Radioactivity in Food and The Environment (2010)

ENVIRONMENT AGENCY
FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY

NORTHERN IRELAND ENVIRONMENT AGENCY
SCOTTISH ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AGENCY
Radioactivity in Food
and the Environment, 2010
Appendix 1
CD Supplement
RIFE – 16
October 2011
2 CD Appendix
Contents Page
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................5
2. Methods of sampling, measurement and presentation ......................................................................6

2.1 Sampling programmes ................................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Nuclear sites..............................................................................................................................7
2.1.2 Industrial and landfill sites ........................................................................................................7
2.1.3 Chernobyl fallout and regional monitoring................................................................................7
2.2 Methods of measurement............................................................................................................8
2.2.1 Sample analysis ........................................................................................................................9
2.2.2 Measurement of dose rates and contamination ........................................................................9
2.3 Presentation of results................................................................................................................10
2.4 Detection Limits ........................................................................................................................10
2.5 Additional information ..............................................................................................................11
3. Assessment methods and data ............................................................................................................12

3.1 Radiation protection standards ..................................................................................................12
3.2 Assessment methods ................................................................................................................13
3.3 Concentrations of radionuclides in foodstuffs, drinking water sources, sediments and air ..........14
3.4 Consumption, drinking and inhalation rates ..............................................................................14
3.4.1 Source specific assessments ....................................................................................................14
3.4.2 Total dose assessments............................................................................................................15
3.5 Dose coefficients........................................................................................................................15
3.6 External exposure ......................................................................................................................15
3.7 Subtraction of ‘background levels’ ............................................................................................15
3.8 Uncertainties in dose assessment ..............................................................................................16
4. References ............................................................................................................................................17
Annex 1. Modelling of concentrations of radionuclides in foodstuffs, air and sewage systems ............18
Annex 2. Consumption, inhalation, handling and occupancy rates............................................................21
Annex 3. Dosimetric data ..............................................................................................................................25
Annex 4. Estimates of concentrations of natural radionuclides..................................................................28
CD Appendix 3
List of Tables
Abbreviated Title Number ................................................ Page
Annex 1
Models – food chain data X1.1 ..........................................................19
Models – predicted concentrations X1.2 ..........................................................19
Air – assessment data 1 X1.3 ..........................................................20
Air – assessment data 2 X1.4 ..........................................................20
Sewer assessment data X1.5 ..........................................................20
Annex 2
Terrestrial habit data X2.1 ..........................................................21
Aquatic habit data X2.2 ..........................................................22
Annex 3
Dosimetric data X3.1 ..........................................................26
Annex 4
Naturals in seafood X4.1 ..........................................................28
Carbon-14 in terrestrial foods X4.2 ..........................................................28
List of Figures
Total dose method X1.1 ..........................................................13
4 CD Appendix
1. Introduction
This appendix contains a summary of the sampling,

measurement, presentation and assessment methods and
data used in producing the RIFE report. This information is
included as a separate file on the CD accompanying the
printed report. Accompanying this file on the CD is a further
set of files giving full details of each assessment of total dose
summed over all sources at each site.
Annexes are provided to this appendix giving further

information on:
• Modelling to extend or improve the results of monitoring

• Consumption, occupancy and other habit data
• Dosimetric data
• Estimates of concentrations of natural radionuclides
References in this appendix are given in the printed report.
Guidance on planning and implementing routine environmental

