UMARU MUSA YAR’ADUA UNIVERSITY KATSINA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

MTH 1311
(ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY)
LECTURE NOTE
Prepared by
Lawal Aliyu Yantumaki
Nuraddeen Sayyadi
Typed by Dr. Ibrahim Mu’awiyya Idris

Course Contents:

• Elementary Set Theory

– Subsets
– Set Operations
– Algebra of sets
– Venn Diagram

• Number System

– Natural numbers
– Integers
– Rational and Irrational numbers
– Real numbers
– Complex numbers

• Real Sequences and Series

• Theory of Quadratic Equations

• Binomial Theorem

• Trigonometry

– Angular measurement
– Trigonometric functions
– Trigonometric functions of any magnitude
– Trigonometric formulae

Recommended Reading Books:

1
 MODULE 1

1 Sets and basic operations on sets

The concept of sets appears in all branches of mathematics, the concept formalizes the idea of
grouping objects together and viewing them as a single entity.

Definition 1.1 Set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, the objects are called elements
or members of the set.
If a set has no element, it is called an empty set, or null set denoted by the symbol ∅

Examples:

1. The odd numbers between zero and ten {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

2. The states in Nigeria {katsina, kano, kaduna, ...}
3. The english alphabets {a, b, c, d, e, f, ...}
4. The roots of the equation x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
5. The list of students absent from school
6. The rivers in Nigeria
Observe that the set in examples 1 − 3 above are each defined by listing it’s elements, while
examples 4 − 6 are each defined by stating the properties of it’s elements. Conventionally, a set
is denoted by a capital letter or a capital Greek letter such as A, B, X, Y, Ω, and the members
denoted by small letters or small Greeks such as a, b, x, y, ω. A set is completely specified by
denoting the set with a capital letter or symbol and specifying it’s elements by either listing
distinctly or stating it’s basic properties. For instance, the set of english vowels can be written
in any of the two ways below
A = {a, e, i, o, u}

A = {vowel | english vowels}

NOTE:
1. The first set A above is a set of elements containing english vowels listed distinctly and
separated by commas enclosed in braces {...}, this type of specifying a set is called ”roster
method”.
2. The second set A is the set of elements containing english vowels specified by stating
the basic properties enclosed in braces {...}, this type of specifying a set is called ”set-
builder method”. The set-builder method is the more mathematical way of specifying
sets no matter the size of it’s elements, consider the following example
B = {x : x is an even integer, x > 0}.
The above expression denotes set B whose elements are the positive even integers, speci-
fying such a set using the roster method would be a tedious exercise or rather one can say
is almost impossible. Using set-builder method, usually small letter x is used to denote a
typical member of the set followed by a ”colon” which means ”such that”.

2
1.1 Equality of sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal written as A = B if both sets have the same elements,
that is, if every element which belongs to set A also belongs to set B and vice versa. Two sets
A and B are not equal if at least one element which is a member of one is not a member of
the other one, written as A 6= B. The statement ”p is an element of A” or equivalently, the
statement ”p belongs to A” is written as p ∈ A. One can also write a, b ∈ A to state that both
a and b belongs to set A, whereas the statement that p is not an element of set A is written as
p∈/ A. If every element of set A is also an element of set B, then we say that A is a subset of
B written as A ⊆ B

Examples 1.0:
1. The set of english vowels can be written as

A = {x : x is an english alphabets, x is a vowels}.

Observed that b ∈
/ A, but e, i, a ∈ A and p ∈
/ A.
2. Let E = {x : x2 −3x+2 = 0}, E consists of numbers that solve the equation x2 −3x+2 = 0,
or in other word the solution set of the given equation. Since the solution set is given by
the integers 1 and 2, then one can write E = {1, 2}.
3. Let E = {x : x2 − 3x + 2 = 0}, F = {2, 1} and G = {1, 2, 2, 1, 36 }. Then E = F = G
since each contains the same elements 1 and 2. Observe here that a set does not depend
on the way in which the elements are arranged, and a set remains the same even if some
elements are repeated.
NOTE:

The followings are some important sets of numbers that occurs often, and thus special symbols
are attached to them. Unless otherwise specified, we let
• N = The set of natural numbers
• Z = The set of integers (positive and non-positive inclusive)
• Z+ = The set of positive integers
• Z− = The set of positive integers
• Q = The set of rational numbers
• R = The set of real numbers
• C = The set of complex numbers

1.2 Universal set

All sets under consideration are assumed to be extracted from a larger fixed set known as the
universal set. For example, in plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points
in the plane, and in the study of human population, the universal set consist of all people in
the universe. Conventionally, the universal set is often denoted by the capital letter U unless
otherwise specified.

Note: Null set ∅ is an element of universal set U

3
1.3 Venn diagram
A venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets as circles enclosed in a rectangle, for exam-
ple A ⊂ B can be represented pictorially as

1.4 Complement of a set

Given a set A which is a proper subset of a designed universal set U written as A ⊂ U, it is
therefore possible to find the set of elements in U that are not in A known as A complement
written as

Ac = {x : x ∈ U, x ∈
/ A}

Note, some text denote complement with A0 or A.

Example 1.1: Let U = {a, b, c, ..., y, z} be the universal set of english alphabets, and let
A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {e, f, g}, V = {a, e, o, u, i}. Then

1. Ac = {f, g, h, ..., y, z}

2. B c = {a, b, c, d, h, i, ..., y, z}

3. V c = {all non − vowels, consonants}

1.5 Subsets
Suppose every element of set A is also an element of set B, then set A is called a subset of set
B. In other word, we can also say that set A is contained in set B or that set B contains set
A and mathematically written as A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A. Set A is not a subset of set B if at least
one element of set A is not an element of set B, and written as A * B or B + A.

Example 1.2:

1. Consider the sets A = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9}, B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, C = {1, 5}. Then

• C⊂A
• C⊂B
• B*A

4
 Furthermore, since the elements in sets A, B and C must also belong to the universal set
U, then it is clear that U must at least contain the set

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

2. Set E = {2, 4, 6} is a subset of a set F = {6, 2, 4}, since each element which belong to
E also belong to F . In fact E = F , this shows that every set is a subset of itself.

Proper subset: set A is said to be a proper subset of set B denoted as A ⊂ B. Moreover, A

is said to be a proper subset of B if and only if A 6= B, that is, B contained all elements of A
and some other elements

For example, consider the three sets A = {1, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {1, 3, 2}. Then
B is an improper subset of C, while A is a proper subset of C.

1.6 Operations on set

1.6.1 Intersection of Sets:
If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B denoted as A ∩ B is the set of elements that
belongs to both A and B. Mathematically written as

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∈ B}

as depicted in the following venn diagram

5
1.6.2 Union of Sets:
If A and B are sets, the union of A and B denoted as A ∪ B is the set of elements that belongs
to at least A or B or both.

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ A and B}

as depicted in the following venn diagram

Example 1.3:
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and C = {2, 3, 8, 9}. Then
• A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
• A ∩ B = {3, 4}
• A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9}
• A ∩ C = {2, 3}
• B ∪ C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
• B ∩ C = {3}
2. Let U denote the set of students at a university, and let M and F denote respectively the
set of male and female students at the university, then

M ∪ F = U,

since each student in U is either in M or in F , therefore

M ∩ F = ∅,

since no element belongs to both M and F (no student is a male and female at the same
time).
The following properties for the operations of union and intersection of sets should be noted:
• Every element x in A ∩ B belongs to both A and B; hence x belongs to A and x belongs
to B. Thus A ∩ B is a subset of A and of B, i.e,

A∩B ⊆A

and

A∩B ⊆B

6
 • An element x belongs to the union A ∪ B if x belongs to A or x belongs to B; hence every
element in A belongs to A ∪ B, and also every element in B belongs to A ∪ B, i.e,
A⊆A∪B
and
B ⊆A∪B

1.7 Disjoint:
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common

For example, suppose that A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 4, 6}, C = {4, 5, 6}. Then sets A and B
are not disjoint since both sets intersect at element 2. Similarly, sets B and C are not disjoint
having intersected at elements 4 and 6, but sets A and C are disjoint having no element in
common. In addition, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, then it is possible that some elements
are in A but not in B, some elements are in B but not in A, some are in both A and B, and
some are neither in A nor B. In general, we represent sets A and B as

1.8 Difference and Symmetric Difference

Let A and B be sets. The relative complement of B with respect to A or simply, the difference
of A and B denoted by A\B is the set of elements which belongs to A but do not belongs to
B, i.e,
A\B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∈
/ B}

7
The symmetric difference of sets A and B denoted by A ⊕ B consists of those elements which
belongs to A or B but not to both A and B, i.e,

A ⊕ B = (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B)

or

A ⊕ B = (A\B) ∪ (B\A)

Example 1.4: Consider the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and C = {6, 7, 8, 9}.
Then

a) A\B = {1, 2}

b) B\C = {3, 4, 5}

c) B\A = {5, 6, 7}

d) C\B = {8, 9}

Also,

e) A ⊕ B = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}

f) B ⊕ C = {3, 4, 5, 8, 9}

Note that A and C are disjoints, i.e, A\C = A, C\A = C and A ⊕ C = A ∪ C

1.9 Algebra of Sets

Sets under the operations of union, intersection and complement satisfies some laws or identities.
If A, B and C are sets, and U is the universal set, then

1. Idempotent laws

a) A ∪ A = A
b) A ∩ A = A

2. Associative laws

a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
b) (A ∩ B) ∩ B = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

3. Commutative laws

a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

4. Distributive Laws

a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

5. Identity Laws

a) A ∪ ∅ = A

8
 b) A ∩ U = A
c) A ∪ U = U
d) A ∩ ∅ = ∅

6. Involution Law

(Ac )c = A

7. Complement Laws

a) A ∪ Ac = U
b) A ∩ Ac = ∅
c) Uc = ∅
d) ∅c = U

8. De-Morgans Laws

a) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
b) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

1.10 Finite Sets

A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly m distinct elements, where m denotes some
non-negative integer. On the other hand, a set is set to be infinite if it contains an infinitely
many elements. For example, the empty set {∅} and the set of letters of the english alphabets
are all finite sets, whereas the set of even positive integers {2, 4, 6, ...} is infinite. The notation
n(A) or |A| will denote the number of elements in a finite set A. Suppose that A and B are
finite disjoint sets, then A ∪ B is a finite set written as

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B).

There also exist a formula for n(A ∪ B) even when A and B are not disjoint called the inclusion
principle.

Theorem: Suppose A and B are two finite sets, then A ∩ B and A ∪ B are finite

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B),

also for three finite sets A, B and C we have

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).

Example 1.5: Consider the following data for 152 mathematics students, of which 65 study
French, 45 study German, 42 study Russian, 20 study at least French and German, 25 study
at least French and Russian, 15 study at least German and Russian, while 8 students study all
the three languages.

a) Find the number of students that study at least one of the three languages.

b) Fill in the correct number of students in each of the eight regions of the venn diagram.

c) Find the number k of students that study:

9
 1. Exactly one language.
2. Exactly two languages.

