i n a school where
the informal social conditions and relations of everyday life
prevailed.
The condition of the children at the end of the day was
usually the test as to whether the learning conditions were
right i n all respects. This included, of course, the length of
time spent by children of different ages i n the school build­
ing. For the youngest children, four to five years, the school
388 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
hours were from 9 to 11:30. Six-year-old children were i n the
school from 9 to 12; seven-year-olds, depending on conditions
in the class, sometimes returned or remained at school for
an hour's work i n the afternoon. A l l children over nine had
afternoon work. I t began w i t h an hour and extended to one
and a half hours for the oldest children. I n general, for chil­
dren six to nine years of age, the division of the day remained
approximately one to one and a half hours i n social occupa­
tions including active work and discussions, one half-hour
i n gymnasium or outdoor play, and one half-hour on art or
music. The remaining hour was spent variously on different
days, i n cooking one day a week, i n textile work (generally
one half-hour period), and a half-hour period i n some hand­
work, either i n shop or i n work connected with their social
occupations. This arrangement was broken into during the
week by the assembly, once i n two weeks by excursions, and
for eight-year-olds by individual work i n printing and special
work i n reading and writing.
During the second period, w i t h children of eight to twelve
years the day was extended by the addition of an hour i n the
afternoon. The same division of time was maintained, save
that time was taken from the period allotted to social occupa­
tions (varying quarter by quarter) and given to textile work
or used i n d r i l l i n the techniques of number. Toward the end
of the second stage of growth, when a larger proportion of
concentrated time was given to science, the three subjects,
textiles, art, and science, were given successively, one each
quarter. I n this way longer periods for continuous work were
secured i n each one of these three lines. Because of the lack
of full-time teachers, the assignment of work by quarters of
the year was more or less arbitrary. I n the second stage of
growth, however, when most of the children had become
capable of carrying on much longer and more involved pieces
of work, this arrangement seemed to suit their interests and
attitudes acceptably.
For all the children, gymnasium periods of one half-hour
were generally so arranged as to follow work that d i d not i n ­
volve the larger muscles. When possible, w i t h children up to
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 389

the age of seven i t took the form of play outdoors. Groups

were combined so that about twenty-five children formed a
class. Six-year-old children sometimes played with the next
older and sometimes with the next younger children. I n the
stage of growth when interest i n organized games develops,
from nine years on, the gymnasium periods become more fre­
quent, and more play times, often after school, were ar­
ranged. W i t h this change one or two half-hour periods of
school hours were spent on the gymnasium floor, i n outdoor
gymnastics to help posture or i n games using the large mus­
cles. The out-of-door organized play was supervised. One of
the University coaches helped the children develop their
techniques i n baseball and basket-ball. The school, as part of
the University, was under the University health regulations,
i n accord w i t h which, as well as because of need, each child
received a thorough physical examination. The tests and
measurements then i n vogue were used. When these disclosed
conditions requiring it, individual corrective work i n the
University gymnasium followed. The school also formulated
its own health regulations. One of the records runs as follows:
The boys were convinced by the medical adviser of the University
(Dr. Raycroft) that high-school football often formed habits which
hindered rather than helped them i n their later play of the game.
This advice was backed up by the teacher of biology (Mr. George
Garrey) whose reputation as a star of the football field (one whose
head helped out his feet) gave his opinion great weight with the
children.

T w o of the students i n the Department of Pedagogy (1896

to 1897) were Frederick W . Smedley and Daniel P. MacMil­
lan. Both were members of M r . Dewey's seminar, where the
8 9

fundamental concepts basic to the hypothesis of the school

were worked out. Both early saw the extent to which these

s M r . Smedley was Director of the C h i l d Study D e p a r t m e n t of the C h i c a g o