radiological monitoring programmes has been published
(Environment Agency, Food Standards Agency and Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, 2010).
CD Appendix 5
2. Methods of sampling, measurement and
presentation
This section explains the scope of the monitoring programmes • To provide information to assess the impact on non-
presented in this report and summarises the methods and data human species
used to measure and assess radioactivity in food and the • To enable indirect confirmation of compliance with
environment. The bulk of the programmes and assessment authorisations for disposal of radioactive wastes
methods and data have continued from 2009 unchanged. The • To determine whether undisclosed releases of radioactivity
main changes are: have occurred from sites
• To establish a baseline from which to judge the importance
Sampling and measurement of accidental releases of radioactivity should they occur
• To demonstrate compliance with OSPAR obligations
• Special sampling at nuclear sites - this was continued
where there were unusual short-term increases in Sampling is focused on nuclear sites licensed by the HSE
discharges and inadvertent releases under the Nuclear Installations Act, 1965 (United Kingdom -
Assessment and presentation Parliament, 1965) since these generally discharge more
radioactivity and have a greater impact on the environment.
• Total Dose - more emphasis has been placed on total The programmes also serve to provide information to assist
dose because it is a more definitive determination of dose the environment agencies to fulfil statutory duties under the
for comparison with dose limits. The assessment of source Radioactive Substances Act, 1993 (United Kingdom -
specific doses has continued as a check on the adequacy Parliament, 1993) and the Environmental Permitting (England
of the total dose assessment and to provide continuity with and Wales) Regulations, 2010 (United Kingdom – Parliament,
previous reports 2010a). Additional sampling is conducted in areas remote from
• New charts - are provided of discharge and concentration nuclear sites to establish the general safety of the food chain,
trends at various sites drinking water and the environment. Results from this sampling
• Site maps - maps of sites and sampling locations have been generate data that are used as background levels to compare
revised and updated with results from around nuclear sites and to show the
• New habits data - consumption and occupancy rates for variation in levels across the UK. Levels in the environment
critical groups have been updated with the benefit of recent can also be affected by disposals of radioactive waste from
habit survey results at Dungeness, Hinkley Point, Sellafield nuclear sites abroad and show the legacy of atmospheric
and Sizewell in England and Chapelcross and Rosyth in fallout from both past nuclear weapons testing and the
Scotland nuclear reactor accident in 1986 at Chernobyl in the Ukraine.
• Dredge spoil disposal - an assessment of the impact of
dredge spoil disposal from two sites in South-west England Various methods for undertaking sampling and analysis are
is provided available. The programmes are primarily directed at relatively
• Research related to the monitoring programmes has been widespread contamination where the likelihood of encounter
reviewed and relevant results have been presented in or consumption is certain. Where a source of potential exposure
Appendix 5 to particles of radioactivity is concerned, the likelihood of
encounter is an important factor. This is considered separately
2.1 Sampling programmes in the main report in site specific programmes targeted at
contamination from radioactive particles.
The primary purpose of the programmes is to check on levels
of radioactivity in food and the environment. The results are The programmes can be divided into three main sectors
used to demonstrate that the safety of people is not largely on the basis of the origin of radioactivity in the
compromised and that doses, as a result of discharges of environment:
radioactivity, are below the dose limit. The scope extends
throughout the UK and the Insular States (the Channel Islands 1. Nuclear sites discharging gaseous and liquid radioactive
and the Isle of Man) and is undertaken independently of the wastes
industries which discharge wastes to the environment. Samples 2. Industrial and landfill sites
of food, water and other materials are collected from the 3. Chernobyl and regional monitoring
environment and analysed in specialist laboratories. In situ
measurements of radiation dose rates and contamination are
also made and the results of the programme are assessed in
terms of limits and trends in this report. Subsidiary objectives
for the programmes are:
6 CD Appendix
2.1.1 Nuclear sites 2.1.2 Industrial and landfill sites
Nuclear sites are the prime focus of the programme as they Whilst the main focus of the programme is the nuclear
are responsible for the largest individual discharges of industry, a watching brief is kept on other activities, which
radioactive waste. Sampling and direct monitoring is conducted may have a radiological impact on people and the food chain.
close to each of the sites shown in Figure 1.3 of the main text. This part of the programme considers the impact of disposals
In the case of Sellafield, some radionuclides discharged in liquid of naturally-occurring and man-made radionuclides from
effluent can be detected in the marine environment in many non-nuclear industries and of disposal into landfill sites other
parts of north-European waters and so the programme for than at Dounreay (which is considered separately in Section
this site extends beyond national boundaries. 3.2 of the main report).
The frequency and type of measurement and the materials The impact of the non-nuclear industry was studied at one
sampled vary from site to site and are chosen to be main site, Whitehaven, in 2010. In addition, a small-scale
representative of existing exposure pathways. Knowledge of programme was undertaken near Hartlepool over and above
such pathways is gained from surveys of local peoples’ diets that directed at the effects of the power station itself. In each
and way of life. As a result the programme varies from site case the sampling and analysis was directed at materials
to site and from year to year. Detailed information on the scope potentially containing enhanced levels of naturally-occurring
of the programme at individual sites is given in the tables of radionuclides from non-nuclear industrial activity (i.e.
results. The routine programme is supplemented by additional Technologically enhanced Naturally-Occurring Radioactive
monitoring when necessary, for example, in response to Materials (TNORM)). There are also occasional specific
incidents or reports of unusual or high discharges of radioactivity programmes that consider, for example, the effects of
with the potential to get into the food chain or the discharges from non-nuclear sites such as hospitals.
environment. The results of both routine and additional
monitoring are included in this report. The distribution of landfill sites considered in 2010 is shown
in Figure 7.1 of the main text. They were studied to assess
The main aim of the programme is to monitor the environment the extent, if any, of the contamination leaching from the site
and diet of people who live or work near nuclear sites in order and re-entering the terrestrial environment in leachates
to estimate exposures for those small groups of people who collected in surface waters close to the sites. The most
are most at risk from disposals of radioactive waste. It is significant site is the engineered facility (LLWR) near Drigg, in
assumed that if the most exposed people have a dose below Cumbria.
the national and international legal limit then all others should
be at an even lower level of risk. For liquid wastes, the 2.1.3 Chernobyl fallout and regional
pathways that are the most relevant to discharges are the monitoring
ingestion of seafood and freshwater fish, drinking water and
external exposure from contaminated materials. For gaseous Monitoring of the effects of the 1986 Chernobyl accident was
wastes, the effects are due to the ingestion of terrestrial undertaken in relation to the continuing restrictions on the
foods, inhalation of airborne activity and external exposure movement, sale and slaughter of sheep in parts of Cumbria,
from material in the air and deposited on land. Inhalation of North Wales and Scotland. Monitoring of other foodstuffs is
airborne activity and external exposure from airborne material now at a much-reduced rate as levels have declined significantly
and surface deposition are difficult to assess by direct since the accident, but there remains a small-scale survey of
measurement but can be assessed using environmental models. radiocaesium in freshwater fish taken from a small number
The main thrust of the monitoring is therefore directed at a of upland lakes.
wide variety of foodstuffs and measurements of external
dose rates on the shores of seas, rivers and lakes. The The programme of regional monitoring considers the levels
programme also includes some key environmental indicators, of radionuclides in the environment in areas away from specific
in order that levels can be put in an historic context. sources as an indication of general contamination of the food
supply and the environment. The component parts of this
The European Commission undertakes a verification programme are:
programme of discharge and environmental monitoring
programmes in support of the objectives of Articles 35 and • Monitoring of the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man and
36 of the Euratom Treaty. The objectives are for Member Northern Ireland
States to have monitoring programmes to ensure compliance • Dietary surveys
with the Basic Safety Standards (Commission of the European • Sampling of milk, crops, and meat
Communities, 1996). The Commission undertakes periodic • Drinking water sources, rain and airborne particulates
inspections of operator and Government facilities in the UK • Seawater surveys
and has embarked on a project to investigate the need for
harmonisation of procedures across the Community (Hunt et In addition, special sampling exercises were undertaken in 2010
al., 2007). The UK Government is supporting the project and to investigate the effects of disposal of dredged spoil from
has provided information to the Commission regarding the Oldbury and to check concerns over the possible loss of
scope of UK programmes.
CD Appendix 7
radioactivity at sea due to a shipwreck near Newcastle-Upon- Specific foods, freshwater, rain and
Tyne. airborne particulates
Channel Islands, Isle of Man and Further background information on the relative concentrations
Northern Ireland of radionuclides is gained from the sampling and analysis of
foods, particularly milk, crops and meat. Freshwater, rain and
The programmes for the Insular States and Northern Ireland airborne particulates are also analysed to add to the
are designed to complement that for the rest of the UK and understanding of radionuclide intakes by the population via
to take account of the possibility of long-range transport of ingestion and inhalation and as general indicators of the
radionuclides. state of the environment.
Channel Islands monitoring is conducted on behalf of the Milk sampling took place at dairies throughout the UK in 2010.
Channel Island States. It consists of sampling and analysis of Samples were taken monthly and data are also supplied as
seafood, crops and indicator materials as a measure of the part of the UK submission to the EC under Article 36 of the
potential effects of UK and French disposals into the English Euratom Treaty to allow comparison with those from other
Channel and historic disposal of solid waste in the Hurd Deep. EU Member States (e.g. Joint Research Centre, 2009).
Monitoring on the Isle of Man for terrestrial foodstuffs is Other food sampling complements the regional dairy
conducted on behalf of the Department of Environment, programme described above. Crop samples were taken from
Food and Agriculture. Sampling is undertaken of a range of locations throughout the UK. The results are used to give an
foodstuffs that are analysed for Chernobyl, Sellafield and indication of background levels of radioactive contamination
Heysham related radionuclides. Monitoring of seafood is from naturally-occurring and man-made sources (nuclear
primarily directed at the effects of disposals from Sellafield. weapon tests and Chernobyl fallout) for comparison with
samples collected from around nuclear sites. In 2010, sampling
The Northern Ireland programme is directed at the far-field exercises were undertaken at ports because food consignments
effects of disposals of liquid radioactive wastes into the Irish had triggered the radiation screening equipment.
Sea. Dose rates are monitored on beaches and seafood and
indicator materials are collected from a range of coastal Freshwater used for the supply of drinking water was sampled
locations including marine loughs. throughout England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales
(Figure 8.2 of the main text). Regular measurements of
General diet radioactivity in air and rain water were also made. The UK
provides information from these programmes of work to the
The purpose of the general diet surveys is to provide information EC under Article 36 of the Euratom Treaty.
on radionuclides in the food supply to the whole population,
rather than to those in the vicinity of particular sources of Seawater surveys
contamination such as the nuclear industry. This programme
provides background information that is useful in interpreting Seawater surveys are conducted in the seas around the UK
site-related measurements and also helps ensure that all on behalf of Defra to provide information on radionuclide levels
significant sources of contamination form part of the site-related and fluxes in the coastal seas of northern Europe. Such
programme. As part of the Total Diet Study (TDS), representative information is used to support international studies of the
mixed diet samples are collected from towns throughout the health of the seas under the aegis of the OSPAR Conventions
UK (see Section 8 of the main report). Normal culinary (OSPAR, 2000b), to which the UK is a signatory and in support
techniques are used in preparing samples (e.g. removal of outer of research on the fate of radionuclides discharged to sea. These
leaves of leafy vegetables if necessary) and samples are surveys are mounted using government research vessels and
combined in amounts that reflect the relative importance of are supplemented by a programme of spot sampling of
each food in the average UK diet. Some samples are analysed seawater at coastal locations.
for a range of contaminants including radionuclides. Data are
also supplied as part of the UK submission to the EC under 2.2 Methods of measurement
Article 36 of the Euratom Treaty* to allow comparison with
those from other EU Member States (e.g. Joint Research There are two basic types of measurement made: (i) dose rates
Centre, 2009). They account for the ‘dense’ and ‘sparse’ are measured directly in the environment; and (ii) samples
networks for mixed diet (Commission of the European collected from the environment are analysed for their
Communities, 2000a) required by the EC. The EC compile data radionuclide content in a laboratory.
into a report of results from all Member States. At the time
of writing, the last report covered data for 2004 – 2006 (Joint
Research Centre, 2009).
*The treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was signed in Rome on 25th March 1957.
8 CD Appendix
2.2.1 Sample analysis made available to the UK environment agencies and the Food
Standards Agency for auditing. The methods of measurement
The analyses conducted on samples vary according to the include alpha and gamma-ray spectrometry, beta and Cerenkov
nature of the radionuclide under investigation. The types of scintillation counting and alpha and beta counting using
analysis can be broadly categorised into two groups: (i) proportional detectors.
gamma-ray spectrometry: and (ii) radiochemical methods.
The former is a cost-effective method of detecting a wide range Corrections are made for the radioactive decay of short-lived
of radionuclides commonly found in radioactive wastes and radionuclides between the time of sample collection and
is used for most samples. The latter comprise a range of measurement in the laboratory. This is particularly important
analyses involving chemical separation techniques to quantify for sulphur-35 and iodine-131. Where bulking of samples is
the alpha and beta emitting radionuclides under study. They undertaken, the date of collection of the bulked sample is
are sensitive but more labour intensive. They are, therefore, assumed to be in the middle of the bulking period. Otherwise
only used when there is clear expectation that information is the actual collection date for the sample is used. In a few cases
needed on specific radionuclides that are not detectable using where short-lived radionuclides are part of a radioactive decay
gamma-ray spectrometry (see 2.4 for discussion on limits of chain, the additional activity (‘in-growth’ and equilibrium
detection). status) produced as a result of radioactive decay of parent and
daughter radionuclides after sample collection is also
Several laboratories analysed samples in the programmes considered. Corrections to the activity present at the time of
described in this report. Their main responsibilities were as measurement are made to take this into account for the
follows: radionuclides protactinium-233 and thorium-234.
• Cefas Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture The analysis of foodstuffs is conducted on that part of the
Science, analysis of food related aquatic samples sampled material that is normally eaten, for example, the shells
in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Isle of Man of shellfish and the pods of some of the legumes are discarded
and the Channel Islands before analysis. Foodstuff samples are prepared in such a
way so as to minimise losses of activity during the analytical
• HPA H e a l t h P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y, g a m m a - r a y stage. Most shellfish samples are boiled soon after collection
spectrometry and radiochemistry of samples from to minimise losses from the digestive gland. Although some
Scotland, Total Diet and canteen meals from activity may be lost, these generally reflect the effects of the
England and Wales and freshwater for Northern normal cooking process for shellfish. Most other foodstuffs
Ireland are analysed raw, as it is conceivable that all of the activity in
the raw foodstuff could be consumed.
• LGC Laboratory of the Government Chemist, analysis
of drinking water in England and Wales 2.2.2 Measurement of dose rates and
contamination
• SL Scientifics Ltd, gamma-ray spectrometry and
radiochemistry of environment related samples in Measurements of gamma dose in air over intertidal and other
England and Wales areas are normally made at 1 m above the ground using Mini
Instruments* environmental radiation meters type 680 and
• VLA Veterinary Laboratories Agency, gamma-ray 690 with compensated Geiger-Muller tubes type MC-71. For