Solution:

a) The number of students that study at least one of three languages is given by

n(F ∪ G ∪ R) = n(F ) + n(G) + n(R) − n(F ∩ G) − n(F ∩ R) − n(G ∩ R) + n(F ∩ G ∩ R)

n(F ∪ G ∪ R) = 65 + 45 + 42 − 20 − 15 − 25 + 8 = 100

b) Using the number of students that study all the three languages (F ∩ G ∩ R) = 8 and the
number of students that study at least one of the three languages (F ∪ G ∪ R) = 100, the
remaining seven regions of the required Venn diagram are obtained as:

1. 20 − 8 = 12 students study French and German

2. 25 − 8 = 17 students study French and Russian
3. 15 − 8 = 7 students study German and Russian
4. 65 − 37 = 28 students study only French
5. 45 − 18 = 18 students study only German
6. 42 − 32 = 10 students study only Russian
7. 152 − 100 = 52 students do not study any of the three languages

Using Venn diagram the problem is represented as

c) Use Venn diagram to obtain:

1. k = 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
2. k = 12 + 17 + 7 = 36

10
1.11 Power Set
The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A, denoted by P (A). For instance,
suppose that A = {1, 2, 3}, then

P (A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A}

Note that the empty set ∅ and the set A itself belongs to P (A). For a set A with finite number
of elements, the number of elements in P (A) is raised to the power of n(A), i.e,

n(P (A)) = 2n(A) .

GENERAL PROBLEMS

1. Which of the following sets are equal

{r, s, t, s}, {s, t, r, s}, {t, s, t, r} and {s, r, s, t} ?

The sets are all equal because order and repetition do not change a set

2. List the elements of the following sets where P = {1, 2, 3, ...}

a) A = {x : x ∈ P, 3 < x < 12}

b) B = {x : x ∈ P, x is even, x < 15}
c) C = {x : x ∈ P, 4 + x = 3}
d) D = {x : x ∈ P, x is a multiple of 5}

3. Consider the following sets: {∅}, A = {1}, B = {1, 3}, C = {1, 5, 9}, D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
and E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, such that the universal set is given by U = {1, 2, 3, ..., 8, 9}.
Insert the correct symbol ⊂ or * between each pair of sets and state your reason:

a) ∅, A
b) A, B
c) B, C
d) B, E
e) C, D
f) C, E
g) D, E
h) D, U

4. Consider the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, ..., 9} and the sets: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B =
{4, 5, 6, 7}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, E = {2, 4, 6, 8} and F = {1, 5, 9}.
Find:

a) A ∪ B and A ∩ B
b) B ∪ D and B ∩ D
c) E ∪ E and E ∩ E
d) D ∪ F and D ∩ F
e) Ac , B c , Dc and E c

11
 f) Uc , ∅c
g) A\B, B\A, D\E and F \D
h) A ∩ (B ∪ E)
i) (A\E)c
j) (A ∩ D)\B

5. Show that (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B) = (A\B) ∪ (B\A).

6. In a science class, 18 students read Physics, 25 read Mathematics, 23 read Chemistry, 9

read Physics and Mathematics, 10 read Mathematics and Chemistry, 6 read Physics and
Chemistry. If there were 50 students all together and 5 students did not read any of the
three subjects, then how many students read:

(i) All the three subjects

(ii) Only Mathematics
(iii) Chemistry but not Mathematics
(iv) Physics and Chemistry but not Mathematics

12
 MODULE 2

2 Number System
The concept of numbers has evolved over a long period of time, different types of numbers were
invented by mathematicians for different purposes. The following are the set of numbers under
which all numbers are named and classified:

(i) Natural numbers

(ii) Integers

(iii) Rational numbers

(iv) Irrational numbers

(v) Real numbers

(vi) Complex numbers

1. Natural numbers: This is the set of basic numbers which is also called the counting
numbers. Natural numbers are numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}, the three dots which
is called an ellipsis indicates that the pattern extends indefinitely. We denote the set of
natural numbers by the symbol N.

Remarks:

(i) The set of Natural numbers N is closed under the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (×).
(ii) The set of Natural numbers N is not closed under the operations of division (÷) and
subtraction (−).
(iii) The set of Natural numbers N is countable.

2. Integers: Since the set of Natural numbers are not adequate for some applications, then
more numbers are needed to be invented for other needs. For example, in trade if the set
of Natural numbers could not be used for both credit and debt, because debt is running
in negative. The integers are the numbers in the set {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, and
the set of integers is denoted by the symbol Z after a German mathematician Zahlen.

Remarks:

(i) The components of integer are easily expressible in a number line

(ii) The set of integers Z is closed under the operations of addition (+), multiplication
(×) and subtraction (−).

13
 (iii) The set of integers Z is not closed under the operation of division (÷)

3. Rational numbers: Over the time the set of integers Z was found to be inadequate for
some purpose. Therefore, the set of integers Z had to be expanded by inventing new set
of numbers called the rational numbers. The rational numbers which are denoted by the
symbol Q are numbers in the set
a
Q = {x : x = , a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0}.
b
In other word, the set of rational numbers Q are the quotient numbers such as 21 , 34 , − 52 , 10
1
.

Remarks:

(i) The set of Integers Z is a proper subset of the set of Rational numbers Q, thus
Z ⊂ Q.
(ii) The set of Rational numbers Q is closed under the operations of addition (+), mul-
tiplication (×), subtraction (−) and division (÷).
(iii) Every rational number may be represented as decimals with either terminating or
repeating digits.

Note:

(a) Any decimal number is a rational number, e.g

103
12.478 = 12.478 ×
103
12.478 × 1000
=
1000
12478
=
1000
(b) Any repeating (recurring) and terminating decimals are rational numbers, e.g
1 7 5 3
= 0.333333333... = 0.106060606... = 2.5 = 0.75
3 66 2 4
(c) Any decimal number that is not rational is irrational.

4. Irrational numbers: The set of Irrational numbers are those decimals that neither
terminate nor repeats, and cannot be expressed as a quotient of two integers ( ab ) where
√ √
b 6= 0. Examples of irrational numbers are Surds, i.e, 2, 2 3, π, and the set of Irrational
numbers have no symbol representing it.

Remark: Irrational numbers are not countable.

√
Example: Prove that 3 is not a rational number

Solution: We prove by contradiction as follows:

√
Suppose that 3 = pq where (p, q) are co-prime with GCD equal 1, and (p, q) ∈ Z
p2
taking the square of both sides, we’ve 3 = q2
which implies that
3q 2 = p2

14
 then dividing both sides by 3 we have
p2
3
= q2
by theorem, since 3 is a prime number, if 3 divides p2 then 3 also divides p
therefore 3 is a factor of p which implies that
p = 3c, c∈Z
taking p = 3c implies that
(3c)2
3
= q2
q2
3
= c2
which similarly implies 3 is also a factor
√ of q, but this contradict the earlier assump-
tion that p, q are co-prime, therefore 3 is not a rational number

5. Real√Numbers:
√ Irrational numbers are not closed under the operations (+, ×, −, ÷),
e.g. 2 × 8 is not rational. Therefore, the system of rational numbers Q is enlarged
by combining it with irrational numbers to form the real number system. In other word,
the set of Real numbers is the union of the set of rational and irrational numbers. The
symbolic representation for the set of Real numbers is the Greek letter R.

Remarks:

(i) In many real life applications, the set of real numbers R are found to be adequately
sufficient for research. Mathematicians usually deals with R.
(ii) R is everywhere continuous.
(iii) R is closed under rational operations (+, ×, −, ÷), except division by zero.

6. Complex numbers: Unfortunately, the real numbers R are found to be not sufficient
in some situations. In solving quadratic equations using almighty formula, there seemed
to be difficulty when the discriminant [b2 − 4ac] is negative. For instance, consider the
solution of the following equation

x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.

Thus, we have the following solution using almighty formula

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ,
2a

√
−2 ± −4
x= .
2
√
Therefore, −4 is not a real number. Indeed, the square root of any negative number is
not a real number.

Therefore, the development leads to the invention of new set of numbers called the com-
plex numbers.√ A complex number is any number of the form [a + bi] where a, b ∈
R, and i = −1 is√called the imaginary part. Examples of complex numbers are
2 + 3i, 7 − 8i, −4 + 3i.

Note:

15
 √
(a) −1 = i, so i2 = −1
√ p √ √
(b) −4 = 4(−1) = 4 × −1 = 2i
√ p √ √
(c) −81 = 81(−1) = 81 × −1 = 9i
√ p √ √ √
(d) −3 = 3(−1) = 3 × −1 = 3i

Remark:

(i) The pictorial representation of complex numbers in the xy−plane is called an Ar-
gand diagram

where the complex number 3 + 2i is represented by the point (3, 2) in the plane.
(ii) The x-axis represent the real part, while the y-axis represent the imaginary part.
(iii) For complex numbers, any number other than zero has:
√
(a) 2 square root ( 2 ..)
√
(b) 3 cube root ( 3 ..)
√
(c) 4 forth root ( 4 ..)
√
(d) n number has nth roots ( n ..)

STRUCTURE OF COMPLEX NUMBER SYSTEM

Complex number system has the following structures;

(a) Addition of two complex numbers is component by component, i.e., (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 +
ib2 ) = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i.

Example 2.0: (2 + 3i) + (7 − 4i) = (2 + 7) + (3 − 4)i = 9 − i

(b) Two complex numbers are said to be equal if and if they are equal component wise,
i.e., a1 + ib1 = a2 + ib2 then a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .
(c) Subtraction of two complex numbers is also component wise, i.e., (a1 + ib1 ) − (a2 +
ib2 ) = (a1 − a2 ) + (b1 − b2 )i.

Example 2.1: (2 + 3i) − (7 − 4i) = (2 − 7) + (3 + 4)i = −5 + 7i

(d) Multiplication of two complex numbers is carried out by the usual method of expan-
sion in real numbers, i.e.,

(a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) = a1 × a2 + a1 × b2 i + b1 i × a2 + ib1 × ib2

Example 2.2: (5 + 7i)(3 − i) = 5 × 3 + 5 × (−i) + 7i × 3 + 7i × (−i) = 22 + 16i

16
 (e) Division is carried out by rationalization

a1 + ib1 a1 + ib1 a2 − ib2

= ×
a2 + ib2 a2 + ib2 a2 − ib2
Example 2.3: Evaluate the following expression
4 + 2i 4 + 2i 3 − 2i
= ×
3 + 2i 3 + 2i 3 − 2i
16 2
= + i
13 13
Note:
√
(i) i = −1
(ii) i2 = −1
(iii) i3 = i2 × i = −i
(iv) i4 = i2 × i2 = −1 × −1 = 1
(v) i5 = i2 × i2 × i = −1 × −1 × i = i

Example 2.4: Find x and y satisfying the equation 2 + 3i = (x + i) + (3 − yi)

17
 EXERCISES

1. State which of the following is define under the operations of Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division

(i) Natural numbers

(ii) Integers
(iii) Rational numbers
(iv) Real numbers

2. State the simplest set to which each of the following numbers belongs

(i) −3
(ii) 2 21
√
(iii) 7
(iv) 1.76
(v) 20000
√
(vi) 1 + 3i
(vii) 0.3333...
(viii) −0.0037

3. Assuming R, Q, Q0 , Z and Z+ denote respectively the sets of Real numbers, Rational

numbers, Irrational numbers, Integers and positive Integers. State whether each of the
following is true of false and stating reasons for your answer.

(i) −7 ∈ Z+
√
(ii) 2 ∈ Q0
(iii) 4 ∈ Z
(iv) 3π ∈ Q
√
(v) 3 8 ∈ Z+
(vi) −2 ∈ Z
(vii) π 2 ∈ R
q
(viii) 9
4
∈ Q0
√
4. Prove that 2 is not a rational number.