P u b l i c Schools u n t i l his death i n May, 1902. D r . M a c M i l l a n has been D i r e c ­
tor of this D e p a r t m e n t since Oct., 1902.
9 T h i s seminar was the first i n a series w h i c h collaborated i n b r i n g i n g out
Studies in Logical Theory, by J o h n Dewey, w i t h the cooperation of M e m ­
bers a n d Fellows of the D e p a r t m e n t of Philosophy (Chicago: T h e U n i ­
versity of Chicago Press), 1903.
3 go T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
psychological principles, with their social implications, would
change education.
Mr. Smedley, i n collaboration w i t h A. A. Wood, a student
i n the Department of Psychology, carried through a series
of measurements of the sensory and motor abilities of the
pupils i n the school. These tests were planned i n the University
Psychological Laboratory w i t h a view to determining the
pedagogical value of measurements which could be used as
a basis for determining the right balance and distribution of
time given to the various types of activity on the daily pro­
gram. Later a report of these tests was published. I n the intro­
duction M r . Smedley writes as follows:

The school is a pedagogical laboratory where the students of peda­

gogy are investigating such questions as the correlation of studies,
the psychological bearing of the different branches, and the adapta­
tion of the material from the different sciences to the needs of
primary pupils. . . . These tests are, I believe, a suitable beginning
for a teacher who is to develop an organized, assimilated knowledge
of child psychology and become a trained observer of children. It is to
be hoped that the schools of the near future will be equipped with
such teachers, teachers who, better understanding the natures of
the children, will better know their needs and be able to pro­
vide for them, and that in those schools pupils will not be promoted
simply on account of their having remembered the words of the
answers to stated questions. Instead health, strength, quickness and
accuracy of intellectual activity, and the acuteness and education of
the senses will determine, in part at least, the child's fitness for
higher and harder work.
The psychological tests involved much labor, but helped in de­
termining a right balance in the time which could profitably be
spent in the typical activities of the program.

The tests were easily fitted into the day's program because of
the flexibility of the school organization. There was great
difficulty i n finding space suitable for them, but an attic
room was finally fitted up for the purpose. The freedom w i t h
which the children could be sent to the examiners was testi­
mony of the friendly attitude toward adults developed i n the
school. Only a small proportion had to be taken to the ex­
aminers.
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 391

STUDIES I N INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

1 0
T h e School's b e g i n n i n g s of s t u d y of the p s y c h o l o g y of i n d i v i d u a l s
w e r e p e r h a p s too i n f o r m a l a n d q u a l i t a t i v e to s u r v i v e t h e m o r e
d e f i n i t e l y o r g a n i z e d f o r m of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s c h o o l life w h i c h reas­
s e r t e d itself a f t e r M r . D e w e y left, a n d t h e t i d a l w a v e of s t a t i s t i c a l
measurements w h i c h h e l p e d sweep reactionary influences into
p o w e r . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g i n the e a r l i e r f o r m of t h e L a b o r a t o r y
S c h o o l , j u d g i n g f r o m t h e l i t t l e I s a w of it, t h a t w a s o p p o s e d to t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d use of i n s t r u m e n t s of p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t i n
e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e . D o u b t l e s s these i n s t r u m e n t s w o u l d h a v e c o m e
i n d u e c o u r s e , b u t a p p l i e d to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f v a l u e s w h i c h w e r e
unique rather than standardized.

I n the last year or so studies were made to discover the

stage of growth at which self-consciousness appeared. W i t h
so few children no a priori generalizations could be made.
The studies, however, suggested that, for these children at
least, consciousness of the difference between boys and girls
i n interests and attitudes did not appear, except i n isolated
cases, u n t i l after eleven years of age. The boys i n the older
classes, perhaps because they were i n the minority, were
especially determined not to let the girls, as they said, "get
ahead of them," and were not always devoid of the boastful
attitude, easily understood, at that time, without benefit of an
"inferiority complex" explanation. The girls, most of them
excelling easily i n many respects, looked with tolerance at
this attitude of the boys. There were no major difficulties
with precocious sex interests i n the friendly association i n
clubs and work on the club-house. I t is probable that there
was the usual exchange of dubious experience which is almost
universal between small boys and girls. This never amounted
to much of a problem, as there were generally activities of
much more interest going on.