spectrometry and radiochemistry (excluding total certain key activities, for example for people living on
uranium analysis) of food related terrestrial samples houseboats or for wildfowlers lying on the ground,
in England, Wales, the Channel Islands and the Isle measurements at other distances from the ground may be
of Man made. External beta doses are measured on contact with the
source, for example fishing nets, using Berthold* LB 1210B
• WELL Winfrith Environmental Level Laboratory (Amec or Mini 900/EP 15* contamination monitors. These portable
N N C L t d ) g a m m a - r a y s p e c t ro m e t r y a n d instruments are calibrated against recognised reference
radiochemistry of air and rain samples in England, standards and the inherent instrument background is
Wales, Northern Ireland and the Shetland Islands subtracted. There are two quantities that can be presented
as measures of external gamma dose rate, total gamma dose
Each laboratory operates quality control procedures to the rate or terrestrial gamma dose rate. Total gamma dose rate
standards required by the environment agencies and the Food includes all sources external to the measuring instrument.
Standards Agency. In most cases, contractors are third-party Terrestrial gamma dose rate excludes cosmic sources of
assessed for their operating procedures, i.e. they are accredited radiation but includes all others. In this report we have
by an agency such as the UK Accreditation Service that certifies presented the total gamma dose rate. The HPA reports
they meet the requirements of the international standard ISO terrestrial gamma dose rates to SEPA. Terrestrial gamma dose
17025 (International Organisation for Standardisation, 2005). rate is converted to total gamma dose rate by the addition
Regular calibration of detectors is undertaken and of 0.037 µGy h-1 which is an approximation of the contribution
intercomparison exercises are held with participating made by cosmic radiation (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of
laboratories. The quality assurance procedures and data are Pollution, 1995).
CD Appendix 9
[Footnote to be added to final version: *The reference to kilometres in an environment of changing concentrations in
proprietary products in this report should not be construed seawater, sediments and lower tropic levels. The resulting level
as an official endorsement of those products, nor is any of contamination therefore represents an average over a large
criticism implied of similar products which have not been area. Similarly cows providing milk at a farm may feed on grass
mentioned]. and other fodder collected over a distance of a few kilometres
of the farm. In the case of dose rate measurements, the
Beta/gamma monitoring of contamination on beaches or position where the measurement is conducted is within a few
riverbanks is undertaken using similar instrumentation to that metres of other measurements made within a year. Each
for measurements of dose rates. In England and Wales, a Mini observation consists of the mean of a number of instrument
Instruments series 900 mini monitor with a beach monitoring readings at a given location.
probe is used. The aim is to cover a large area including
strand-lines where radioactive debris may become deposited. The numbers of farms that were sampled to provide
Any item found with activity levels in excess of the action levels information on activities in milk at nuclear sites are indicated
is removed for analysis. An action level of 100 counts per second in the tables of results. Milk samples collected weekly or
(equivalent to 0.01 mSv h-1) is used in England and Wales. At monthly are generally bulked to provide four quarterly samples
Dounreay, in Scotland, and at Sellafield, in Cumbria, special for analysis each year. For some radionuclides weekly, monthly
monitoring procedures are in place due to the potential or annual bulks are taken for analysis. Otherwise, the number
presence of radioactive particles on beaches. Further of sampling observations in the tables of concentrations refers
information regarding Dounreay and Sellafield is provided in to the number of samples that were prepared for analysis during
the main report. the year. In the case of small animals such as molluscs, one
sample may include several hundred individual animals.
2.3 Presentation of results
The number of sampling observations does not necessarily
The following tables of monitoring results contain summarised indicate the number of individual analyses conducted for a
values of observations obtained during the year under review. specific radionuclide. In particular, determinations by
The data are generally rounded to two significant figures. Values radiochemical methods are sometimes conducted less
near to the limits of detection will not have the precision implied frequently than those by gamma-ray spectrometry. However,
by using two significant figures. Observations at a given the results are often based on bulking of samples such that
location for radioactivity levels and dose rates may vary the resulting determination remains representative.
throughout the year. This variability may be due to changes
in rates of discharge, different environmental conditions and 2.4 Detection limits
uncertainties arising from the methods of sampling and
analysis. There are two main types of results presented in the tables
(i) positive values and (ii) values preceded by a ‘less than’ symbol
The method of presentation of the summarised results allows (“<”). Where the results are an average of more than one
the data to be interpreted in terms of public radiation exposures datum, and each datum is positive, the result is positive.
for comparison with agreed safety standards. Alternatively, where there is a mixture of data, or all data are
at the LoD or MRL, the result is preceded by a ‘less than’ symbol.
For milk samples, the most appropriate quantity for use in Gamma-ray spectrometry can provide a large number of ‘less
assessments is the arithmetic mean in the year sampled for than’ results. In order to minimise the presentation of redundant
the farm where the highest single concentration is observed. information for gamma-ray spectrometry, ‘less than’ values
This is labelled ‘max’ in the tables of results to distinguish it are only reported for one, or more, of the following reasons:
from the values that are averaged over a range of farms. For (i) the radionuclide is one which is in the relevant authorisation,
other terrestrial foods, an alternative approach is adopted since (ii) it has been analysed by radiochemistry, (iii) it has been
it is recognised that the possible storage of foods harvested reported as being a positive value in that table in the previous
during a particular time of the year has to be taken into 5 years, (iv) a positive result is detected in any other sample
account. Greater public exposures would be observed when presented in the table in the relevant year. Naturally occurring
foods are harvested at times when levels of contamination radionuclides measured by gamma-ray spectrometry are not
are high. For such foods, we have presented the maximum usually reported unless they are intended to establish whether
concentration observed of each radionuclide at any time in there is any enhancement above the expected background
the relevant year well as the mean value. The maximum is levels.
labelled ‘max’ in the tables and forms the basis for the
assessment of dose. Limits of detection are governed by various factors relating
to the measurement method used and these are described
Results are presented for each location or source of supply in earlier reports (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
where a sample is taken or a measurement is made. Sample 1995). There are also a few results quoted as ‘not detected’
collectors are instructed to obtain samples from the same (ND) by the methods used. This refers to the analysts’
location during the year. Spatial averaging is therefore not judgement that there is insufficient evidence to determine
generally undertaken though it is inherent in the nature of whether the radionuclide is present or absent.
some samples collected. A fish may move some tens of
10 CD Appendix
2.5 Additional information • Data for very short-lived radionuclides supported by longer-
lived parents
The main aim of this report is to present all the results of routine • Data which are not relevant to a site’s discharges for
monitoring from the programmes described previously. naturally-occurring radionuclides and for artificial
However, it is necessary to carry out some averaging for clarity radionuclides below detection limits
and to exclude some basic data that may be of use only to • Measurements conducted as part of the research
those with particular research interests. Full details of the programme described in Appendix 5 of the main report.
additional data are available from the environment agencies
and the Food Standards Agency. Provisional results of Very short-lived radionuclides such as yttrium-90,
concentrations of radionuclides in food samples collected in rhodium-103m, rhodium-106m, barium-137m and
the vicinity of nuclear sites in England and Wales are published protactinium-234m, which are formed by, decay of, respectively,
quarterly through the internet (www.food.gov.uk). strontium-90, ruthenium-103, ruthenium-106, caesium-137
and thorium-234 are taken into account when calculations
The main categories of additional data are: of exposure are made. They are not listed in the tables of results.
As a first approximation, their concentrations can be taken
• Data for individual samples prior to averaging to be the same as those of their respective parents.
• Uncertainties in measurements
CD Appendix 11
3. Assessment methods and data
3.1 Radiation protection standards (Commission of the European Communities, 1996) and a
draft Directive has been published (Commission of the European
The monitoring results in this report are interpreted in terms Communities, 2010). Changes in EU and UK radioprotection
of radiation exposures of the public, commonly termed ‘doses’. law and standards will be taken into account for future issues
This section describes the dose standards that apply in ensuring of this report.
protection of the public.
The relevant dose limits for members of the public are 1 mSv
Current UK practice relevant to the general public is based (millisievert) per year for whole-body (more formally ‘committed
on the recommendations of the ICRP as set out in ICRP effective’) dose and 50 mSv per year specifically for skin. The
Publication 60 (International Commission on Radiological latter limit exists to ensure that specific effects on skin due
Protection, 1991). The dose standards are embodied in national to external exposure are prevented. It is applicable, for example,
policy on radioactive waste (United Kingdom - Parliament, in the case of handling of fishing gear. The dose limits are for
1995b) and in guidance from the IAEA in their Basic Safety use in assessing the impact of direct radiations and controlled
Standards for Radiation Protection (International Atomic releases (authorised discharges) from radioactive sources.
Energy Agency, 1996). Legislative dose standards are contained These limits are appropriate for ‘certain’ exposure situations
in the Basic Safety Standards Directive 96/29/Euratom where the encounter with radioactivity is expected to occur.
(Commission of the European Communities, 1996) and In situations where this is not certain, ‘potential’ exposure routes
subsequently incorporated into UK law in the Ionising and standards are determined. These are discussed further by
Radiations Regulations 1999 (United Kingdom - Parliament, Dale et al. (2008) in relation to particles of radioactivity. Where
1999). In order to implement the Basic Safety Standards contamination due to particles is known in the UK, a site-
Directive, Ministers have provided the Environment Agency specific assessment is considered in the relevant section of the
and SEPA with Directions concerning radiation doses to the main report.
public and their methods of estimation and regulation for all
pathways (Department of the Environment, Transport and the The mean dose received by the ’representative person’ is
Regions, 2000 and Scottish Executive, 2000). In Northern compared with the dose limit. The term ‘representative person’
Ireland, regulations were made to implement the requirements refers to those who are most exposed to radiation. In this report
of the BSS Directive in the Radioactive Substances (Basic they are generally people who eat large quantities of locally
Safety Standards) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003 (Northern grown food (high-rate consumers) or who spend long periods
Ireland Assembly, 2003). The methods and data used in this of time in areas where radiation sources may exist. The limits
report are consistent with the Directions. apply to all age groups. Children may receive higher doses
than adults because of their physiology, anatomy and dietary
The ICRP issued revised recommendations for a system of habits. The embryo/foetus can also receive higher doses than
radiological protection in 2007 (International Commission on its mother. Consequently doses have been assessed for
Radiological Protection, 2007). The HPA have provided advice different age groups, i.e. adults, 10-year-old children, 1-year-
on the application of the ICRP 2007 recommendations to the old infants and prenatal children, and from this information
UK (Health Protection Agency, 2009). Overall, they consider it is possible to determine which of these age groups receives
that the new recommendations do not imply any major the highest doses.
changes to the system of protection applied in the UK. In
particular, limits for effective and skin doses remain unchanged. For drinking water, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has
Dose coefficients are also unchanged until such a time as new provided screening levels to compare with the results of
values are available and receive legislative endorsement. measurements of gross alpha and gross beta activity (World
Health Organisation, 2004). The screening levels are 0.5 and
International Commission on Radiological Protection (2007) 1.0 Bq l-1, respectively, and are based on consideration of the
use the term ‘representative person’ for assessing doses to dose that would result from radium-226 (alpha) and strontium-
members of the public. It is defined as ‘an individual receiving 90 (beta) intakes. These were chosen as representative of the
a dose that is representative of the more highly exposed most radiotoxic radionuclides likely to be present in significant
individuals in the population’. The new term is equivalent to quantities. The values represent concentrations below which
‘critical group’ which has been used in previous RIFE reports. water can be considered potable without any further
Where appropriate we have adopted the term ‘representative radiological examination. The Commission of the European
person’ in this report. The implications of the new ICRP Communities (CEC) has prepared a directive on the quality
recommendations in relation to the EU and UK radiation of water intended for human consumption, which includes
protection law and standards are being considered. For parameters for tritium (with a reference value of 100 Bq l-1)
example the EU is updating the Basic Safety Standards Directive
12 CD Appendix
and total indicative dose with a reference value of 0.1 mSv nuclear sites. It considers the effects of all sources, i.e.
per year (Commission of the European Communities, 1998). discharges of gaseous and liquid wastes and direct radiation
from sources on the site premises (Camplin et al., 2005). A
Accidental releases may be judged against EU and ICRP flow diagram of the method is given as Figure X1.1.
standards in emergency situations (Commission of the
European Communities, 1989 and International Commission The second type of assessment is focused on specific sources
on Radiological Protection, 2007). In addition, it is Government and their associated pathways. It serves as a check on the
policy that EU food intervention levels will be taken into adequacy of the total dose assessment and is also compatible
account when setting discharge limits. Guidelines for with the approach used prior to the introduction of total
radionuclides in foods following accidental radiological dose in 2004.
contamination for use in international trade has been published
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex Alimentarius Total dose assessments include direct radiation. The estimates
Commission, 2006). of direct radiation dose are provided by the HSE based on
information supplied by industry (Walker, 2011). Both types
The main focus of this report, and radiological regulation of assessment provide information on two other main
and monitoring more generally, is towards protection of man. pathways:
However, ICRP in its 2007 recommendations has concluded
that there is a need for a systematic approach for the • Ingestion of foodstuffs and
radiological assessment of non-human species to support • External exposure from contaminated materials in the
the management of radiation effects in the environment aquatic environment
(International Commission on Radiological Protection, 2007).
In its most recent publication concerning protection of the Monitoring data are also used to assess doses from pathways,
environment (International Commission on Radiological which are generally of lesser importance:
Protection, 2008), ICRP considers the use of a set of Reference
Animals and Plants (RAPs) for dose assessments. Whilst this • Drinking water
approach is being developed, no dose limits are proposed to • Inadvertent ingestion of water and sediments and
apply. The Habitats Directive (Commission of the European • Inhalation of resuspended soil and sediment
Communities, 1992) requires a 3-stage approach to the
assessment of the impact of radioactive discharges on sensitive In addition, models are used to supplement the monitoring
habitats. Details are provided in Section 1 of the main text of data in four situations:
this report.
• Atmospheric dispersion models are used for non-food
3.2 Assessment methods pathways where monitoring is not an effective method
of establishing concentrations or dose rates in the
Calculations of exposures to members of the public in this report environment.
are primarily based on the environmental monitoring data for • Food chain models provide additional data to fill gaps and
the year shown under study. The methods used have been to adjust for high-limits of detection and
assessed for conformity with the principles endorsed by the • Modelling of exposures of sewage workers is undertaken
UK National Dose Assessment Working Group (Allott, 2005), for discharges from Amersham and Cardiff
and were found to be compatible (Camplin and Jenkinson, • Modelling of exposures from the use of sewage sludge
2007). There are two types of dose assessment made. The first pellets at Cardiff
type gives an estimate of the total dose to people around the
Concentrations of
radionuclides in food
and environmental
Repeat this procedure dose rates
for all pathways
identified in the
habits survey
'Cut-off' method used