5. Given that Z1 = 3 + 5i, Z2 = 4 − i and Z3 = 2 + i, find

(i) Z − 1 + Z2 + Z3
(ii) Z1 − Z2
(iii) Z1 + Z2 − Z3
(iv) Z1 Z2
Z1
(vi) Z2

18
 MODULE 3

3 Sequences and series

3.1 Sequence
A sequence is a set of quantities u1 , u2 , u3 , ... stated in a definite order and each term is formed
according to a fixed pattern, i.e., un = f (n). We shall used a subscripted lower case letters
such as u1 to represent the first term, u2 to represent the second term, u3 to represent the third
term, ..., un to represent the nth -term, and un+1 to represent the (n + 1)th term of a sequence
respectively. The nth -term or general term of a sequence is a rule for determining the terms of
the sequence.

Example 3.0:
(i) 1, 3, 5, 7 is a sequence, and the next term will be 9.

(ii) 2, 6, 18, 54, ... is a sequence, and the next term will be 162.

(iii) 12 , −22 , 32 , −42 , ... is a sequence, and the next term will be 52 .

(iv) 1, −5, 37, 6 is a sequence, but its pattern is more involved and the next term cannot be
anticipated.
A sequence is said to be finite if it contains only a finite number of terms, and an infinite
sequence contains an infinite number of terms. Identify the following sequences as either finite
or infinite
(a) All the Natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

(b) The page numbers of a book

(c) The telephone numbers in a directory

Example 3.1: Write the first 4 terms for each of the following sequences
(i) un = n−1
u1 = 1−1 = 1
u2 = 2−1 = 21
u3 = 3−1 = 13
u4 = 4−1 = 14

(ii) un = 3n−1
u1 = 31−1 = 30 =1
u2 = 32−1 = 31 =3
u3 = 33−1 = 32 =9
u4 = 34−1 = 33 = 27

(iii) un = (−1)n × n
u1 = (−1)1 × 1 = −1 × 1 = −1
u2 = (−1)2 × 2 = 1 × 2 = 2
u3 = (−1)3 × 3 = −1 × 3 = −3
u4 = (−1)4 × 4 = 1 × 4 = 4
Example 3.2: Deduce the nth -term of the following sequences

19
 (i) 1, 8, 27, 64, ... the nth -term is given by un = n3

(ii) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... the nth -term is given by un = 2n − 1

(iii) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... the nth -term is given by un = 2n

(iv) 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, ... the nth -term is given by un = 4n + 3

(v) 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, ...

(vi) 3, −6, 12, −24, ...

3.1.1 Arithmetic Progression

Arithmetic progression is a sequence in which the difference between any successive terms is a
fixed number called the common difference. If a1 , a2 , ..., an , ... represent successive terms of a
sequence, then

Definition 3.1 A sequence is said to be an arithmetic sequence if its successive terms may be
define recursively as a1 = a, an − an−1 = d such that

an = an−1 + d

where a1 = a and d are both real numbers. The number a is called the first term, and
the number d is called the common difference. It follows that the successive terms of an
arithmetic progression with first term a1 and common difference d will follow the pattern

a1 , a1 + d, a2 + d, a3 + d, ...

Example 3.3: The sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, ... is arithmetic since the difference between any two
successive terms is the common number 2, the first term a1 = 1 and the common difference is
d = 2.

Example 3.4: Find the first term and the common difference of the arithmetic progression
2n + 1. Hence write out the first five terms of the progression.

3.1.2 nth -term of Arithmetic Progression

The nth -term or general term of an arithmetic progression is given by the formula

un = a1 + (n − 1)d,

where a1 = a is the first term, d is the common difference, n = input numbers, and un = is the
last term.

Example 3.5:
(a) Find the 15th -term of the arithmetic sequence −3, 2, 7, ....

Solution: The nth -term of an arithmetic progression is given by

un = a1 + (n − 1)d

where a1 = −3, d = 2 − (−3) = 5, n = 15, un =?. Therefore

u15 = −3 + (15 − 1) × 5 = 67

20
(b) Find the 100th -term for each of the following sequences

(i) 5, 3 21 , 2, 12 , ...
(ii) −5, −1, 3, 7, ...
(iii) 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Solution:

5, 3 12 , 2, 21 , ...

un = a1 + (n − 1)d,
7
where a1 = 5, (d = 2
− 5 = − 32 ), n = 100, un =?

 
3 1
u100 = 5 + (100 − 1) × − = −143 .
2 2

(c) Find the number of terms n if n + 3, 2n + 6, and 8 are three consecutive terms of an
arithmetic progression (A.P).

The common difference d is given as

d = (2n + 6) − (n + 3) = n + 3,

or

d = 8 − (2n + 6) = 2 − 2n,

Therefore, since the sequence is an A.P, then the following equality is true

n + 3 = 2n − 2,
1
n=− ,
3
and the common difference d = 83 .

(d) The 4th -term of an A.P is 18, and the common difference is −5. Find the 1st -term and
the 9th -term of the sequence.

Solution: Using the formula for the nth -term of an A.P

un = a1 + (n − 1) × d,

where n = 4, u4 = 18, a1 =?, d = −5, therefore

18 = a1 + (4 − 1) × (−5),
18 = a1 − 15,
a1 = 33.

Therefore, the 9th -term is given by the data n = 9, a1 = 33, d = −5, u9 =?

u9 = 33 + (9 − 1) × (−5),
u9 = −7

21
 (e) If the 4th -term of an A.P is 13 and the 10th -term is 31, find the sequence.

Solution: This type of problem leads to two equations to be solved simultaneously.

Thus, using the formula for the nth -term of an A.P

un = a + (n − 1)d.

The first equation is given by the data u4 = 13, n = 4, a =?, d =?, therefore

13 = a + (4 − 1) × d,

13 = a + 3d. (1)
The second equation is given by the data u10 = 31, n = 10, a =?, d =?, similarly we have

31 = a + (10 − 1) × d,

31 = a + 9d. (2)
Solving Eq’s. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we have

−6d = −18,
d = 3.

Substituting d = 3 in Eq. (1), we have

13 = a + 9,
a = 4.

The sequence is given by a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ..., therefore

4, 7, 10, 13, ...

3.2 Series
A series is formed by summing the terms of a sequence, e.g, if 1, 3, 5, 7, ... is a sequence, then
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... is a series. The sum of the first nth -term of a sequence is denoted by Sn , then
the sum of the first 5 terms of a sequence will be indicated by S5 .

3.2.1 Sum of an Arithmetic Progression (A.P)

The general formula for the sum of the nth -term of an A.P is given by
n
Sn = {2a + (n − 1)d}
2
where

• a= first term

• d= common difference

• n= number of terms

• Sn = sum of the nth -term

22
or equivalently
n
Sn = (a + l)
2
where l is the last term of the sequence.

Example 3.6:
(a) Find the following sum of an A.P

(i) 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 101

(ii) −11 − 7 − 3 − ... + 50
(iii) x + 3x + 5x + ... + 21x

Solution: Considering the fact that the last term is given in each case, we use the second
formula. Therefore, for the series 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 101
n
Sn = (a + l),
2
where n =?, Sn =?, a = 1, l = 101. The number of terms n must be determined in order
to proceed, using the nth -term formula

un = a + (n − 1)d

where un = l = 101, a = 1, n =? and d = 2. Thus, substituting for n we have

101 = 1 + (n − 1) × 2,
n = 51.

Using n = 51, find the sum of the A.P

51
Sn = × (1 + 101),
2
Sn = 2601.

Similarly for the series x + 3x + 5x + ... + 21x, we first find the number of terms n using
the formula

un = a + (n − 1)d

where un = l = 21x, a = x, d = 2x, n =?, substituting and solving for n we have

21x = x + (n − 1) × 2x,
n = 11.

The sum of the A.P is given by

n
Sn = (a + l),
2
where un = l = 21x, a = x, n = 11 and d = 2x, thus
11
S11 = × (x + 21x),
2
S11 = 121x.

23
(b) Find the sum of first twenty terms of the following arithmetic progressions A.P

(i) −4, −1, 2, ...

(ii) 2, 3 21 , 5, ...
(iii) −2, −5, −8, −11, ...

Solution: Since no last term is given, then the most straight forward formula to use is
the first formula
n
Sn = {2a + (n − 1)d}.
2
For the first A.P {−4, −1, 2, ...}, where n = 20, a = −4, d = 3, S20 =?
20
S20 = {2 × (−4) + (20 − 1) × 3},
2
S20 = 490

(c) The first term of an A.P is −12, and the last term is 40. If the sum of the progression is
196, find the number of terms and the common difference.

Solution: Since the last term is given with no common difference, then the straight
forward formula to use is the second formula
n
Sn = (a + l),
2
where a = −12, l = 40, Sn = 196, n =?
n
196 = × (−12 + 40),
2
n = 14.

The common difference d can be found in two different ways that is by either using the
formula for the nth -term or by using the first formula for the sum of an A.P

un = a1 + (n − 1)d

where a1 = −12, n = 14, u14 = 40 and d =?, thus

40 = −12 + (14 − 1)d,

d = 4,

or equivalently
n
Sn = {2a1 + (n − 1)d}.
2
where a1 = −12, n = 14, S14 = 196, d =?
14
196 = {2 × (−12) + (14 − 1)d},
2
d = 4.

24
 (d) The second term of an A.P is 15, and the fifth term is 21. Find the common difference,
the first term and the sum of the first ten terms.

Solution: Using the formula for the nth -term of an A.P

un = a + (n − 1)d,

where a =?, n = 2, d =?, u2 = 15

15 = a + (2 − 1) × d,

15 = a + d, (3)
similarly

21 = a + (5 − 1) × d,

21 = a + 4d. (4)
Solving Eq’s (3) and (4) simultaneously, we have

d = 2.

Substitute d = 2 into Eq. (3)

15 = a + 2,
a = 13.
The sum of the A.P is determined from the formula
n
Sn = {2a + (n − 1)d}.
2
where a = 13, d = 2, n = 10, S1 0 =?
10
S10 = {2 × 13 + (10 − 1)2},
2
S10 = 220.

3.2.2 Arithmetic mean (AM)

If a, b, c are three consecutive terms of an A.P, then b is called the arithmetic mean of a and
c. The common difference of the progression is given by
b − a or c − b,
b − a = c − b,
2b = a + c,
a+c
b= .
2
In other word, b is the average of a and c.

Example 3.7:
(a) Find the arithmetic mean of 4 and 64
4 + 64
a.m = = 34
2

25
 (b) Insert four arithmetic mean between −12 and 13.

Solution: Let the arithmetic mean be x, y, z, w. Moreover, one will have −12, x, y, z, w, 13
where a = −12, d = x + 12, n = 6, u6 = 13. Therefore
13 = −12 + (6 − 1) × (x + 12),
x = −7,
using the value x = −7, other values will be obtained
d = −7 + 12 = 5
y = −7 + 5 = −2
z = −2 + 5 = 3
w =3+5=8
The A.P is −12, −7, −2, 3, 8, 13.
(c) If x + 1, 2x − 1 and x + 5 is an A.P, find the value of x.

Solution: Using the formula for the nth -term of an A.P

un = a + (n − 1)d,
where a = x + 1, d = (2x − 1) − (x + 1) = x − 2, n = 3, u3 = x + 5, thus
x + 5 = x + 1 + (3 − 1) × (x − 2),
x = 4.