GENERAL SCHOOL ACTIVITIES

Excursions were a feature of the school's program from the

beginning. These were of all kinds, collecting expeditions i n
10 W i l l a r d C . Gore, assistant in Psychology at the University of C h i c a g o ,
1902-03, a n d later Instructor of Psychology i n the School of E d u c a t i o n .
392 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
the parks, physiography excursions to the dunes and distant
regions such as Starved Rock or Lake Bluff on the north shore
of the lake. Visits were made to factories and the art museum.
They went frequently to the nearby Field Museum where a
wide variety of departments offered unusual illustrative ma­
terials, useful to the pupil's experiences and experiments. Ex­
peditions to the park, the greenhouses, and occasionally to
the University laboratories were a part of the routine of each
class as the work reached the point when such visits would be
helpful. The excitement and interest of the children over the
field expeditions were never failing and always included a
keen interest i n the scientific purpose of each excursion. T h e
pleasure on the trip, i n the luncheon and i n being outdoors
together never seemed to interfere, but heightened the under­
standing of what they saw and discussed. The University l i ­
braries and those of the city were a never-failing source of
books for teachers and children, and the latter early learned
how to make use of the reference shelves.
The assembly, i n which the whole school except the kinder­
garten came together, occurred once a week and varied i n
length from twenty minutes to half-an-hour. I t was regarded
as a natural outgrowth of the school activities and had both a
social and a cultural aim. I t afforded opportunity for pupils
to share interesting information and to build up habits, emo­
tions, and attitudes which gave social value to information and
to artistic expression. I t also helped the children learn the art
of cooperation, develop initiative, and assume responsibility.
I t stimulated clear thinking and expression and cultivated the
desire to give entertainments of artistic value.

COMMENTS O F T E A C H E R S AND VISITORS T O T H E S C H O O L

There is much of interest and value after an interval of

thirty years i n the comments of graduate students, visitors,
cooperating members of the University faculty, teachers and
principals of this and other schools, and the pupils of the
school on this experiment i n education. A few are here i n ­
cluded. One of the teachers i n the old Cook County and
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 393
Chicago Normal Schools, and later i n the Chicago Institute
was Flora J. Cooke. I n 1900, she became principal of the
Francis W. Parker School, part of the Chicago Institute before
its removal to the South Side. Miss Cooke wrote: 1 1

I b e l i e v e Dr. D e w e y and C o l o n e l P a r k e r h a d f u n d a m e n t a l l y the

s a m e p o i n t o f v i e w i n e d u c a t i o n , b u t D r . D e w e y c a m e to his con­
clusions f r o m a p r o f o u n d p h i l o s o p h i c study, w h i l e C o l o n e l P a r k e r
c a m e to h i s t h r o u g h a d e e p , s y m p a t h e t i c i n s i g h t i n t o c h i l d r e n and
t h e i r n e e d s . C o l o n e l P a r k e r n e v e r lost s i g h t of t h e c h i l d i n t h e o r y .
B o t h C o l o n e l P a r k e r and D r . D e w e y w o u l d h a v e the c h i l d w o r k
and p l a y i n a r i c h a n d s t i m u l a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . E a c h w o u l d h a v e
the e n v i r o n m e n t , b o t h of the s c h o o l a n d of w i d e r society, g i v e the
c h i l d educational inspiration a n d many-sided, wholesome activity.
E a c h b e l i e v e d t h a t i f the c h i l d filled t o d a y w i t h c o m p l e t e and h a p p y
l i v i n g , t o m o r r o w w o u l d find him r e a d y to meet the c h a l l e n g e
f o r m o r e difficult r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d s o c i a l l y s a t i s f y i n g w o r k . T h e s e
two m e n , w o r k i n g f r o m o p p o s i t e p o l e s , o b s e r v i n g k e e n l y and c a r e ­
f u l l y e d u c a t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a , c a m e i n a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e to the
same conclusions concerning educational procedure.