Doses to each profiled
to group individuals Habit profiles for the
Consumption and group calculated. The
whose consumption/ group determined by
occupancy data group with the highest
occupancy averaging the habit
from habits surveys dose near each site
is within a factor of rates of all individuals
becomes the critical
three of the maximum in the group
group
observed
Figure X1.1. Steps in the total dose methodology
CD Appendix 13
Full details are given in Annex 1. positive result is reported for that radionuclide in another sample
from the same sector of the environment at the site (aquatic
For pathways involving intakes of radionuclides, the data or terrestrial). Although this approach may produce an
required for assessment are: overestimation of dose, particularly at sites where levels are
low, it ensures that estimated exposures are unlikely to be
• Concentrations in foodstuffs, drinking water sources, understated.
sediments or air
• The amounts eaten, drunk or inhaled 3.4 Consumption, drinking and
• The dose coefficients that relate an intake of activity to a inhalation rates
dose
3.4.1 Source specific assessments
For external radiation pathways, the data required are:
In the assessment of the effects of disposals of liquid effluents,
• The dose rate from the source, for example a beach or the amounts of fish and shellfish consumed are determined
fishermen’s nets, and by site-specific dietary habit surveys. Data are collected
• The time spent near the source primarily by direct interviews with potential high-rate consumers
who are often found in fishing communities. Children are rarely
In both cases, the assessment estimates exposures from these found to eat large quantities of seafood and their resulting
pathways for people who are likely to be most exposed. doses are invariably less than those of adults. The calculations
presented in this report are therefore representative of adult
3.3 Concentrations of radionuclides seafood consumers or their unborn children if the foetal age
in foodstuffs, drinking water group is more restrictive.
sources, sediments and air
In assessments of terrestrial foodstuffs, the amounts of food
consumed are derived from national surveys of diet and are
In nearly all cases, the concentrations of radionuclides are defined for three ages: adults, 10-year-old children and 1-year-
determined by monitoring and are given in the main text of old infants (based on Byrom et al., 1995). Adult consumption
this report. The concentrations chosen for the assessment are rates are used in the assessment of foetal doses. For each food
intended to be representative of the intakes of the most type, consumption rates at the 97.5th percentile of consumers
exposed consumers in the population. All of the positively have been taken to represent the people who consume a
determined concentrations tabulated are included irrespective particular foodstuff at a high level (the ‘representative person’
of the origin of the radionuclide. In some cases, this means consumption rate).
that the calculated exposures could include contributions due
to disposals from other sites as well as from weapon test fallout Drinking and inhalation rates are general values for the
and activity deposited following the Chernobyl accident. population, adjusted according to the times spent in the
Where possible, corrections for background concentrations locations being studied.
of naturally-occurring radionuclides are made in the calculations
of dose (see Section 3.7). The consumption, drinking and inhalation rates are given in
Annex 2. Estimates of dose are based on the most up to date
For aquatic foodstuffs, drinking water sources, sediments information available at the time of writing the report. New
and air, the assessment is based on the mean concentration survey data were introduced at Derby, Wylfa and Amersham
near the site in question. For milk, the mean concentration and Sellafield in 2009. Where appropriate, the data from
at a nearby farm with the highest individual result is used in site-specific surveys are averaged over a period of 5 years
the dose assessment. This procedure accounts for the possibility following the recommendation of the report of the Consultative
that any farm close to a site can act as the sole source of supply Exercise on Dose Assessments (CEDA) (Food Standards Agency,
of milk to high-rate consumers. 2001a).
For other foodstuffs, the maximum concentrations are selected The assessment of terrestrial foodstuffs is based on two
for the assessment. This allows for the possibility of storage assumptions: (i) that the foodstuffs eaten by the most exposed
of food harvested at a particular time when the peak levels individuals are those that are sampled for the purposes of
in a year may have been present in the environment. monitoring; and (ii) that the consumption of such foodstuffs
is sustained wholly by local sources. The two food groups
The tables of concentrations include ‘less than’ values as well resulting in the highest dose are taken to be consumed at ‘high
as positive determinations. This is particularly evident for level’ consumption rates, while the remainder are consumed
gamma-ray spectrometry of terrestrial foodstuffs. Where a result at mean rates. The choice of two food groups at the higher
is presented as a ‘less than’ value, the dose assessment consumption rates is based on statistical analysis of national
methodology treats it as if it were a positive determination diet surveys. This shows that only a very small percentage of
as follows: (i) when that radionuclide is specified in the relevant the population were critical rate consumers in more than
authorisation (gaseous or liquid), (ii) when that radionuclide two food groups (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
was determined using radiochemical methods or (iii) when a 1996). Locally grown cereals are not considered in the
14 CD Appendix
assessment of exposures as it is considered highly unlikely that 3.6 External exposure
a significant proportion of cereals will be made into locally
consumed (as opposed to nationally consumed) foodstuffs, In the assessment of external exposure, there are two factors
notably bread. to consider: (i) the dose rate from the source and (ii) the time
spent near the source. In the case of external exposure to
3.4.2 Total dose assessments penetrating gamma radiation, uniform whole body exposure
has been assumed. The radiation as measured is in terms of
The total dose assessments are based on consumption and the primary quantity known as ‘air kerma rate’, a measure of
occupancy data collected from site specific surveys which are the energy released when the radiation passes through air.
targeted at those most likely to be exposed around the site. This has been converted into exposure using the factor 1
The habit profiles that give rise to the highest doses in the milligray = 0.85 millisievert (International Commission on
assessment of RIFE 2010 data are given in files on the CD Radiological Protection, 1996b). This factor applies to a
accompanying this report. Care should be taken in using rotational geometry with photon energies ranging from 50
these data in other circumstances because the profile leading keV to 2 MeV. This is appropriate for the instrument used whose
to the highest doses may change if the measured or forecast sensitivity is much reduced below 50 keV, and to the geometry
concentrations and dose rates change. of deposits of artificial radionuclides. Applying an isotropic
geometry gives a value of 0.70 Sv Gy-1 which would be more
3.5 Dose coefficients appropriate for natural background radiation. The choice of
0.85 will therefore tend to overestimate dose rates for the
Dose calculations for intakes of radionuclides by ingestion and situations considered in this report which include both artificial
inhalation are based on dose coefficients taken from ICRP and natural radiation.
Publication 72 (International Commission on Radiological
Protection, 1996a), ICRP Publication 88 (International For external exposure of skin, the measured quantity is
Commission on Radiological Protection, 2001) and National contamination in Bq cm-2. In this case, dose rate factors in Sv
Radiological Protection Board (2005). y-1 per Bq cm-2 are used, which are calculated for a depth in
tissue of 7 mg cm-2 (Kocher and Eckerman, 1987). The times
These coefficients (often referred to as ‘dose per unit intake’) spent near sources of external exposure are determined by
relate the committed dose received to the amount of site-specific habits surveys in a similar manner to consumption
radioactivity ingested or inhaled. The dose coefficients used rates of seafood. The occupancy and times spent handling
in this report are provided in Annex 3 for ease of reference. fishing gear are given in Annex 2.
Calculations are performed for four ages: adults, 10-year-old 3.7 Subtraction of ‘background
children, 1-year-old infants and prenatal children as appropriate levels’
to the pathways being considered. The prenatal age group
was introduced following the publication of recommendations When assessing internal exposures due to ingestion of
by the National Radiological Protection Board in 2005 (National carbon-14 and radionuclides in the uranium and thorium
Radiological Protection Board, 2005). We have assumed that decay series in seafood, concentrations due to natural
the ‘representative person’ is pregnant in order for the dose background levels are subtracted. Background carbon-14
assessment of the embryo and foetus to be valid. This concentrations in terrestrial foods are also subtracted. The
assumption is considered reasonable in the context of making estimates of background concentrations are given in Annex
comparisons with dose limits because it is difficult to 4. When assessing the man-made effect on external exposures
demonstrate otherwise. When applied in practice, the doses to gamma radiation, dose rates due to background levels are
estimated for the prenatal group are rarely larger than the values subtracted. On the basis of measurements made previously
for other age groups. as part of the programmes reported here, the gamma dose
rate backgrounds in the aquatic environment are taken to be
The dose assessments include the use of appropriate gut 0.05 µGy h-1 for sandy substrates, 0.07 µGy h-1 for mud and
uptake factors (proportion of radioactivity being absorbed from salt marsh and 0.06 µGy h-1 for other substrates. These data
the digestive tract). Where there is a choice of gut uptake are compatible with those presented by McKay et al. (1995).
factors for a radionuclide, we have generally chosen the one However, where it is difficult to distinguish the result of a dose
that gives the highest predicted exposure. In particular where rate measurement from natural background, the method of
results for total tritium are available, we have assumed that calculating exposures based on the concentrations of man-
the tritium content is wholly in an organic form. However, we made radionuclides in sediments is used (Hunt, 1984). Estimates
have also taken into account specific research work of relevance of external exposures to beta radiation include a component
to the foods considered in this report. This affects the due to naturally-occurring (and un-enhanced) sources because
assessments for tritium, polonium, plutonium and americium of the difficulty in distinguishing between naturally-occurring
radionuclides as discussed in Annex 3. and man-made contributions. Such estimates are therefore
conservative when compared with the relevant dose limit
that excludes natural sources of radiation.
CD Appendix 15
3.8 Uncertainties in dose assessment • Programme design
• Sampling and in situ measurement
Various methods are used to reduce the uncertainties in the • Laboratory analysis
process of dose estimation for critical groups from monitoring • Description of pathways to man
programmes. These address the following main areas of • Radiation dosimetry
concern: • Calculational and presentational error
Quantitative estimation of uncertainties in doses is beyond the