3.2.3 Geometric Progression (G.P)

Geometric progression is a sequence in which the difference between the successive terms is a
common ratio, or is a sequence in which the terms increase or decrease by a common ratio.

Definition 3.2 A sequence is said to be geometric if its successive terms may be define recur-
sively as
an
a1 = a, = r,
an−1
such that
an = an−1 r
where a1 = a and r 6= 0 are real numbers. The number a1 is called the first term and the
non-zero number r is called the common ratio. Then, it follows that successive terms of a
geometric progression with first term a1 and common ratio r will follow the pattern
a1 , a1 r, a1 r2 , a1 r3 , ...
Example 3.8: The following sequences are geometric since the difference between any two
successive terms is the common ratio 2 and 3 respectively
(i) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...
(ii) 3, 9, 27, 81, ...
Example 3.9: Show that the sequence {an } = {3−n } is geometric, hence find the first term
and the common ratio.

26
3.2.4 nth -term of Geometric Progression
The nth -term or general term of a geometric progression is given by the formula

an = a1 rn−1 , r 6= 0

where

a1 = first term

r = common ratio

n = number of terms

an = nth -term or last term

Example 3.10:

(a) Given the geometric sequence 128, 64, 32, ..., find

(i) the 12th −term of the sequence

(ii) the formula for the nth -term

1
Solution: The 12th −term of the sequence is a12 = 16 , and the formula for the
th 128
n -term is {an } = { 2n−1 }. Students to check and verify the results.

(b) The 5th −term of a geometric progression is 20 14 , find the common ration r given that the
1th −term a1 = 4.

Solution: The common ration is r = 32 . Students to check and verify the result.

(c) The 2nd −term of a G.P is 9 and the 4th −term is 81, find the 9th −term of the sequence.

Solution:

(i) Case 1: The 9th −term of the sequence is a9 = 19683 if the common ratio r = 3.
(ii) Case 2: The 9th −term of the sequence is a9 = −19683 if the common ratio r = −3.
Students to check and verify results.

3.2.5 Sum of a Geometric Progression (G.P)

The general formula for the sum of the nth −term of a geometric progression denoted as Sn is
given by
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = r<1
1−r
and
a1 (rn − 1)
Sn = r>1
r−1
Proof: The successive terms of a geometric progression G.P with first term a1 and non-zero
common ratio r 6= 0 follows the pattern

a1 , a1 r, a1 r2 , a1 r3 , ..., a1 rn−1

27
then it follows that the sum of the sequence is given as
n
X
2 3 n−1
Sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r + a1 r + ... + a1 r = a1 rk−1 (5)
k=1

multiplying Eq. (5) by r, we’ve

rSn = a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + a1 r4 + ... + a1 rn−1 . (6)

Subtracting Eq. (6) from Eq. (5), we’ve the expression

Sn − rSn = a1 − a1 rn

Sn (1 − r) = a1 (1 − rn ).

Therefore, making Sn the subject, we’ve

a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = r 6= 0, 1
1−r
Example 3.11:
(a) Find the sum of the first ten terms of the sequence 81 , 41 , 21 , ...

Solution: The sequence is geometric with a1 = 18 , r = 2, n = 10 and S10 =?, then

the appropriate formula to use is the second formula since r > 1
(rn − 1)
Sn = a1 r>1
r−1
therefore
1 (210 − 1)
 
S10 = ,
8 2−1

1023
S10 = .
8

(b) The 3rd −term and the 6th −term of a geometric progression are 108 and −32 respectively.
Find the sum of the first 7 terms.

Solution: The formula to find the nth −term of a geometric progression is given by

an = a1 rn−1 .

The solution procedure leads to two equations which are to be solved simultaneously,
based on the formula for the nth −term of a G.P, we’ve:

Part 1: Plugging the values a1 =?, r =?, n = 3 and an = 108 into the formula for
the nth −term, we’ve
108 = a1 r2 , (7)
Part 2: Plugging the values a1 =?, r =?, n = 6 and an = −32 into the formula for the
nth −term, we’ve
− 32 = a1 r5 . (8)

28
 Thus, dividing Eq. (8) by Eq. (7), we’ve
−32 = a1 r5
,
108 = a1 r2
2
r=− ,
3
substitute the value of r in Eq. (7) to find a1 , thus
 2
2
108 = a1 × − ,
3
therefore
a1 = 243.
To find the sum of the first 7 terms, the appropriate formula to use is the first formula
since the common ratio r < 1
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = r < 1,
1−r
plugging the values a1 = 243, r = − 23 , n = 7, we’ve
(1 − (− 23 )7 )
 
463
S7 = 243 × 2 =
1+ 3 3
3.2.6 Sum of an Infinite Geometric progression
A geometric progression G.P with first term a1 and common ratio r is said to be infinite if the
sequence extends indefinitely
a1 , a1 r, a1 r2 , a1 r3 , ..., a1 rn−1 , ...
The sum of an infinite geometric progression G.P is given as
∞
X
a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + ... + a1 rn−1 + ... = a1 rk−1
n=k=1

from the sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression

a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = r 6= 0, 1
1−r
then as n turns to infinity (n → ∞), we have
a1 (1 − r∞ ) a1 a1 r ∞
S∞ = = −
1−r 1−r 1−r
The sum of an infinite geometric progression S∞ converges to a value if r < 1, and diverges if
r > 1.

Therefore, the sum of a convergent infinite geometric progression G.P is given by

a1
S∞ = .
1−r
Example 3.12: Verify if the following geometric progressions converge, hence find the sum.
(i) 1, 13 , 91 , 1
, 1 , ...
27 81

(ii) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...

2 4 16
(iii) , , , ...
3 9 81

29
 MODULE 4

4 Binomial Theorem
An expressions for the expansion of (a + b)n for n = 2, 3, 4 are straight forward

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4

Features of binomial expansion (a + b)n :

(i) The expansion is homogeneous in a and b, i.e., each expansion begins with an and ends
with bn

(ii) As you go from left to right, the powers of a decreases by 1 while the powers of b increases
by 1

(iii) For each expansion, the number of terms equals n + 1

Thus, consider the binomial expansion of (a + b)n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

(a + b)0 = 1

(a + b)1 = a+b

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4

(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5

Notice that the coefficients in each expansion can be arrange in a triangular pattern below

(a + b)0 = 1

(a + b)1 = 1 1

(a + b)2 = 1 2 1

(a + b)3 = 1 3 3 1

(a + b)4 = 1 4 6 4 1

(a + b)5 = 1 5 10 10 5 1

The above display of numbers is called ”the pascal triangle”, named after a French mathe-
matician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662).

Features of Pascal Triangle:

(i) The triangle is symmetrical about the center

(ii) Each row contains (n + 1) terms

30
(iii) The pascal triangle has 10 s down the sides, and all the intermediate values in each row
can be obtained by adding the two nearest entries
Binomial expression (a + b)n is said to be expanded n times when it is written as a series of
n + 1 terms, and the series is called it’s expansion.

Example 4.0:
1. Expand (x + 1)4 in descending powers of x using coefficients from the pascal triangle.

Solution:

(i) There will be 5 terms in the expansion

(ii) The homogeneity in x and 1 is given by

(x + 1)4 = x4 × 10 + x3 × 11 + x2 × 12 + x × 13 + x0 × 14

(x + 1)4 = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
(iii) The coefficients from the pascal triangle are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Therefore the expansion
of (x + 1)4 in descending powers of x is

(x + 1)4 = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1

2. Expand (2x + 3y)3 in descending powers of x using coefficient from the pascal triangle.

Solution:

3. Use the pascal triangle to expand the following:

(i) (x + y)3
(ii) (x + 2y)4
(iii) (x − x1 )5
(iv) (2x + 13 )3
(v) (2x − 21 )4

Solution: Re-write question (iii) as

 5   5
1 1
x− = x+ −
x x

where a = x, b = − x1 , and there will be a total of six terms in the expansion

  5    2  3  4  5
1 5 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1
x+ − =x +x − +x − +x − +x − + −
x x x x x x

1 1 1
= x5 − x3 + x − + 3− 5
x x x
The coefficients from the pascal triangle are: 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1, thus
 5
1 10 5 1
x− = x5 − 5x3 + 10x − + 3− 5
x x x x

31
 4. Use pascal triangle to obtain the value of (1.002)5 correct to six places of decimal.

Solution:
1.002 = 1 + 0.002
a = 1 and b = 0.002
There will be a total of six terms
The homogeneity of 1 and 0.002 is given by

(1 + 0.002)5 = 15 + 14 (0.002) + 13 (0.002)2 + 12 (0.002)3 + 1(0.002)4 + (0.002)5

The coefficients from the pascal triangle are: 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1, thus

(1.002)5 = 1 + 5(0.002) + 10(0.002)2 + 10(0.002)3 + 5(0.002)4 + (0.002)5

(1.002)5 = 1.010040 correct to 6 p.d

Definition 4.1 Binomial theorem is a formula for the expansion of (a + b)n for any positive
integers n
       
n n n n
(a + b)n =   an +   an−1 b +   an−2 b2 + ... +   an−j bj
0 1 2 j
  (9)
n
+... +   bn
n
 
n
where the symbols   for j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n are numbers to be determined, and are given
j
by
 
n
 = n!
j!(n − j)!
j
The following special cases should be noted
       
n n n n
  = 1,   = n,   = n,  =1
0 1 n−1 n
 
n
In other word, the symbol   or equivalently Cjn is the combination of n objects taking j
j
at a time.

Factorial:

The factorial expression of an arbitrary natural number n denoted as n! is given by

n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × ... × 2 × 1

Example 4.1:

32
 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120

9! = 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 302880

3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

2! = 2 × 1 = 2

1! = 1

Note that 0! = 1

Example 4.2: Evaluate each of the followings

(i) 6!

(ii) (7 − 2)!
8!
(iii) 3!
3!
(iv) 0!
5!
(v) (5−2)!2!
   
7 9
(vi)  × 
5 6

It follows that the binomial formula given in Eq. (9) can also be stated for any positive integer
n as
n n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
(a + b)n = an + a b+ a b + a b + ... + bn .
1! 2! 3!
Moreover, for the case where n is negative or fractional, the series of terms goes to infinity

n n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3

(a + b)n = an + a b+ a b + a b + ...
1! 2! 3!
Features of Binomial Expansion:

(i) Each expansion of (a + b)n begins with an and ends with bn as you move from left to right

(ii) All the terms in the expansion are n homogeneous, i.e., the sum of powers of a and b in
each term equals n

(iii) The powers of a decreases by 1 while the powers of b increases by 1 as you move from left
to right
 
n
(iv) The coefficient for each term is given by  
j

(v) There will be a total of n + 1 number of terms

33
Note: To find a particular coefficient in the expansion of (a + b)n without writing the entire
terms, use the following expression
   
n n
  an−j bj or   aj bn−j which ever one is more appropriate.
j n−j

Example 4.3:
1. Use binomial theorem to expand the following binomial expressions
(i) (x + y)5
(ii) (x + 2y)4
(iii) (2x + 13 )3
(iv) (x − x1 )5
Solutions:

For (x + y)5 , then from binomial theorem a = x and b = y

           
5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 0 4 1 3 2 2 3 1 4  x0 y 5
(x + y) =   xy +   xy +   xy +   xy +   xy + 
0 1 2 3 4 5
 
n
therefore, evaluating the numbers   in each term yields
j

(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y 2 + 10x2 y 3 + 5xy 4 + y 5 .