A young instructor i n pedagogy recalls the days when those

i n the educational process were still quite unaccustomed to
experimentalism i n education and when the experimental
method connoted a laboratory of natural science, rather than
a humanistic one. 12

Mr. D e w e y e m p h a s i z e d to a l l of us the i m p o r t a n c e of not l o o k i n g

for m a t e r i a l r e s u l t s , b u t to o b s e r v e c a r e f u l l y t h e effect o f the
processes u p o n the m i n d s , not o n l y of those who were to be
" t a u g h t , " b u t u p o n those who were t h e " t e a c h e r s " o r l e a d e r s . The
e m p h a s i s u p o n the necessity of participation i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
p r o c e s s a n d t h e e q u a l l y s t r o n g a n d i m p o r t a n t fact that e d u c a t i o n is
not a state b u t a process m a d e u s l o o k u p o n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l
s c h o o l as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h had a w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s w o r t h y of c a r e ­
ful c o n s i d e r a t i o n . . . .
M y first taste for e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k i n e d u c a t i o n w a s d e v e l o p e d
w h e n M r . D e w e y t o o k m e , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , w i t h h i m to h i s
s c h o o l . C o m i n g f r o m a U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e t h e classics s t i l l r e m a i n e d
the great s t a n d a r d of e d u c a t i o n , w i t h the sciences s t a n d i n g a r o u n d

11 Extracts from a statement made by Miss Cooke i n M a r c h , 1927.

12 George H . L o c k e , Instructor, D e p a r t m e n t of Pedagogy i 8 9 8 - ' o i , now
C h i e f L i b r a r i a n of the P u b l i c L i b r a r y of T o r o n t o a n d D i r e c t o r of the "Boys
a n d G i r l s " H o u s e of T o r o n t o .
394 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
outside o r t i m i d l y k n o c k i n g at the t h r e s h o l d o r d a r t i n g i n w h e n the
d o o r w a s c a r e l e s s l y left u p o n f o r a m o m e n t , t h i s w a s a n e w atmos­
p h e r e a n d i t t o o k s o m e t i m e for r e a d j u s t m e n t . . . . T o s o m e o f u s
whose tastes l e d t h e m to t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s i d e o f e d u c a t i o n , the
s c h o o l p r e s e n t e d m a n y difficulties, f o r i t is n o t easy to p e r s u a d e a
d e m o c r a c y w h i c h is a l w a y s s h o u t i n g f o r f r e e d o m t h a t f r e e d o m s h o u l d
b e g r a n t e d to i n d i v i d u a l s — e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y a r e y o u n g . T h e n again
p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n m a r k e d o u t i n d e f i n i t e l i n e s w i t h s i g n posts, and
t h e m o d e o f v e h i c l e , t h e r o a d to b e t r a v e l l e d , a n d t h e d i s t a n c e to b e
c o v e r e d d u r i n g i n t e r v a l s of t h e j o u r n e y a r e a l s o m a r k e d o u t . I t i s
e x p e c t e d that there w i l l be little o r n o d e v i a t i o n . A l l this was upset
by this e x p e r i m e n t a l school. We had been accustomed to Model
schools or Normal schools, b u t n o t to Experimental schools.
T h e g r e a t w o r k D r . D e w e y d i d f o r us, a n d for a l l w h o k e p t the
f a i t h o f those e a r l y d a y s w a s to o p e n o u r eyes, d e v e l o p o u r r e a s o n ,
a n d m a k e flexible o u r so-called intellect. I n d e e d , flexibility was to
m e the great w o r d . H e sowed widely. H e c o u l d not tell w h a t the
harvest m i g h t be. I t h i n k h e n e v e r has k n o w n h o w great a harvest
h a s b e e n r e a p e d i n fields h e n e v e r s a w a g a i n .