scope of this report.
16 CD Appendix
4. References
References for the CD supplement are given in Section 9 of

the main report.
CD Appendix 17
Annex 1. Modelling of concentrations of radionuclides
in foodstuffs, air and sewage systems
A1.1 Foodstuffs radionuclides in the plume itself and external doses from
radionuclides in the plume.
At Sellafield, the LLWR near Drigg, Ravenglass and the Isle of
Man, a simple food chain model has been used to provide Average annual concentrations of radionuclides in the air at
concentrations of activity in milk and livestock for selected nearest habitations were calculated using a Gaussian plume
radionuclides to supplement data obtained by direct model, PC CREAM (Mayall et al., 1997), and the reported
measurements. This is done where relatively high limits of discharges of radionuclides to air. Site-specific meteorological
detection exist or where no measurements were made. data were used in the assessments. The key modelling
assumptions (i.e. discharge height, habitations) are shown in
Activities in milk, meat and offal were calculated for Table X1.3.
technetium-99, ruthenium-106, cerium-144, promethium-147
and plutonium-241 using the equations: External radiation doses from radionuclides in the plume and
from deposited activity were calculated taking into account
Cm = FmCa Qf and occupancy indoors and outdoors and location factors to allow
Cf = Ff Ca Qf where for building shielding. During the time people are assumed
to be indoors, the standard assumption that the dose from
Cm is the concentration in milk (Bq l-1), gamma-emitting radionuclides in the plume will be reduced
Cf is the concentration in meat or offal (Bq kg-1 (fresh)), by 80 per cent (i.e. shielding factor of 0.2) has been made.
Fm is the fraction of the animal’s daily intake by ingestion Internal radiation doses from inhalation of discharged
transferred to milk (d l-1) radionuclides were assessed using breathing rates. Doses
Ff is the fraction of the animal’s daily intake by ingestion were initially assessed for three age groups: infants (1y),
transferred to meat or offal (d kg-1 (fresh)), children (10 y) and adults. All ages are assumed to have year-
Ca is the concentration in fodder (Bq kg-1 (dry)), round occupancy at the nearest habitation. The inhalation and
Qf is the amount of fodder eaten per day (kg (dry) d-1) occupancy rates assumed in this assessment are shown in Table
X1.4. The dose to the foetal age group was taken to be the
No direct account is taken of radionuclide decay or the intake same as that for an adult.
by the animal of soil associated activity. The concentration in
fodder is assumed to be the same as the maximum observed A1.3 Sewage systems
concentration in grass, or in the absence of such data, in leafy
green vegetables. The food chain data for the calculations are The radiochemical production facilities at Amersham and
given in Table X1.1 (Simmonds et al., 1995; Brenk et al., Cardiff discharge liquid radioactive waste to local sewers.
unpublished) and the estimated concentrations in milk, meat Wastes are processed at local sewage treatment works (STW).
and offal are presented in Table X1.2. The prolonged proximity to raw sewage and sludge experienced
by sewage treatment workers could lead to an increase in the
The Cardiff East Waste Water Treatment Works provides dried dose received, via a combination of external irradiation from
sludge pellets, containing elevated concentrations of tritium, the raw sewage and sludge and the inadvertent ingestion and
to farms for use as a soil conditioner. The transfer of tritium inhalation of resuspended radionuclides.
from treated soil into crops is a potential pathway of exposure.
An FSA-funded research project (Ham et al., 2007) estimated An assessment of the dose received by workers at the Maple
the aggregated transfer quotient, relating the concentration Lodge STW, near Amersham, and at the Cardiff East Waste
in the edible part of the crop to the amount of activity applied Water Treatment Works (WWTW) has been conducted using
to the soil, to be approximately 2 x 10-4. This assumed a the methodology and data given in Environment Agency
conservative application rate of 2 kg m-2. These values can (2006a,b). The flow rate through the sewage works are used
be used to perform an assessment of exposure from consuming to calculate a mean concentration in raw sewage and sludge
foodstuffs grown in soil conditioned with sludge pellets near of each nuclide discharged. These mean concentrations are
Cardiff. combined with habits data concerning the workers’ occupancy
near raw sewage and sludge, external and internal dosimetric
A1.2 Air data, and physical data such as inhalation rates to provide
estimates of dose. Workers are assumed to spend 75 per cent
For some sites, discharges to air can lead to significant doses. of a working year in proximity to the raw sewage, and the
Doses may arise from radionuclides transferred from the other 25 per cent in proximity to the sewage sludge. Where
plume to food crops and animal products, inhalation of liquid discharges are not nuclide-specific, a composition has
18 CD Appendix
been assumed based on advice from the operators and The model parameters and habits data used to assess the dose
concentrations calculated accordingly. to sewage treatment workers are given in Table X1.5, and the
amounts of radioactivity discharged from each site can be found
in Appendix 2 of the main report.
Table X1.1. Data for food chain model
Parameter Nuclide Food
Milk Beef Beef Sheep Sheep

offal offal
Qf 13 13 13 1.5 1.5
Fm or Ff 99Tc 10-2 10-2 4 10-2 10-1 4 10-1
106Ru 10-6 10-3 10-3 10-2 10-2
144Ce 2 10-5 10-3 2 10-1 10-2 2
147Pm 2 10-5 5 10-3 4 10-2 5 10-2 3 10-1
241Pu 10-6 10-4 2 10-2 4 10-4 3 10-2
Table X1.2. Predicted concentrations of radionuclides from food chain model used in assessments of
exposures
Foodstuff Location Radioactivity concentration (fresh weight), Bq kg-1
99Tc 106Ru 144Ce 241Pu
Milk Sellafield a 5.410-5 b 4.6 10-6

Ravenglass a a b a
LLWR near Drigg a 1.3 10-4 2.2 10-3 9.8 10-6
Isle of Man a 2.3 10-4 b 9.0 10-6
Beef Sellafield 2.0 10-2 5.4 10-2 b 4.6 10-4

Ravenglass 2.3 10-2 a b a
LLWR near Drigg 4.1 10-1 1.3 10-1 1.1 10-1 9.8 10-4
Isle of Man 3.6 10-2 2.3 10-1 b 9.0 10-4
Sheep Sellafield a 6.2 10-2 b 2.1 10-4

Ravenglass 2.6 10-2 a b a
LLWR near Drigg a 1.5 10-1 1.3 10-1 4.5 10-4
Isle of Man 4.2 10-2 2.6 10-1 b 4.2 10-4
Beef offal Sellafield a 5.4 10-2 b a

Ravenglass a a b a
LLWR near Drigg 1.7 100 1.3 10-1 2.2 101 2.0 10-1
Isle of Man 1.5 10-1 2.3 10-1 b 1.8 10-1
Sheep offal Sellafield a 6.2 10-2 b 1.6 10-2