For (2x + 31 )3 , then from binomial theorem a = 2x and b = 13

   
 3 3   3  2  3
1 3 2 1 1 1
2x + = (2x) +   (2x) +   2x +
3 3 3 3
1 2
thus, we’ve
 3
1 2x 1
2x + = 8x3 + 4x2 + + .
3 3 27

2. Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of (2x − 3)14

Solution: Using the expression

 
n
  aj bn−j ,
n−j

Then the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of (2x − 3)14 will be contained in the term
 
14
  (2x)10 (−3)4
4

34
 such that
 
14
  2x10 (−3)4 = 14! 82944x10
10!4!
4

 
14
  2x10 (−3)4 = 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10! 82944x10
10! × 4 × 3 × 2
4

 
14
  2x10 (−3)4 = 83026944x10
4

Therefore, the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of (2x − 3)14 is 83026944

3. Write down and simplify the 4th term in the expansion of (2− x2 )12 in ascending powers of x.

Solution:

4. Obtain the first four terms of (1 + x2 )10 . Hence evaluate the first four terms of (1.005)10
correct to 4 places of decimal.

Solution: The first four terms are:

     
10 10 10
 x  10
10 9x 8 x
  2
7 x
 3
1+ =1 +   1 +   1 +   1
2 2 2 2
1 2 3

10! x 10!  x 2 10!  x 3

=1+ + +
9!1! 2 8!2! 2 7!3! 2

45 2
= 1 + 5x + x + 15x3
4
To evaluate first four terms of (1.005)10 , we let

(1.005)10 = (1 + 0.005)10
x
such that 2
= 0.005 which further implies that x = 0.01, thus

45
(1 + 0.005)10 = 1 + 5(0.01) + (0.01)2 + 15(0.01)3
5

(1 + 0.005)10 = 1.0511

5. Obtain the expansion of the following as far as the term in x3

(i) (1 + x − 2x2 )8
(ii) (3 − 2x + x2 )7

35
 Solution: The polynomial expressions may be considered as binomial as

(1 + x − 2x2 )8 = [1 + (x − 2x2 )]8

which can be expressed in terms of the binomial theorem as

   
8 8
[1 + (x − 2x2 )]8 = 1 +   (x − 2x2 ) +   (x − 2x2 )2 + ... + (x − 2x2 )8
1 2

8! 8!
= 1 + 8(x − 2x2 ) + (x − 2x2 )2 + (x − 2x2 )3
6!2! 5!3!

= 1 + 8(x − 2x2 ) + 28(x2 − 2x3 + 4x4 ) + 168(13x3 + other terms)

= 1 + 8x − 16x2 + 28x2 − 56x3

Student should try (3 − 2x + x2 )7 as an exercise.

1
6. Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 + x) 2 in ascending order of x.

1
Solution: Since n = 2
is fractional, we use the formula

n n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3

(a + b)n = an + a b+ a b + a b + ...
1! 2! 3!
therefore
1 1 1
1 1
2 1
−1 (
2 2
− 1) 1 −2 2 12 ( 12 − 1)( 12 − 2) 1 −3 3
(1 + x) = 1 +
2 2 1 2 x+ 12 x + 1 2 x + ...
1! 2! 3!

1x x2 x3
(1 + x) = 1 + −
2 + + ...
2 8 48
p
3
7. Obtain the first five terms in the expansion of (1 + 2x) in ascending powers of x.

Solution:

8. Use binomial theorem to expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term
x3 :
1
(i) 1−x
(ii) (2 + x)−2

Solution:

9. Find the value of n if the coefficients of x3 and x4 in the expansion of (2 + x)n are in the
ratio 4 : 11

Solution:

36
 The coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (2 + x)n is given by
 
n
  2n−3 x3
3

similarly the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of (2 + x)n is given by

 
n
  2n−4 x4
4

Therefore, the ratio 4 : 11 is thus given by

   
n n
  2n−3 x3 :   2n−4 x4 = 4 : 11
3 4

 
n
  2n−4 x4
4 11
  =
n 4
  2n−3 x3
3

n!
(n−4)!4!
2n−3 11
n!
=
(n−3)!3!
2n−4 4

n! (n − 3)!3! −1 11
× 2 =
(n − 4)!4! n! 4

(n − 3)(n − 4)!3! −1 11
2 =
(n − 4)! × 4 × 3! 4

∴ (n − 3) × 2−1 = 11, and hence, n = 25

EXERCISES

1. Expand the following in descending powers of x

(i) (2x + 3y)4

(ii) (2x + 31 )3

2. Use pascal triangle to expand the following

(i) (a − 2b)3
(ii) ( x2 + x2 )4
(iii) (x − x1 )6
(iv) (a2 − b2 )5

37
3. Write down the expansion of (2 + x)3 in ascending powers of x. Use the expanded result
to find the value of (2.001)3 correct to five places of decimal.

4. Use pascal triangle to expand (1 + 41 x)4 . Taking the first term of the expansion, find the
value of (1.025)4 correct to 3 decimal places.

5. Simplify, leaving surds in your answers where appropriate

√ √
(i) (1 + 2)3 + (1 − 2)3
√ √ √ √
(ii) ( 2 + 3)4 + ( 2 − 3)4
√ √ √ √
(iii) ( 6 + 2)3 − ( 6 − 2)3

6. Obtain the coefficient of x8 in the expansion of (2x + 4y)17

38
 MODULE 5

5 Theory of Quadratic Equation

Quadratic equation is a polynomial function of degree 2 written as

p(x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where the coefficients a2 6= 0, a1 , a0 are real numbers called the quadratic coefficient, linear
coefficient and constant respectively. The standard form of a quadratic equation is given as

ax2 + bx + c = 0.

It follows that the coefficients a 6= 0, b and c are real numbers that determines the shape,
location and position of a quadratic equation along the xy−plane. Moreover, the quadratic
function opens upward ”concave up” if the quadratic coefficient is greater than zero a > 0,
and the quadratic function opens downward ”concave down” if the quadratic coefficient is
less than zero a < 0 as illustrated in the following figures.

Moreover, a quadratic equation without a linear coefficient is called a pure quadratic equa-
tion

ax2 + c = 0.

5.1 Roots of Quadratic Equation

There are four methods of finding roots (solution) of quadratic equations

1. Factorization method: The method requires expressing the left hand side of a quadratic
equation as product of two linear algebraic expressions.

Case1: Quadratic equations for which the quadratic coefficient a 6= 1, factorization

has the following form

ax2 + bx + c ≡ (px + q)(rx + s) = 0

where p, q, r and s are values to be determined by inspection that will make the two
forms equivalent to one another.

39
 Case2: Quadratic equations for which the quadratic coefficient a = 1, factorization
has the following form

ax2 + bx + c ≡ (x + q)(x + s) = 0

where q and s are values to be determined such that the sum q + s = b and the product
q × s = c.

When a quadratic equation is written as product of two linear algebraic expressions

as in the two cases above, the zero-product property states that each linear expression
equals zero. Therefore, solving the two linear equations provides the roots (solution) to
the equation.

Example 5.0: Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by method of fac-
torization

(a) 3x2 + 5x − 2 = 0
(b) x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

2. Completing the Square Method: The method requires expressing quadratic equations
as a perfect square making use of the following algebraic identity

(x + h)2 = x2 + 2hx + h2

Completing the square represent a well-defined algorithm that can be used to solve any
quadratic equation.

Completing the square algorithm: For any standard quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0.

Completing the square algorithm requires the following steps:

(i) Make the quadratic coefficient equals 1 (i.e., a = 1) by diving through by a.

c
(ii) Subtract the constant term a
from both sides of the equation.

(iii) Add the square of one half of ab to both sides of the equation. This complete the
square converting the left-side into a perfect square.

(iv) Write the left-side as a perfect square and simplify the right-side if necessary.

(v) Produce two linear equations by taking the square root of both sides of the equation.

(vi) Solve the two linear equations for x, this yields the roots of the quadratic equation.

Example 5.1: Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by method of com-
pleting the square

(a) 3x2 + 5x − 2 = 0
(b) x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

40
 3. Quadratic Formula: A general formula for solving quadratic equations is derived using
completing the square method and is given by
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ,
2a
where the two roots are respectively given as
√
−b + b2 − 4ac
x= ,
2a

√
−b − b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
The expression under the square root sign is called the discriminant, and is usually denoted
by a capital letter D, thus

D = b2 − 4ac.

5.2 Types of Roots of Quadratic Equation

The discriminant [D = b2 − 4ac] is an important factor that determines the nature of solution
(roots) of a quadratic equation. It is therefore important to note the following:

(i) If D > 0, the equation will have two distinct real roots.

(ii) If D = 0, the equation will have two equal real roots.

(iii) If D < 0, the equation will have two distinct complex roots that are conjugate of one
another.

Example 5.2: If equation x2 − 3x + 1 = p(x − 3) has equal roots, find the possible values of p.

Solution:

Re-writing the equation in standard form

x2 − x(3 + p) + (1 + 3p) = 0,

where by the general formula a = 1, b = −(3 + p) and c = (1 + 3p) respectively.

For equal roots, D = 0 that is b2 − 4ac = 0.

Hence (3 + p)2 − 4 × 1 × (1 + 3p) = 9 + 6p + p2 − 4 + 12p = p2 − 6p + 5 = 0

Therefore (p − 5)(p − 1) = 0, where p = 5 or p = 1.

Example 5.3: If equation x2 − 3x + 1 = p(x − 3) has unequal roots, find an expression for the
possible solution of p.

41
5.3 Sum and Product of Roots:
Many problems concerning the roots of quadratic equations can be solved without actually
finding them. For example, we can find the sum and the product of the roots directly from the
coefficients in the equation. It is usual to call the roots α and β, and if a quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 has roots α and β, then
Either x = α or x = β =⇒ x − α = 0 or x − β = 0
=⇒ (x − α)(x − β) = 0
Expanding (x − α)(x − β) = x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
Now compare the two equations
 
2 b c
x + x + = x2 − (α + β)x + (αβ),
a a
then the followings are true
b c
(α + β) = − , (αβ) = .
a a
Hence, for any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 with roots α and β
b c
(α + β) = − , (αβ) =
a a
The sum and product of the roots can also be derived directly (but not so neatly) from the
formula for the roots. Let
√ √
−b + D −b − D
α= , β= ,
2a 2a
then
√ √
−b + D − b − D b
α+β = =−
2a a
" √ #" √ #
−b + D −b − D c
αβ = =
2a 2a a
Example 5.4:
1. If the roots of 3x2 − 4x − 1 = 0 are α and β, find α + β and αβ.

Solution: Comparing the given equation with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we have a = 3, b = −4 and c = −1. Therefore
 
4 4
α+β =− − = ,
3 3

1
αβ = − .
3
As the equation x2 + ( ab )x + ac = 0 is equivalent to x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0 where α and
β are the roots. Therefore any quadratic equation can be written in the form:

x2 − (SU M of the roots α + β)x + (P RODU CT of the roots αβ) = 0

and this form is very useful.

42
 √ √
2. Construct an equation with roots 2 + 1, 2 − 1.