One of the directors of the work with the youngest children

i n the school writes of her two years' teaching. 13

T h e s e years are a m o n g the happiest a n d most interesting e x p e r i ­

ences i n a rather long teaching c a r e e r . N a t u r a l l y , the group of
children whose parents w o u l d place them i n such a school w o u l d be
deeply interesting i n themselves a n d h a v e m u c h to c o n t r i b u t e to
o n e a n o t h e r . T h e s e s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s w e t o o k as the basis o f o u r
s c h o o l life a n d t r i e d to i n t e r p r e t , d e e p e n , a n d e n r i c h t h e m through
the e x p e r i e n c e of other c h i l d r e n , t h r o u g h o u r o w n l a r g e r e x p e r i e n c e ,
a n d t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d f r o m d a y to d a y .
I t w a s felt e a c h c h i l d s h o u l d g a i n g r e a t e r c o n t r o l of h i s b o d y if h e
w o u l d b e u n c o n s c i o u s of i t as it s e r v e d h i m i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s of l i f e .
T h e r e f o r e , h i s w a l k i n g , s k i p p i n g , r u n n i n g , a n d so o n i n t h e home
were m a d e m o r e m e a n i n g f u l t h r o u g h the r h y t h m i c plays a n d exer­
cises i n the kindergarten. Partly because m u s i c is suggestive and
furnishes a n element of c o n t r o l w h i c h h e l p s to free a c h i l d , and
partly because i n a social group every i n d i v i d u a l experience gains
n e w s t i m u l u s a n d zest, t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d ' s d e l i g h t i n play grew
spontaneously, as i t t o o k o n the n e w m e a n i n g of a g a m e , i n t o the
j o y o u s s h a r e d a c t i v i t y o f the s o c i a l g r o u p — a n a c t i v i t y w h i c h h a d a
p u r p o s e c o m m o n to a l l .
I t w a s M r . D e w e y ' s i d e a t h a t e a c h c h i l d s h o u l d be free to d e v e l o p

13 G r a c e F u l m e r (1900-1902), now Director of her o w n school at L o s A n ­

geles, C a l i f o r n i a .
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL O R G A N I Z A T I O N 395
h i s o w n p o w e r s to s o m e u l t i m a t e p u r p o s e t h r o u g h t h e g u i d a n c e of
one whose experience w a s r i c h e r . S u c h also w a s h i s o w n relation
to the teachers i n his school. I k n o w there were things i n m y own
w o r k of w h i c h h e d i d n o t a p p r o v e , a n d y e t I a l w a y s felt free to
w o r k i n m y o w n way, a n d a l l the w h i l e his ideals a n d influence u p o n
m y e d u c a t i o n a l experiences have i n c r e a s e d w i t h the passing years.
I t w a s w i t h the d e e p e s t r e g r e t t h a t e v e r y t e a c h e r w h o h a d h a d t h e
good fortune to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h M r . D e w e y ' s s p l e n d i d w o r k , i n
w h a t w e l e a r n e d to c a l l " T h e D e w e y S c h o o l , " s a w its d o o r s c l o s e d .
B u t that w h i c h n o door c a n bar has gone out from that school u n t i l
i t s i n f l u e n c e h a s b e e n felt a r o u n d t h e w o r l d .