Ravenglass a a b a
LLWR near Drigg a 1.5 10-1 a a
Isle of Man 1.7 10-1 2.6 10-1 b 3.1 10-2
a Positive result used, or LoD result used because modelling result greater than LoD
b No grass or Leafy Green Vegetable data available
CD Appendix 19
Table X1.3. Air concentrations modelling assumptions
Nuclear site Stack height, m Estimated site Estimated distance Frequency of Pasquill
diameter, km from stack to nearest stability catergory D
habitation, km
Aldermaston 15 2 0.3 60
Amersham 20 1 0.3 55
Berkeley 20 1.6 0.4 55
Bradwell 14 0.4 0.3 65
Burghfield 15 0.6 0.3 60
Capenhurst 15 1.1 0.3 65
Cardiff 20 0.4 0.4 60
Chapelcross 30 1.2 0.7 60
Derby 50 0.5 0.5 55
Devonport 15 1 0.3 65
Dounreay 15 1 1 75
Dungeness 17 1 0.3 70
Hartlepool 23 0.6 2 70
Harwell 20 1 0.2 55
Heysham 21 1 0.5 70
Hinkley 21 0.8 1 55
Hunterston 15 0.4 0.4 60
Oldbury 20 0.8 0.7 55
Sellafield 93 2 0.5 65
Sizewell 18 0.4 1 70
Springfields 27 1 0.3 70
Torness 72 0.5 0.6 70
Trawsfynydd 18 0.6 0.6 70
Winfrith 15 1.6 0.4 60
Wylfa 17 1 0.4 70
Table X1.4. Inhalation and occupancy data for dose assessment of

discharges to air
Age group, y Inhalation rates, m3 h-1 Fraction of time indoors

1 0.22 0.9
10 0.64 0.8
Adult 0.92 0.7
Table X1.5. Sewage workers dose assessment modelling assumptions and occupancy data
Flow rate, m3 d-1 Amersham (Maple Lodge STW) 1.5 105a

Cardiff (Cardiff East WWTW) 2.6 104b
Occupancy - sewage, h y-1 1380
Occupancy - sludge, h y-1 460c
Inadvertent ingestion rate, kg h-1 5 10-6d
Inhalation rate, m3 h-1 1.2d
Airborne concentration of sewage or sludge, kg m-3 1 10-7d
Density of raw sewage and treated sludge, kg l-1 1d
a Based on average flow rate of 1.8 m3s-1 (Jobling et al., 2006)
b Based on an average flow rate of 0.3 m3s-1, this has been derived as 5% of the maximum flow rate at the works (McTaggart, 2003)
c A working year is assumed to be 40 hours per week and 48 weeks per year
d Parameter values used in Environment Agency methodology (see text for reference)
20 CD Appendix
Annex 2. Consumption, inhalation, handling and
occupancy rates
This annex gives the consumption, handling and occupancy change in the factor used to determine the range of rates typical
rate data used in the source specific assessment of exposures of those most exposed. Previously, when using the ‘cut-off’
from terrestrial consumption and aquatic pathways. method to define those most exposed (Hunt et al., 1982;
Consumption rates for terrestrial foods are based on Byrom Preston, et al., 1974), a factor of 1.5 was used to describe
et al. (1995) and are given in Table X2.1. These are derived the ratio of the maximum to the minimum rate within the
from national statistics and are taken to apply at each site. group. From 2002, sites in England and Wales with new local
Site-specific data for aquatic pathways based on local surveys surveys were adjusted to adopt a factor of 3.0 to make the
are given in Table X2.2. The site-specific data has been selection process consistent with that used for consumption
supplemented with generic information from Environment pathways. From 2003, all sites in Scotland were adjusted. Data
Agency (2002a) and Smith and Jones (2003) where appropriate. used for routine assessments of external and inhalation
Occupancy over intertidal areas and rates of handling from pathways from gaseous discharges are given in Annex 1.
local surveys have been reassessed to take account of a
Table X2.1. Consumption rates for terrestrial foods
Food Group Consumption rates (kg y-1)

Average Above average consumption rate*
Adult 10 year old Infant Adult 10 year old Infant
Beef 15 15 3 45 30 10
Cereals 50 45 15 100 75 30
Eggs 8.5 6.5 5 25 20 15
Fruit 20 15 9 75 50 35
Game 6 4 0.8 15 7.5 2.1
Green vegetables 15 6 3.5 45 20 10
Honey 2.5 2 2 9.5 7.5 7.5
Legumes 20 8 3 50 25 10
Milk 95 110 130 240 240 320
Mushrooms 3 1.5 0.6 10 4.5 1.5
Nuts 3 1.5 1 10 7 2
Offal 5.5 3 1 20 10 5.5
Pig 15 8.5 1.5 40 25 5.5
Potatoes 50 45 10 120 85 35
Poultry 10 5.5 2 30 15 5.5
Root crops 10 6 5 40 20 15
Sheep 8 4 0.8 25 10 3
Wild fruit 7 3 1 25 10 2
* These rates are the 97.5th percentile of the distribution across all consumers
CD Appendix 21
Table X2.2 Consumption, inhalation, handling and occupancy rates for aquatic pathways
Site (Year of Last Survey) Groupa Rates

Aldermaston (2002) A 1 kg y-1 pike
320 h y-1 over riverbank
B 1.2 kg y-1 crayfish
Amersham (2009) 1 kg y-1 pike

Berkeley and Oldbury (2007) 14 kg y-1 eels and other fish

2.7 kg y-1 shrimps
900 h y-1 over mud, stones and saltmarsh
Bradwell (2007) 25 kg y-1 fish

1.1 kg y-1 crabs and lobsters
2.9 kg y-1 Pacific and European oysters
3100 h y-1 over mud
Capenhurst (2008) 10 year old children 500 h y-1 over sediment

5 10-3 kg y-1 sediment by inadvertent ingestion
20 l y-1 water by inadvertent ingestion
Cardiff A (2003) 24 kg y-1 fish

3.8 kg y-1 prawns and lobster
500 h y-1 over mud
B (NA) 500 h y-1 over bank of River Taff
2.5 10-3 kg y-1 sediment by inadvertent ingestion
34 l y-1 water by inadvertent ingestion
C (2003) 5.6 kg y-1 wildfowl
Channel Islands (1997) 62 kg y-1 fish

30 kg y-1 crabs, spider crabs and lobsters
30 kg y-1 scallops and whelks
1400 h y-1 over mud and sand
Chapelcross (2010) A 8.7 kg y-1 salmonids

31 kg y-1 wildfowl
720 h y-1 over mud and salt marsh
B 15 kg y-1 shrimps
C 390 h y-1 handling nets
610 h y-1 handling sediment
Culham (NA) 600 l y-1 water
Derby (2009) 600 l y-1 water

1 kg y-1 pike
Devonport (2004) A 32 kg y-1 fish

3.5 kg y-1 crabs, prawns and shrimps
1.7 kg y-1 scallops
980 h y-1 over sediment and shale
B 2000 h y-1 over mud
Dounreay (2008) A 1700 h y-1 handling fishing gear

B 18 kg y-1 fish
21 kg y-1 crab and lobster
2.1 kg y-1 winkles and mussels
470 h y-1 over sand
C 8 h y-1 in a Geo
LLWR near Drigg (NA) 35 l y-1 water
Drinking water (NA) Adults 600 l y-1

10 y 350 l y-1
1y 260 l y-1
Dungeness (2010) A 87 kg y-1 fish

11 kg y-1 crabs and shrimps
11 kg y-1 king scallops
B (Rye Harbour houseboats) 2000 h y-1 over mud
22 CD Appendix
Table X2.2 continued

Faslane (2006) 19 kg y-1 fish
0.17 kg y-1 mussels
570 h y-1 over stones
Hartlepool (2008) A 28 kg y-1 fish

5.8 kg y-1 winkles and whelks
600 h y-1 over sand
B 1200 h y-1 over sand and sea coal
Harwell (2007) 1.1 kg y-1 fish

1.1 kg y-1 crayfish
Heysham (2006) 25 kg y-1 fish

16 kg y-1 shrimps
4.5 kg y-1 cockles, whelks and mussels
1300 h y-1 over mud
Hinkley Point (2010) 14 kg y-1 fish

13 kg y-1 shrimps
0.8 kg y-1 whelks
1000 h y-1 over mud
Holy Loch (1989) 730 h y-1 over mud
Hunterston (2007) 47 kg y-1 fish

18 kg y-1 Nephrops and squat lobsters
21 kg y-1 king scallops
440 h y-1 over mud, sand or stones
Landfill (NA) 2.5 l y-1 water
Rosyth (2010) 17 kg y-1 fish

4.6 kg y-1 crabs and lobsters
5.8 kg y-1 winkles
Sellafield A (Sellafield fishing 40 kg y-1 cod (25%) and other fish (75%)
community) (2010) 22 kg y-1 crab (50%), lobster (30%) and
Nephrops (20%)
22 kg y-1 winkles (20%) and other molluscs (80%)
B (Fishermen's nets and 980 h y-1 handling nets and pots
pots) (2008)
C (Bait digging and 960 h y-1 handling sediment
mollusc collecting) (2008)
D (Whitehaven commercial) 40 kg y-1 plaice and cod
(1998) 9.7 kg y-1 Nephrops
15 kg y-1 whelks
E (Morecambe Bay) see Heysham
F (Fleetwood) (1995) 93 kg y-1 plaice and cod
29 kg y-1 shrimps
23 kg y-1 whelks
G (Dumfries and Galloway) 51 kg y-1 fish
(seafood) (2007) 15 kg y-1 Nephrops, crab and lobster
5.7 kg y-1 mussels and cockles
780 h y-1 over mud
H (Laverbread) (1972) 47 kg y-1 laverbread
I (Dumfries and Galloway 670 h y-1 over saltmarsh
(wildfowling) (2007) 22 kg y-1 wildfowl
J (Typical fish consumer) (NA) 15 kg y-1 cod and plaice
K (Isle of Man) (NA) 100 kg y-1 fish
20 kg y-1 crustaceans
20 kg y-1 molluscs
L (Northern Ireland) (2000) 99 kg y-1 haddock and other fish
34 kg y-1 Nephrops and crabs
7.7 kg y-1 mussels and other molluscs
CD Appendix 23
Table X2.2 continued

M (North Wales) (NA) 100 kg y-1 fish
20 kg y-1 crustaceans
20 kg y-1 molluscs
N (Sellafield fishing community 16 kg y-1 cod
2006-2010) (NA) 25 kg y-1 other fish
9.6 kg y-1 crabs
5.6 kg y-1 lobsters
3.9 kg y-1 Nephrops
18 kg y-1 winkles
15 kg y-1 other molluscs
O (Typical recreational use over beaches, 300 h y-1 over intertidal substrates
muddy areas or salt marsh) (NA)
P (Typical beach user e.g. tourist) (NA) 1 kg y-1 fish
0.2 kg y-1 crustaceans
0.2 kg y-1 molluscs
30 h y-1 over sand
Q (Ravenglass nature warden) 160 h y-1 over salt marsh
(2009) 520 h y-1 over mud and sand
2.7 10-3 kg y-1 mud by inadvertent ingestion
5.0 10-5 kg y-1 mud by resuspension and inhalation
Clyde (small users) (NA) 20 kg y-1 molluscs
Sizewell (2010) A 28 kg y-1 fish