Solution:
√ √ √
The sum of the roots α + β = ( 2 + 1) + ( 2 − 1) = 2 2
√ √
The product of the roots αβ = ( 2 + 1)( 2 − 1) = 1
√
Hence the equation is x2 − (2 2)x + 1 = 0

5.4 Symmetric Functions of the Roots:

Knowing the values of α + β and αβ for a given quadratic equation, values of other functions
of α and β can be calculated provided that they are symmetric.

Definition 5.1 (Symmetric Function) A symmetric function of α and β is one in which if

α and β are interchanged, the function is the same or is multiplied by −1.
For example, α2 + β 2 is symmetric function as it become β 2 + α2 , also α2 − β 2 is symmetric
since interchanging means multiplying by −1 that is −(β 2 − α2 ), but 3α2 + β 2 is not symmetric
function. The values of a symmetric functions of α and β can be found without knowing the
values of α and β.

Example 5.5:

1. If α, β are the roots of 2x2 − x − 2 = 0, find the values of

(a) α2 + β 2
(b) α − β
(c) α2 − β 2
1 1
(d) α
+ β

(e) α3 + β 3
(f) α3 − β 3

Solutions: From the given equation, it is known that α + β = 12 and αβ = −1, therefore,
each of the functions (a) to (f) must be expressed in terms of α + β and αβ only.
1 9
(a) α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ = 4
+2= 4
1 17
(b) α − β cannot be found directly, but using (α − β)2 = (α + β)2 − 4αβ = 4
+4= 4
.
√
17
Hence α − β = ± 2
depending on whether α > β or α < β.
√ √
1 17 17
(c) α2 − β 2 = (α + β)(α − β) = 2
× 2
= 4
(taking α > β).
1
1 1 (α+β)
(d) α
+ β
= αβ
= 2
−1
= − 21 .
(e) α3 ± β 3 , these can be factorized. Note the results for future use
α3 + β 3 = (α + β)(α2 − αβ + β 2 )
α3 − β 3 = (α − β)(α2 + αβ + β 2 )
Hence α3 + β 3 = (α + β)(α2 − αβ + β 2 ) = (α + β)[(α + β)2 − 3αβ], therefore
α3 + β 3 = ( 21 )[( 12 )2 + 3] = 13
8
.
(f) α3 − β 3 = (α − β)(α2 + αβ + β 2 ) = (α − β)[(α + β)2 − αβ], therefore

43
 √ √
17 1 2 5 17
α3 − β 3 = 2
[( 2 ) + 1] = 8
.

2. If α, β are roots of 3x2 + 5x − 1 = 0, construct equations whose roots are:

(a) 5α, 5β
(b) α2 , β 2
1 1
(c) ,
α β
α+1 β+1
(d) β
, α

Solutions: x2 − (SU M of the roots α + β)x + (P RODU CT of the roots αβ) = 0 is

used to derive the required equation. In each case the SUM and PRODUCT of the
new roots are expressed in terms of α + β and αβ. Therefore from the given quadratic
equation α + β = − 53 , αβ = − 13 .

(a) Sum of roots = 5α + 5β = 5(α + β) = − 25

3
.
Product of roots = (5α)(5β) = 25αβ = − 25
3
.
Hence the required equation is given as
25 25
x2 + x− = 0,
3 3

3x2 + 25x − 25 = 0.
25 2 31
(b) Sum of roots = α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ = 9
+ 3
= 9
.
Product of roots = (α2 )(β 2 ) = 19 .
Therefore, the required equation is given as
31 1
x2 − x + = 0,
9 9

9x2 − 31x + 1 = 0.

1 1 (α+β) − 53
(c) Sum of roots = α
+ β
= αβ
= − 13
= 5.
Product of roots = ( α1 )( β1 ) = 1
αβ
= −3.
The new equation is given as

x2 − 5x − 3 = 0.

α+1 β+1 (α+β)2 −αβ (− 53 )+ 31

(d) Sum of roots = β
+ α
= αβ
= − 13
= − 28
3
.
− 13 − 35 +1
 
α+1 β+1 (α+1)(β+1) αβ+(α+β)+1
= − 59 .


Product of roots = β α
= αβ
= αβ
= (− 31 )(− 53 )

The required equation is given as

28 9
x2 − x − = 0,
3 5

x2 − 140x − 27 = 0.

44
 In each of the above, the new roots were symmetric functions of α and β. In other cases,
it would be necessary to know the actual values of α and β. Moreover, if there is a given
relationship between the roots, this can be used to determine an unknown coefficient in
the equation. Consider the next example:
3. One root of the equation 27x2 + bx + 8 = 0 is known to be the square of the other, find b.

Solution:
EXERCISES
1. If α and β are the roots of the following equations, find the values of α+β, αβ and α2 +β 2
in each case:
(i) x2 − x + 1 = 0
(ii) 3x2 = x + 1
(iii) px2 = q
√
(iv) x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
(v) 2y 2 − (a + 3)y + a2 = 0
(vi) pt2 − qt − r = 0
2. Construct and simplify equations whose roots are:
(i) −3, 1
1
(ii) 2
, 2
√ √
(iii) 3 − 2, 3+2
1√
(iv) , 1√
(1+ 2) (1− 2)

(v) sin2 θ, cos2 θ

3. A student is asked to solve the equation 3x2 −x+1 = 0. He knows that if the roots equals
α and β, then α + β = 13 and αβ = 13 . He then attempts to solve these two equations
simultaneously, what does he find?
4. It is known that p + q = 16 and pq = − 31 . By forming a quadratic equation whose roots
are p, q and solving it, find the value of p and q.
5. If α, β are roots of 2x2 − 2x − 1 = 0, form the equation whose roots are α
β
and αβ .

6. One root of the equation 2x2 − x + c = 0 is double the other root, find c.
7. If one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is double the other root, show that:
b 2b
(a) The roots are − 3a and − 3a
(b) 2b2 = 9ac
(a−b)
8. If the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 differ by 1, show that they are 2a
and − (a+b)
2a
. Hence
prove that b2 = a(a + 4c).
9. One root of the equation 2x2 + bx + c = 0 is three times the other root. Prove that
3b2 = 32c.
10. Find the value of p for which the equation (x − 2)(x − 3) = p has roots which differ by 2.

45
 MODULE 6

6 Angles and Their Measurement

6.1 Angles
A half-line is that portion of a line that starts at a point P on the line and extends indefinitely
in a given direction, and the starting point P is called the vertex of the half-line. If two half-
lines are drawn with common vertex, they form an angle. We call one half-line of the angle the
initial side and the other terminal side

The angle formed is denoted by indicating the direction and amount of rotation from the
initial side to the terminal side. Moreover, if the rotation is in the anti-clockwise direction,
the angle is positive, and if the rotation is clockwise the angle is negative as indicated in the
figures above. Conventionally, lowercase Greek letters such as α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma),
and θ (theta) are often used to denote angles.

6.2 Angular Measurement

Angles are measured by determining the amount of rotation needed for the initial side to become
coincident with the terminal side. The two prominent methods for measuring angles are degrees
and radians.

6.2.1 Degrees
An angle formed by rotating the initial side exactly once in the anti-clockwise direction until it
coincides with itself is said to measure 360 degrees (1 revolution), abbreviated 3600 . Therefore,
1
one degree 10 is 360 revolution.

Special Angles:
1
(1) A right angle is an angle that measures 900 , or 4
revolution.
1
(2) Straight angle is an angle that measures 1800 , or 2
revolution.

(3) Any angle less than 900 is called acute angle.

(4) Any angle greater than 900 but less 1800 is called obtuse angle.

(5) Any angle greater than 1800 is called reflex angle.

46
Example 6.0: Roughly sketch the following angles: 600 , −450 , 2250 , 4050 .

Conversion: Although Subdivisions of a degree may be obtained by using decimals, sub-

divisions of a degree may be obtained using the notion of minutes and seconds. Moreover,
conversion between degrees to decimal, degrees to minutes and seconds is straight forward.
Consider the following:

(i) 1 anti-clockwise revolution 3600

(ii) 10 = 600 and 10 = 6000

(iii) One minute, denoted by 10 is defined as 1

60
degrees, written as
 0
0 1
1 =
60

(iv) One second, denoted by 100 is defined as 1

60
minutes, or equivalently 1
3600
degrees
 0  0
00 1 1
1 = =
60 60 × 60

Note: An angle of 53 degrees 290 and 700 is written as 530 290 700 .

Example 6.1:

(a) Convert 2530 180 to decimal degree form.

Solution:

2530 180 = 2530 + 18 × 10

1 0


= 2530 + 18 × 60
= 2530 + 0.30
= 253.30

(b) Convert 530 290 700 to decimal degree form leaving your answer in 3 decimal places.

Solution:

530 290 700 = 530 + 29 × 10 + 7 × 100

1 0

0
where 10 = 60 and 100 = 60×60
1


, therefore we have
1 0

0
530 290 700 = 530 + 29 × 60 1


+ 7 × 3600
= 530 + 0.4830 + 0.001940
= 53.4850 to 3 decimal places

(c) Convert 45.6050 to degree, minute, second (D0 M 0 S 00 ) format.

Solution:

45.6050 = 450 + 0.6050

= 450 + 0.605 × 10

47
 where 10 = 600 , therefore
45.6050 = 450 + 0.605 × 600
= 450 + 36.30
= 450 + 360 + 0.3 × 10
where 10 = 6000 , therefore we have
= 450 + 360 + 0.3 × 6000
= 450 + 360 + 1800
45.6050 = 450 360 1800

(d) Convert 21.2560 to degree, minute, second (D0 M 0 S 00 ) format.

Solution:

6.2.2 Radians
Radian is an alternative angular measurement used in advanced mathematics, which is based
on measuring an angle with its radius. A central angle is a positive angle whose vertex is at
the center of a circle and whose initial side coincides with the positive x−axis, such that the
initial side and the terminal side subtends an arc on the circle. If the radius of the circle is r
and the length of the arc subtended by the central angle say θ is also r, then angle θ is said to
measure 1 radian.