M r . W . A . Baldwin of the Hyannis State Normal School

writes of his visits to the school.
D u r i n g the existence of the D e w e y E x p e r i m e n t a l S c h o o l I took
e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y to v i s i t i t . I a l w a y s f o u n d i t f u l l of h e l p f u l sug­
g e s t i o n s f o r m y o w n w o r k . W e at H y a n n i s w e r e t r y i n g to r e a d j u s t ,
to r e p l a c e t h e a r t i f i c i a l i t y a n d m e c h a n i s m of t h e r e g u l a t i o n p u b l i c
s c h o o l b y t h e m o r e n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s of l i f e . I h a d r e a d w i t h m u c h
interest D r . Dewey's little book, School and Society, and agreed
completely w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y of e d u c a t i o n as t h e r e i n p o r t r a y e d .
I was, therefore, m u c h interested i n seeing h o w he was w o r k i n g out
the p r i n c i p l e s of progressive education i n his o w n little experi­
m e n t a l school. N a t u r a l l y , I f o u n d myself c o m p a r i n g the conditions
w i t h w h i c h h e h a d to d e a l w i t h those o f o u r o w n T r a i n i n g S c h o o l
a n d as f o u n d i n t h e o r d i n a r y c i t y s c h o o l . U s u a l l y e d u c a t i o n a l f r i e n d s
w e r e v i s i t i n g at the same time, a n d I was interested i n getting the
r e a c t i o n s of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s of s c h o o l s as s h o w n b y t h e i r r e m a r k s
d u r i n g o u r v i s i t s a n d a f t e r w a r d s . I t s e e m e d h a r d for m a n y i n t e l l i g e n t
superintendents to see below the surface a n d a p p r e c i a t e the real
educational development w h i c h the c h i l d r e n were getting. . . .
M y v i s i t s h e l p e d m e to see h o w m u c h of t h e i n d u s t r i a l - s o c i a l w o r k
i n o u r o w n school m i g h t be l o o k e d u p o n by m a n y of o u r visitors.
A s I have since thought about the m a t t e r I h a v e come to u n d e r ­
s t a n d w h y s u c h e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s h a v e m e t w i t h so l i t t l e e n c o u r ­
agement a n d even w i t h covert opposition f r o m a large m a j o r i t y of
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n d teachers t r a i n e d u n d e r the o l d r e g i m e a n d w i t h
t h e h a b i t s of m i n d a n d of a p p l i c a t i o n w h i c h b e l o n g e d w i t h t h e o l d
t y p e of e d u c a t i o n . T h e s e i d e a s , as D r . D e w e y h a s so w e l l a n d so
o f t e n p o i n t e d o u t , a r e so o p p o s e d to t h o s e u n d e r l y i n g t h e experi­
m e n t a l s c h o o l s t h a t i t is i m p o s s i b l e for t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e to u n d e r ­
stand w h a t the progressive has i n m i n d . I n consequence m u c h of
t h e w o r k o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l s seems to t h e m f o o l i s h . We
h a d t h e n a n d c o n t i n u e to h a v e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s a n d m o d e r n i s t s i n
e d u c a t i o n as w e l l as i n r e l i g i o n . . . .
396 T H E DEWEY SCHOOL
I r e m e m b e r being quite disturbed w h e n I l e a r n e d that three o r
f o u r of t h e o l d e r p u p i l s , w h o m I s a w o v e r i n o n e c o r n e r , w e r e b e i n g
drilled up for college e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n s i n the o l d w a y , the
r e g u l a r w o r k o f t h e s c h o o l h a v i n g f a i l e d to p r e p a r e t h e m to pass
s u c h tests. A s I c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a t t e r o n m y w a y h o m e , I s a t i s f i e d
m y s e l f t h a t t h e f a u l t l a y w i t h t h e t y p e of e x a m i n a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n
w i t h t h e k i n d of t r a i n i n g w h i c h these c h i l d r e n h a d r e c e i v e d . H e r e
stood out quite clearly the c o n t r a s t i n g i d e a l s of t h e old and the
n e w education—the one d e m a n d i n g that c h i l d r e n be d r i l l e d u p on
a n e s t a b l i s h e d a n d a p p r o v e d set o f facts a n d l a w s d i s c o v e r e d and
t h o u g h t o u t b y o t h e r s , t h e o t h e r t h a t c h i l d r e n be e n c o u r a g e d to see
a n d to t h i n k f o r t h e m s e l v e s e a c h i n h i s o w n n a t u r a l w a y .
Every new educational movement has been associated w i t h and
due to s o m e g r e a t p e r s o n a l i t y . W e t h i n k of Pestalozzi a n d Stanz,
Colonel Francis Parker and Quincy, Dr. E . A. Sheldon and The
Oswego Normal School, Booker T. Washington and Tuskegee,
President Charles W . Eliot and Harvard. N o t one of these, how­
e v e r , h a s d o n e so m u c h for a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e education
of y o u n g p e o p l e as h a s D r . J o h n D e w e y , who seems p a r t i c u l a r l y
g i f t e d i n t h e p o w e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e c h i l d ' s m i n d
naturally develops. M o r e a n d m o r e the ideas r e g a r d i n g e d u c a t i o n
w h i c h h e h a s so l o n g a d v o c a t e d a r e b e i n g a c c e p t e d , a n d attempts
are being made to a p p l y t h e m o f t e n w i t h o u t due c r e d i t to their
author.
W h e n t h e t r u e story o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s of o u r times
is w r i t t e n , D r . J o h n D e w e y will, I believe, be r e c o g n i z e d as the
p h i l o s o p h e r a n d p r o p h e t of his age.