4.2 kg y-1 whelks
280 h y-1 over sand
B (houseboats) 3000 hy-1 over mud
Springfields A (2006) 54 kg y-1 fish

21 kg y-1 shrimps
350 h y-1 over mud
B (2006) 690 h y-1 handling nets
C (Ribble Estuary houseboats) 3800 h y-1 over mud
(2006-2010) (NA)
D (10 year old children) (NA) 30 h y-1 over mud
3 10-4 kg y-1 mud by inadvertent ingestion
1.9 10-6 kg y-1 mud by resuspension and inhalation
E (Farmers) (2006) 750 h y-1 over salt marsh
Torness (2006) A 29 kg y-1 fish

7.8 kg y-1 winkles
470 h y-1 over sand
B 1100 h y-1 handling fishing gear
Trawsfynydd (2005) 1.3 kg y-1 brown trout

60 kg y-1 rainbow trout
450 h y-1 over lake shore
Upland lake (NA) 37 kg y-1 fish
Winfrith (2003) 40 kg y-1 fish

15 kg y-1 crabs and lobsters
14 kg y-1 scallops and whelks
300 h y-1 over sand and stones
Wylfa (2009) 29 kg y-1 fish

16 kg y-1 crabs, lobsters and prawns
6.9 kg y-1 mussels
a Where more than one group exists at a site the groups are denoted A, B etc. Year of habits survey is given where appropriate
NA Not appropriate
24 CD Appendix
Annex 3. Dosimetric data
The dose coefficients used in assessments in this report are Protection Board, 1990) to be used when data for the specific
provided in Table X3.1 for ease of reference. For adults and circumstances under consideration are not available. In this
postnatal children they are based on generic data contained report, when estimating doses to consumers of winkles from
in International Commission on Radiological Protection Cumbria, a gut uptake factor of 0.0002 is used for plutonium
Publication 72 (International Commission on Radiological and americium and this is consistent with HPA advice. For other
Protection, 1996a). Doses for prenatal children have been foods and for winkles outside Cumbria, the factor of 0.0005
obtained primarily from ICRP 88 (International Commission is used for these radioelements. This choice is supported by
on Radiological Protection, 2001) and National Radiological studies of cockle consumption (Hunt, 1998).
Protection Board (2005). For a few radionuclides where
prenatal dose coefficients are unavailable the relevant adult A3.3 Technetium-99
dose coefficient has been used.
Volunteer studies have been extended to consider the transfer
In the case of tritium, polonium, plutonium and americium of technetium-99 in lobsters across the human gut (Hunt et
radionuclides, dose coefficients have been adjusted according al., 2001). Although values of the gut uptake factor found in
to specific research work of relevance to assessments in this this study were lower than the ICRP value of 0.5, dose
report. coefficients are relatively insensitive to changes in the gut uptake
factor. This is because the effective dose is dominated by
A3.1 Polonium ‘first pass’ dose to the gut (Harrison and Phipps, 2001). In this
report, we have therefore retained use of the standard ICRP
The current ICRP advice is that a gut uptake factor of 0.5 is factor and dose coefficient for technetium-99.
appropriate for dietary intakes of polonium by adults
(International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1994). A3.4 Tritium
A study involving the consumption of crab meat containing
natural levels of polonium-210 has suggested that the factor In 2002, the HPA reviewed the use of dose coefficients for
could be as high as 0.8 (Hunt and Allington, 1993). More tritium associated with organic material (Harrison et al., 2002).
recently, similar experiments with mussels, cockles and crabs Subsequently HPA published a study of the uptake and
suggested a factor in the range 0.15 to 0.65, close to the ICRP retention of organically bound tritium in rats fed with fish from
value of 0.5 (Hunt and Rumney, 2004 , 2005 and 2007). Cardiff Bay (Hodgson et al., 2005). These experiments
Previous assessments have considered the effects of a factor suggested that the dose coefficient for OBT in fish from the
of 0.8 when considering monitoring results in RIFE. In view Severn Estuary near Cardiff should be 6.0 x 10-11 Sv Bq-1, higher
of the most recent review (Hunt and Rumney, 2007), a value than the standard ICRP value for OBT ingestion. The higher
of 0.5 has been adopted for all food, consistent with the ICRP value is used for adults in the assessment of seafood collected
advice. near the Cardiff site in this report, and the standard ICRP value
for other assessments. This approach is consistent with recent
A3.2 Plutonium and americium advice from the HPA, (Cooper, 2008) which takes account of
the conclusions reached by the HPA Independent Advisory
Studies using adult human volunteers have suggested a gut Group on Ionising Radiation concerning relative biological
uptake factor of 0.0002 is appropriate for the consumption effectiveness and radiation weighting (Health Protection
of plutonium and americium in winkles from near Sellafield Agency, 2007). More recent experimental evidence provided
(Hunt et al., 1986, 1990). For these and other actinides in food by Hunt et al. (2009) involving adult volunteers who ate
in general, the NRPB (now part of HPA) considers a factor of samples of sole from Cardiff Bay confirms that this approach
0.0005 to be a reasonable best estimate (National Radiological is indeed cautious.
CD Appendix 25
Table X3.1. Dosimetric data
Radionuclide Half Life Mean β energy Mean γ energy Dose per unit intake by ingestion using
(years) (MeV per (MeV per ICRP-60 methodology (Sv Bq-1)
disintegration) disintegration)
Adults 10 yr. 1 yr. Fetus
H-3 1.24E+01 5.68E-03 0.00E+00 1.8E-11 2.3E-11 4.8E-11 3.1E-11
H-3 (f) 4.2E-11 5.7E-11 1.2E-10 6.3E-11
H-3 (h) 6.0E-11 8.0E-11 2.0E-10 9.0E-11
C-14 5.73E+03 4.95E-02 0.00E+00 5.8E-10 8.0E-10 1.6E-09 8.0E-10
P-32 3.91E-02 6.95E-01 0.00E+00 2.4E-09 5.3E-09 1.9E-08 2.5E-08
S-35 (g) 2.39E-01 4.88E-02 0.00E+00 7.7E-10 1.6E-09 5.4E-09 1.6E-09
Ca-45 4.46E-01 7.72E-02 0.00E+00 7.1E-10 1.8E-09 4.9E-09 8.7E-09
Cr-51 7.59E-02 0.00E+00 3.20E-01 3.8E-11 7.8E-11 2.3E-10 3.8E-11
Mn-54 8.56E-01 4.22E-03 8.36E-01 7.1E-10 1.3E-09 3.1E-09 7.1E-10
Fe-55 2.70E+00 4.20E-03 1.69E-03 3.3E-10 1.1E-09 2.4E-09 8.1E-11
Co-57 7.42E-01 1.86E-02 1.25E-01 2.1E-10 5.8E-10 1.6E-09 1.1E-10
Co-58 1.94E-01 3.41E-02 9.98E-01 7.4E-10 1.7E-09 4.4E-09 5.8E-10
Co-60 5.27E+00 9.66E-02 2.50E+00 3.4E-09 1.1E-08 2.7E-08 1.9E-09
Zn-65 6.67E-01 6.87E-03 5.85E-01 3.9E-09 6.4E-09 1.6E-08 4.1E-09
Se-75 3.28E-01 1.45E-02 3.95E-01 2.6E-09 6.0E-09 1.3E-08 2.7E-09
Sr-90† 2.91E+01 1.13E+00 3.16E-03 3.1E-08 6.6E-08 9.3E-08 4.6E-08
Zr-95† 1.75E-01 1.61E-01 1.51E+00 1.5E-09 3.0E-09 8.8E-09 7.6E-10
Nb-95 9.62E-02 4.44E-02 7.66E-01 5.8E-10 1.1E-09 3.2E-09 3.7E-10
Tc-99 2.13E+05 1.01E-01 0.00E+00 6.4E-10 1.3E-09 4.8E-09 4.6E-10
Ru-103† 1.07E-01 7.48E-02 4.69E-01 7.3E-10 1.5E-09 4.6E-09 2.7E-10
Ru-106† 1.01E+00 1.42E+00 2.05E-01 7.0E-09 1.5E-08 4.9E-08 3.8E-10
Ag-110m† 6.84E-01 8.70E-02 2.74E+00 2.8E-09 5.2E-09 1.4E-08 2.1E-09
Sb-124 1.65E-01 1.94E-01 1.69E+00 2.5E-09 5.2E-09 1.6E-08 1.0E-09
Sb-125 2.77E+00 1.01E-01 4.31E-01 1.1E-09 2.1E-09 6.1E-09 4.7E-10
Te-125m 1.60E-01 1.09E-01 3.55E-02 8.7E-10 1.9E-09 6.3E-09 8.7E-10
I-125 1.65E-01 1.94E-02 4.21E-02 1.5E-08 3.1E-08 5.7E-08 9.1E-09
I-129 1.57E+07 6.38E-02 2.46E-02 1.1E-07 1.9E-07 2.2E-07 4.4E-08
I-131† 2.20E-02 1.94E-01 3.81E-01 2.2E-08 5.2E-08 1.8E-07 2.3E-08
Cs-134 2.06E+00 1.63E-01 1.55E+00 1.9E-08 1.4E-08 1.6E-08 8.7E-09
Cs-137† 3.00E+01 2.49E-01 5.65E-01 1.3E-08 1.0E-08 1.2E-08 5.7E-09
Ba-140† 3.49E-02 8.49E-01 2.50E+00 4.6E-09 1.0E-08 3.1E-08 3.5E-09
Ce-144† 7.78E-01 1.28E+00 5.28E-02 5.2E-09 1.1E-08 3.9E-08 3.1E-11
Pm-147 2.62E+00 6.20E-02 4.37E-06 2.6E-10 5.7E-10 1.9E-09 2.6E-10
Eu-154 8.80E+00 2.92E-01 1.24E+00 2.0E-09 4.1E-09 1.2E-08 2.0E-09
Eu-155 4.96E+00 6.34E-02 6.06E-02 3.2E-10 6.8E-10 2.2E-09 3.2E-10
Pb-210† 2.23E+01 4.28E-01 4.81E-03 6.9E-07 1.9E-06 3.6E-06 1.4E-07
Bi-210 1.37E-02 3.89E-01 0.00E+00 1.3E-09 2.9E-09 9.7E-09 6.6E-12
Po-210(c) 3.79E-01 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.2E-06 2.6E-06 8.8E-06 1.3E-07
Po-210(d) 1.9E-06 4.2E-06 1.4E-05 2.1E-07
Ra-226† 1.60E+03 9.56E-01 1.77E+00 2.8E-07 8.0E-07 9.6E-07 3.2E-07
Th-228† 1.91E+00 9.13E-01 1.57E+00 1.4E-07 4.3E-07 1.1E-06 2.4E-07
Th-230 7.70E+04 1.46E-02 1.55E-03 2.1E-07 2.4E-07 4.1E-07 8.6E-09
Th-232 1.41E+10 1.25E-02 1.33E-03 2.3E-07 2.9E-07 4.5E-07 9.4E-09
Th-234† 6.60E-02 8.82E-01 2.10E-02 3.4E-09 7.4E-09 2.5E-08 1.5E-11
U-234 2.44E+05 1.32E-02 1.73E-03 4.9E-08 7.4E-08 1.3E-07 1.5E-08
U-235† 7.04E+08 2.15E-01 1.82E-01 4.7E-08 7.1E-08 1.3E-07 1.4E-08
U-238† 4.47E+09 8.92E-01 2.24E-02 4.8E-08 7.5E-08 1.5E-07 1.3E-08
Np-237† 2.14E+06 2.67E-01 2.38E-01 1.1E-07 1.1E-07 2.1E-07 3.6E-09
Pu-238(a) 8.77E+01 1.06E-02 1.81E-03 2.3E-07 2.4E-07 4.0E-07 9.0E-09
Pu-238(b) 9.2E-08 9.6E-08 1.6E-07 3.6E-09
Pu-239(a) 2.41E+04 6.74E-03 8.07E-04 2.5E-07 2.7E-07 4.2E-07 9.5E-09
Pu-239(b) 1.0E-07 1.1E-07 1.7E-07 3.8E-09
Pu-α(e) 2.41E+04 6.74E-03 8.07E-04 2.5E-07 2.7E-07 4.2E-07 9.5E-09
Pu-240(a) 6.54E+03 1.06E-02 1.73E-03 2.5E-07 2.7E-07 4.2E-07 9.5E-09
Pu-240(b) 1.0E-07 1.1E-07 1.7E-07 3.8E-09
Pu-241(a) 1.44E+01 5.25E-03 2.55E-06 4.8E-09 5.1E-09 5.7E-09 1.1E-10
Pu-241(b) 1.9E-09 2.0E-09 2.3E-09 4.4E-11
Am-241(a) 4.32E+02 5.21E-02 3.25E-02 2.0E-07 2.2E-07 3.7E-07 2.7E-09
Am-241(b) 8.0E-08 8.8E-08 1.5E-07 1.1E-09
Cm-242 4.46E-01 9.59E-03 1.83E-03 1.2E-08 2.4E-08 7.6E-08 4.7E-10
Cm-243 2.85E+01 1.38E-01 1.35E-01 1.5E-07 1.6E-07 3.3E-07 1.5E-07
Cm-244 1.81E+01 8.59E-03 1.70E-03 1.2E-07 1.4E-07 2.9E-07 2.2E-09
26 CD Appendix
Table X3.1. continued
Radionuclide Dose per unit intake by inhalation using