Definition 6.1 1 radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal in
length to the radius of the circle.
Then it follows that for a circle of radius r, a central angle of θ radians subtends an arc whose
length s is given by
s = rθ. (10)
Conversion: It is imperative to be able to convert between the two ways of measuring angles.
It follows from Eq. (10) that the circumference of a circle of radius r is equal to 2πr, therefore
substituting this amount into Eq. (10), hence

2πr = rθ,

solving for θ, we have

θ = 2π radians

48
It follows that 1 revolution = 2π radians, and since 1 revolution = 3600 then we have

3600 = 2π radians

dividing both sides of the above equation by 2 we have

1800 = π radians

dividing both sides of the above equation firstly by 1800 , and secondly by π yields the
two conversion formulas as follows
π 1800
10 = radians, 1 radian = , where π = 3.1416
180 π
Examples:

1. Express the following angles in radians.

(a) 300
(b) −1430 100
(c) 1070
Solutions:
π π
(a) 300 = 30 × 10 = 30 × 180
= 6
radians
(b) −1430 100 = −142.80 = −142.8 × π
180
π
(c) 1070 = 107 × 180

2. Express the following angles in degrees and minutes correct to the nearest minute.

(a) 2.1 radians

π
(b) 12
radians
Solutions:
1800 1800
(a) 2.1 radians = 2.1 × π
= 2.1 × 3.1416
π π 1800
(b) 12
radians = 12
× π

49
7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION OF ANGLES OF
ANY MAGNITUDE
7.1 General Angle:
Consider a wheel which is force to rotate about a fixed axis, and suppose that one of the spoke
is marked with a thin line of paint. If the wheel starts from rest and makes one revolution,
then the marked spoke turns through 360o and if the wheel makes another one revolution, the
marked spoke turned through 360o again. Therefore one can say that the wheel has turned
through 720o thereby using angles greater that 360o , thus, the number of revolutions may be
specified as well as the position of the marked spoke

Now consider the x−axis of the xy−plane, the positive direction is usually taken to the right
and the negative direction is taken to the left. Similarly, if a wheel is rotating in an anti-
clockwise direction, then the rotation is sensed to be positive and the clockwise rotation is thus
considered negative

7.2 Angles:
As pointed earlier, angles are measured from the positive x−axis. Angles measured from the
x−axis in an anti-clockwise direction are positive, while angles measured in a clockwise direc-
tion are negative

50
Trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude are required in connection with oscillatory
bodies and rotation about an axis

7.3 Quadrants:
The axes in an xy−plane divides the plane into four quadrants, i.e., one complete rotation is
divided into four quadrants. The quadrants are used for conveniently locating and measuring
angles rotated in an anti-clockwise direction from the positive x−axis

Consider the following figures with a point (x, y) and its coordinates will be given a suffix
corresponding to the quadrant it lies in

1. An acute angle in the first quadrant (0 < θ < 90o ) or (0 < θ < π2 )

2. An obtuse angle in the second quadrant (90o < θ < 180o ) or ( π2 < θ < π)

51
 3π
3. A reflex angle in the third quadrant (180o < θ < 270o ) or (π < θ < 2
)

4. A reflex angle in the fourth quadrant (270o < θ < 360o ) or ( 3π

2
< θ < 2π)

52
7.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Angles
7.4.1 Acute Angle in the First Quadrant
Consider an acute angle in the first quadrant

Given the right-angle triangle AOB with angle θ1 at vertex zero where side AB is opposite
θ1 , side OB is adjacent to θ1 and side OA is called the hypotenuse. The main trigonometric
ratios of acute angle are determined using the slogan ”SOHCAHT OA” as follows
opposite +y
(i) Sine of angle θ1 = sin θ1 = =
hypotenuse r

adjacent +x
(ii) Cosine of angle θ1 = cos θ1 = =
hypotenuse r

opposite +y
(iii) Tangent of angle θ1 = tan θ1 = =
adjacent +x

Note: The hypotenuse r is the length of the longest side OA, and is taken to be strictly positive
r>0

7.4.2 Acute Angle in the Second Quadrant

Consider an acute angle θ2 in the second quadrant, the main trigonometric ratios are deter-
mined accordingly

53
7.4.3 Acute Angle in the Third Quadrant
Consider an acute angle θ3 in the third quadrant, the main trigonometric ratios are determined
accordingly

7.4.4 Acute Angle in the Fourth Quadrant

Consider an acute angle θ4 in the fourth quadrant, the main trigonometric ratios are determined
accordingly

The results can be summarized by writing which ratios are positive in each quadrant

54
or equivalently in a tabular format below

Ratios 1st Quad 2nd Quad 3rd Quad 4th Quad

Sine +ve +ve −ve −ve
Cosine +ve −ve −ve +ve
T angent +ve −ve +ve −ve

7.4.5 Other Trigonometric Ratios (Reciprocal Ratios)

In addition to the three main trigonometric ratios, there three reciprocal ratios. The relation-
ship between the three main trigonometric ratios (sin, cos, tan) and the reciprocal ratios is that
the reciprocal ratios are reciprocals of the main trigonometric ratios respectively
1
sec θ =
cos θ

1
cosecθ =
sin θ

1
cot θ =
tan θ
Suppose sin y = x, this means that the argument y is the number of radians 0r degrees in
the angle whose sin is x. This can be written as y = sin−1 x, and y is called the inverse of x
which implies that the statements sin y = x and y = sin−1 x are equivalent, and by extension
this applies to the cosine and tangent functions respectively. In advanced trigonometry, it is
imperative to have a standard abbreviation for the phrase ”the angle whose sin is x” etc, the
arcsin, arccos, arctan or sin−1 , cos−1 , tan−1 are used

7.5 Reference Angle

The trigonometric ratios of any angle can be deduced from the ratios of an acute angle. The
acute angle is the reference angle and it is the angle the given angle makes with the x−axis.
Let φ denote a reference angle, then

(i) In the 1st quadrant, the reference angle φ to angle θ are the same

sin θ = sin φ

cos θ = cos φ

tan θ = tan φ

55
 (ii) In the 2nd quadrant, the reference angle φ to angle θ is given

sin θ = ± sin(180o − θ) = ± sin φ

cos θ = ± cos(180o − θ) = ± cos φ
tan θ = ± tan(180o − θ) = ± tan φ

(iii) In the 3nd quadrant, the reference angle φ to angle θ is given

sin θ = ± sin(θ − 180o ) = ± sin φ

cos θ = ± cos(θ − 180o ) = ± cos φ
tan θ = ± tan(θ − 180o ) = ± tan φ

(iv) In the 4th quadrant, the reference angle φ to angle θ is given

sin θ = ± sin(360o − θ) = ± sin φ

cos θ = ± cos(360o − θ) = ± cos φ
tan θ = ± tan(360o − θ) = ± tan φ

Example: Express the following angles in terms of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle
(i) sin 170o = sin(180o − 170o ) = sin 10o
(ii) tan 300o = − tan(360o − 300o ) = − tan 60o
(iii) cos 293o = cos(360o − 293o ) = cos 67o
1 1 1
(iv) sec 142o = cos 142o
= − cos(180o −142o )
= − cos 38o
= − sec 38o
1 1 1
(v) cosec 230o = sin 230o
= − sin(230o −180o )
= − sin 50o
= −cosec 50o
1 1 1
(vi) cot 156o = tan 156o
= − tan(180o −156o )
= − tan 24o
= − cot 24o

56
7.6 Negative Angles
The rotation in the clockwise direction forms negative −ve angles. In finding trigonometric
ratios for negative angles (−θ) of any magnitude, 360o or its multiple are added until the first
positive angle (0 < θ < 360o ) is obtained. Hence, for angles θ > 90o , the concept of reference
angle is then used to find the six trigonometric ratios in terms of acute angles

Example: Express the following angles in terms of trigonometric ratios of acute angle
(i) sin(−50o ) = sin(−50o + 360o )

= sin 310o

= − sin(360o − 310o )

= − sin 50o

(ii) cos(−20o )

(iii) tan(−420o )

(iv) sec(−172o ) = sec(−172o + 360o )

= sec 188o
1
= cos 188o
1
= − cos(188o −180o )

1
= − cos 8o

= − sec 8o

(v) cosec (−510o )

(vi) cot(−780o )

7.7 Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles (0o , 30o , 45o , 60o , 90o )
Consider the right-angle triangle below

the six trigonometric ratios of the acute angle θ are given as

y x y r r x
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = , sec θ = , cosec θ = , cot θ =
r r x x y y

57
7.7.1 Trigonometric Ratios of Angles 0o and 90o
The trigonometric ratios of angles 0o and 90o can be obtained from the figure below

For angle θ = 0o , it implies that y = 0 and x = r = 1

y 0
sin 0o = r
= 1
=0
x 1
cos 0o = r
= 1
=1
y 0
tan 0o = x
= 1
=0

For angle θ = 90o , it implies that x = 0 and y = r = 1

y 1
sin 90o = r
= 1
=1
x 0
cos 90o = r
= 1
=0
y 1
tan 90o = x
= 0
=∞

7.7.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Angles 30o and 60o

Consider an equilateral triangle with all sides equal to 2 below

taking the right-angle triangle ACD

58
Using Pythagoras theorem, the side AC of the triangle is computed below
|AD|2 = |AC|2 + |CD|2
22 = |AC|2 + 12
√
∴ |AC| = 3
Consider angle θ = 30o , then side CD is opposite while side AC is adjacent to angle θ
respectively, thus the exact values of the trigonometric ratios are
1
sin 30o = 2
√
3
cos 30o = 2

tan 30o = √1
3

Consider angle θ = 60o , then side AC is opposite while side CD is adjacent to angle θ
respectively, thus the exact values of the trigonometric ratios are
√
3
sin 60o = 2
1
cos 60o = 2
√
tan 60o = 3

7.7.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Angle 45o

Consider the right-angle isosceles triangle with two equal sides, and let the longest side denote
the hypotenuse as given below

Using Pythagoras theorem, the side AC of the triangle is computed below

|AB|2 = |AC|2 + |BC|2
|AB|2 = 12 + 12
√
∴ |AB| = 2
therefore the exact values for the trigonometric ratios of angle θ = 45o are
sin 45o = √1
2

cos 45o = √1
2

tan 45o = 1

59
EXERCISES
1. Express the following angles in radians

(i) θ = 65o
(ii) θ = 120o
(iii) θ = 225o
(iv) θ = −150o

2. Express the following angles in degrees

(i) θ = 45rad
2π
(ii) θ = 3
3π
(iii) θ = 5

3. Express the following angles in terms of the trigonometric ratios of acute angle

(i) cos 293o

(ii) sin 250o
(iii) tan 3π
2
(iv) sin(−230o )
(v) cosec (−53o )
(vi) tan 143o
(vii) sec(−172o )

4. Write down the exact values of the following angles leaving surds in your answers

(i) sin 405o

(ii) sin(−270o )
(iii) tan 120o
(iv) cos(−120o )
(v) cos 225o
(vi) tan 150o

5. (a) If y = b cos θ, simplify

(i) b2 + y 2
p
(ii) y b2 + y 2
(b) If z = a sec θ, simplify
(i) √ 1
z 2 −a2
√
z 2 −a2
(ii) z
(c) If c = cos θ, simplify
√
1−c2
(i) c
c
(ii) 1−c2
(d) If c = cosec θ, simplify
√
(i) c2 − 1

60
 √
c2 −1
(ii) c

6. Eliminate θ from the following equations

(i) x = 1 − sin θ, y = 1 + cos θ
(ii) x = 1 + tan θ, y = cos θ
(iii) x = a sec θ, y = b + c cos θ
(iv) x = a sec θ, y = b cot θ
(v) x = sin θ + cos θ, y = tan θ
7. Prove the following identities
(i) (sec θ + tan θ)(sec θ − tan θ) = 1
(ii) cos4 θ − sin4 θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
√ √
(iii) sec2 θ − tan2 θ + cosec2 θ − cot2 θ
1−cos2 θ
(iv) sec2 θ
= 1 − sin2 θ
2 tan θ
(v) 1+tan2 θ
= 2 sin θ cos θ

7.8 Compound Angles

7.8.1 Addition Formulas
If A and B are any two angles, the expressions sin(A + B), cos(A + B) and tan(A + B) can be
obtained where
sin(A + B) 6= sin A + sin B
cos(A + B) 6= cos A + cos B
tan(A + B) 6= tan A + tan B
To obtain the correct addition formulas, consider the figure below

Now let RP̂ Q = OP̂ Q − OP̂ M , then in terms of complimentary angles we have
RP̂ Q = (90o − B) − (90o − (A + B)) = A

61
 ∴ RP̂ Q = A

PM M R + RP M R RP QN RP
sin(A + B) = = = + = +
OP OP OP OP OP OP
MR
because OP
is not a trigonometric ratio, then using a logical 1 technique we have

QN OQ RP PQ
sin(A + B) = × + ×
OQ OP P Q OP
Therefore by interpreting the above equation in terms of trigonometric ratios of acute angle,
we have the following

1. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

2. sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Note: cos(−θ) = cos θ implying that cosine is an even function

sin(−θ) = − sin θ implying that sine is an odd function

tan(−θ) = − tan θ implying that tangent is an odd function

Similarly, for the cosine function we have

OM ON − M N ON MN ON RQ
cos(A + B) = = = − = −
OP OP OP OP OP OP
again using the logical 1 technique we have
ON OQ RQ P Q
cos(A + B) = × − ×
OQ OP P Q OP
interpreting the above equation in terms of trigonometric ratio of acute angle

3. cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

4. cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B for the tangent function of angle θ, the addition
formula is derived from the following identity
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
therefore
sin(A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan(A + B) = =
cos(A + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B

dividing both the numerator and denominator by the factor (cos A cos B), we have
tan A+tan B
5. tan(A + B) = 1−tan A tan B

tan A+tan(−B) tan A−tan B

6. tan(A − B) = 1−tan tan(−B)
= 1+tan A tan B

Example: Evaluate the following angles without using table or calculator

(i) sin(30o + 45o )

62
 Using addition formula sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
sin(30o + 45o ) = sin 30o cos 45o + sin 45o cos 30o
√
1 √1 √1 3
= 2
×
2
+ 2
× 2
√ √
2+ 6
= 4

(ii) sin(120o + 45o ) = sin 120o cos 45o + sin 45o cos 120o
= sin 60o cos 45o + sin 45o cos(−60o )
√
3 √1 √1
= 2
× 2
+ 2
× − 12
√
3−1
= √
2 2

(iii) cosec 75o =

(iv) cos(45o − 30o ) = cos 45o cos 30o + sin 45o sin 30o
√
= √1 × 3 + √1 × 1
2 2 2 2
√
3+1
= √
2 2

tan 120o +tan 45o

(v) tan(120o + 45o ) = 1−tan 120o tan 45o
− tan 60o +tan 45o
= 1−(− tan 60o ) tan 45o
√
− √3+1
= 1−(− 3)×1
√
= 3−2
(vi) sin 15o = sin(45o − 30o )
= sin 45o cos 30o − sin 30o cos 45o
√
= √1 × 3 − 21 × √1
2 2 2
√ √
6− 2
= 4
3 5
Example: If sin A = 5
and sin B = 13
where A and B are acute angles, find without using
table the value of
(i) sin(A + B)
(ii) cot(A + B)
Solution: Let the following figures represent the acute angles A and B respectively

from triangle 4P OQ

63
 |OP |2 = |OQ|2 + |P Q|2

52 = |OQ|2 + 32

|OQ| = 4

similarly from triangle 4ROS

|OR|2 = |OS|2 + |RS|2

132 = |OS|2 + 52

|OS| = 12

(i) sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

3 12 5 4
= 5
× 13
+ 13
× 5
56
= 65
1
(ii) cot(A + B) = tan(A+B)

1−tan A tan B
= tan A+tan B

5
1−( 34 )( 12 )
= 3 5
+ 12
4

33
= 56
7
Example: If tan θ = 24
and θ is reflex, evaluate without using table the following

(i) sec θ

(ii) cosec θ

(iii) cot θ

Example: If tan(x + 45o ) = 2, find without using table the value of tan x

Example: Express the following as single trigonometric ratios

√
1 3
(i) 2
cos x − 2
sin x
√
3+tan x
(ii) √
1− 3 tan x

(iii) cos 16o sin 42o − sin 16o cos 42o

√
1 3
(iv) 2
cos 75o + 2
sin 75o

Example: Find without using tables the value of

(i) cos 75o cos 15o + sin 75o sin 15o

(ii) √1 cos 15o − √1 sin 15o

2 2

1−tan 15o
(iii) 1+tan 15o

64
7.8.2 Double Angle
The basic trigonometric identities and the compound angles formulas can be used ot derived
the double angle formulas as follows

1. sin 2A = sin(A + A)

= sin A cos A + sin A cos A

= 2 sin A cos A

2. cos 2A = cos(A + A)

= cos A cos A + sin A sin A

= cos2 A − sin2 A

= cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)

= 2 cos2 A − 1

or equivalently

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A

= (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A

= 1 − 2 sin2 A

For further mathematical applications, it is worthy to note the following

cos2 A = 12 (1 + cos 2A)

sin2 A = 21 (1 − cos 2A)

Example: Without using table, find the value of

(i) 2 sin 15o cos 15o

recall that sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A, therefore

2 sin 15o cos 15o = sin 2(15o )

1
= sin 30o = 2

(ii) cos2 105o − sin2 105o

recall that cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A, therefore

cos2 1050 − sin2 105o = cos 2(105o )

= cos 210o

= − cos 30o
√
3
=− 2

(iii) 1 − 2 sin2 15o

recall that cos 2A = 1 − sin2 A, therefore

65
 1 − 2 sin2 15o = cos 2(15o )

= cos 30o
√
3
= 2

(iv) sin 165o cos 165o

recall that sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A, therefore

sin 165o cos 165o = 21 (2 sin 165o cos 165o )

= 12 (sin 2(165o ))

= 21 sin 330o

= 21 (− sin 30o )

= 21 − 12 = − 14

2 tan 3π
(v) 8
1−tan2 3π 8

2 tan A
recall that tan 2A = 1−tan2 A
, therefore
2 tan 3π
8
1−tan2 3π
= tan 3π
4
8

= tan 3(45o )

= tan 135o

= − tan 45o

= −1

Example: Prove the following

1−cos 2θ
(i) sin 2θ
= tan θ
1−cos 2θ 1−(1−2 sin2 θ)
sin 2θ
= 2 sin θ cos θ

2 sin2 θ sin θ
= 2 sin θ cos θ
= cos θ
= tan θ

(ii) cos4 θ − sin4 θ = cos 2θ

cos4 θ − sin4 θ = (cos2 θ)2 − (sin2 θ)2

= (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)

= cos 2θ
sin 2A
(iii) 1+cos 2A
= tan A

(iv) sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

66
 EXERCISES

1. Without using tables, find the value of the following leaving surds in your answer

(i) tan(60o + 30o )

(ii) cos(60o + 45o )
(iii) tan 15o
(iv) cos 105o
(v) sin 165o

2. If sin A = 54 and cos B = 12

13
where A is obtuse and B is acute, find without using table
the values of

(i) sin(A + B)
(ii) tan(A − B)
(iii) cos(A − B)

3. If cos A = 53 and tan B = 12

5
where A and B are both reflex angles, find without using
table the value of

(i) sec(A − B)
(ii) cot(A + B)
(iii) cosec (A − B)
1
4. If tan(A + B) = 7
and tan A = 3, find without using table the value of tan B

5. Express as single trigonometric ratios

(i) √1 sin x + √1 cos x

2 2
1
(ii) cos 24o cos 15o −sin 24o sin 15o

6. Find without using table the values of

(i) sin 50o cos 20o − cos 50o sin 20o

√
3
(ii) 2
cos 15o − 12 sin 15o
(iii) cos 15o + sin 15o
tan 10o +tan 20o
(iv) 1−tan 10o tan 20o

7. Simplify the following

(i) 2 sin 17o cos 17o

(ii) 2 cos2 420 − 1
(iii) 2 sin 21 θ cos 12 θ
(iv) sin x cos x

8. Evaluate without using table

(i) 2 cos2 75o − 1

o
2 tan 22 12
(ii) 1−tan2 22 12
o

67
 o
(iii) 1 − 2 sin2 67 12
1−2 cos2 25o
(iv) 1−2 sin2 65o
1−tan2 15o
(v) tan 15o

9. Eliminate θ from the equations

(i) x = 2 sin θ, y = 3 cos θ

(ii) x = 2 sec θ, y = cos 2θ

10. Prove the following identities

cos 2A
(i) cos A+sin A
= cos A − sin A
sin A cos A 2 sin(A+B)
(ii) sin B
+ cos B
= sin 2B
1 1
(iii) cos A+sin A
+ cos A−sin A
= tan 2A cosec A

11. Prove that cos 3A = 4 cos2 A − 3 cos A

12. prove the following identities

1−cos 2θ
(i) 1+cos 2θ
= tan2 θ
(ii) (sin θ + cos θ)2 = 1 + sin 2θ
(iii) (2 cos θ + 1)(2 cos θ − 1) = 2 cos θ − 1
(iv) 2 sin π4 + θ sin π4 + θ = cos 2θ

68
7.9 Trigonometric Equations
The trigonometric equations in which the trigonometric ratios of a known quantity occur can
be solved using the idea of solving algebraic equations. Even though there are limited num-
ber of solutions to an algebraic equation, there are indeed unlimited number of solutions to
trigonometric equations

1
Example: Solve the equation cos θ = 2

Solution: The cosine function is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants

θ = 60o , 300o , 420o , 660o , 780o , . . .

θ = −60o , −300o , −420o , −660o , −780o , . . .

Example: Find the solution to the equation sin x = 0.515 which lies in the range 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o

Solution:

sin x = 0.515

x = sin−1 (0.515)

x = 31o

The sine function is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants

∴ x = 31o , 149o

Example: Find the solution to the equation 2 cos x − 3 sin x = 0 which lies in the range
0o ≤ x ≤ 360o

Solution:

2 cos x − 3 sin x = 0
2 sin x
3
= = tan x
cos x

x = tan−1 23

The tangent function is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants

∴ x = 33o 410 , 213o 410

Example: Solve tan θ = 2 sin θ for −180o ≤ θ ≤ 180o

Solution:
sin θ
cos θ
= 2 sin θ

sin θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

sin θ − 2 sin θ cos θ = 0

sin θ(1 − 2 cos θ) = 0

from the zero product property of real numbers either sin θ = 0 or 1 − 2 cos θ = 0

69
 for sin θ = 0

θ = sin−1 (0)

∴ θ = 0o , 180o , −180o

for 1 − 2 cos θ = 0
1
cos θ = 2

θ = cos−1 1


2

then θ lies in the 1st or 4th quadrants

∴ θ = 60o , −60o

Overall θ = 0o , 180o , −180o , 60o , −60o

Example: Solve 2 sin2 θ + sin θ = 0 for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 180o

Solution:
2 sin2 θ + sin θ = sin θ(2 sin θ + 1) = 0

either sin θ = 0 or 2 sin θ + 1 = 0 or both are zero

for sin θ = 0

θ = sin−1 (0)

∴ θ = 0o , 180o , 360o

for sin θ = − 21

quadrant: 3rd and 4th reference angle 30o

∴ θ = 210o , 330o

Overall θ = 0o , 180o , 210o , 330o , 3660o

Example: Find θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 480o if 2 cos2 θ = 2 − sin θ

Solution:

Example: Solve the equation 3 cos 2θ + sin θ = 1 for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o

Solution:

MORE EXERCISES
1. Solve the following equations within the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o

(i) cos 2θ + 5 cos θ = 2

(ii) tan 2θ + tan θ = 0
(iii) 4 cos θ − 3 sin θ = 1

2. Solve the equation sin 2θ cos θ + 3 sin2 θ = 3 for values 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o

70