ICRP-60 methodology (Sv Bq-1)
Adults 10 yr. 1 yr. Fetus

H-3 4.5E-11 8.2E-11 2.7E-10 2.6E-12
H-3(f) 4.1E-11 5.5E-11 1.1E-10 6.3E-11
C-14 2.0E-09 2.8E-09 6.6E-09 6.6E-11
P-32 3.4E-09 5.3E-09 1.5E-08 6.5E-09
S-35(g) 1.4E-09 2.0E-09 4.5E-09 1.5E-11
Ca-45 2.7E-09 3.9E-09 8.8E-09 1.7E-09
Cr-51 3.7E-11 6.6E-11 2.1E-10 3.7E-11
Mn-54 1.5E-09 2.4E-09 6.2E-09 1.5E-09
Fe-55 3.8E-10 6.2E-10 1.4E-09 6.6E-11
Co-57 5.5E-10 8.5E-10 2.2E-09 6.1E-11
Co-58 1.6E-09 2.4E-09 6.5E-09 2.5E-10
Co-60 1.0E-08 1.5E-08 3.4E-08 1.2E-09
Zn-65 1.6E-09 2.4E-09 6.5E-09 7.4E-10
Se-75 1.0E-09 2.5E-09 6.0E-09 1.1E-09
Sr-90† 3.8E-08 5.4E-08 1.2E-07 1.0E-08
Zr-95† 6.3E-09 9.0E-09 2.1E-08 4.6E-10
Nb-95 1.5E-09 2.2E-09 5.2E-09 1.6E-10
Tc-99 4.0E-09 5.7E-09 1.3E-08 8.3E-11
Ru-103† 2.4E-09 3.5E-09 8.4E-09 1.1E-10
Ru-106† 2.8E-08 4.1E-08 1.1E-07 4.1E-10
Ag-110m† 7.6E-09 1.2E-08 2.8E-08 1.5E-09
Sb-124 6.4E-09 9.6E-09 2.4E-08 4.4E-10
Sb-125 4.8E-09 6.8E-09 1.6E-08 2.6E-10
Te-125m 3.4E-09 4.8E-09 1.1E-08 3.4E-09
I-125 5.1E-09 1.1E-08 2.3E-08 3.1E-09
I-129 3.6E-08 6.7E-08 8.6E-08 1.5E-08
I-131† 7.4E-09 1.9E-08 7.2E-08 8.1E-09
Cs-134 6.6E-09 5.3E-09 7.3E-09 3.0E-09
Cs-137† 4.6E-09 3.7E-09 5.4E-09 2.0E-09
Ba-140† 6.2E-09 9.6E-09 2.6E-08 1.4E-09
Ce-144† 3.6E-08 5.5E-08 1.6E-07 4.2E-10
Pm-147 5.0E-09 7.0E-09 1.8E-08 5.0E-09
Eu-154 5.3E-08 6.5E-08 1.5E-07 5.3E-08
Eu-155 6.9E-09 9.2E-09 2.3E-08 6.9E-09
Pb-210† 1.2E-06 1.6E-06 4.0E-06 6.1E-08
Bi-210 9.3E-08 1.3E-07 3.0E-07 9.1E-12
Po-210 3.3E-06 4.6E-06 1.1E-05 1.9E-08
Ra-226† 3.5E-06 4.9E-06 1.1E-05 9.9E-08
Th-228† 4.3E-05 5.9E-05 1.4E-04 2.5E-07
Th-230 1.4E-05 1.6E-05 3.5E-05 2.6E-08
Th-232 2.5E-05 2.6E-05 5.0E-05 2.8E-08
Th-234† 7.7E-09 1.1E-08 3.1E-08 6.7E-12
U-234 3.5E-06 4.8E-06 1.1E-05 4.9E-08
U-235† 3.1E-06 4.3E-06 1.0E-05 4.5E-08
U-238† 2.9E-06 4.0E-06 9.4E-06 4.4E-08
Np-237† 2.3E-05 2.2E-05 4.0E-05 4.3E-07
Pu-238 4.6E-05 4.4E-05 7.4E-05 1.1E-06
Pu-239 5.0E-05 4.8E-05 7.7E-05 1.2E-06
Pu-α(e) 5.0E-05 4.8E-05 7.7E-05 1.2E-06
Pu-240 5.0E-05 4.8E-05 7.7E-05 1.2E-06
Pu-241 9.0E-07 8.3E-07 9.7E-07 1.4E-08
Am-241 4.2E-05 4.0E-05 6.9E-05 3.2E-07
Cm-242 5.2E-06 7.3E-06 1.8E-05 5.1E-08
Cm-243 3.1E-05 3.1E-05 6.1E-05 3.1E-05
Cm-244 2.7E-05 2.7E-05 5.7E-05 2.6E-07
† Energy and dose per unit intake data include the effects of radiations of short-lived daughter products
(a) Gut transfer factor 5.00E-4 for consumption of all foodstuffs except Cumbrian winkles
(b) Gut transfer factor 2.00E-4 for consumption of Cumbrian winkles
(c) Gut transfer factor 0.5
(d) Gut transfer factor 0.8
(e) Pu-239 data used
(f) Organically bound tritium
(g) Organically bound sulphur
(h) Organically bound tritium for seafood near the Cardiff site
CD Appendix 27
Annex 4. Estimates of concentrations of natural
radionuclides
A4.1 Aquatic foodstuffs A4.2 Terrestrial foodstuffs
Table X4.1 gives estimated values of concentrations of The values of carbon-14 in terrestrial foodstuffs due to natural
radionuclides due to natural sources in aquatic foodstuffs. The sources that are used in dose assessments are given in Table
values are based on sampling and analysis conducted by X4.2 (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1995).
Cefas (Young et al., 2002; 2003). Data for lead-210 and
polonium-210 are from a detailed study and are quoted as
medians with minimum and maximum values given in brackets.
Dose assessments for aquatic foodstuffs are based on activity
concentrations of these radionuclides net of natural
background.
Table X4.1. Concentrations of radionuclides in seafood due to natural sources
Radionuclide Concentration of radioactivity (Bq kg-1 (fresh))a
Fish Crustaceans Crabs Lobsters Molluscs Winkles Mussels Cockles Whelks Limpets
Carbon-14 23 27 23
Lead-210 0.042 0.02 0.24 0.080 1.2 1.5 1.6 0.94 0.39 1.5
(0.0030-0.55) (0.013-2.4) (0.043-0.76) (0.02-0.79) (0.18-6.8) (0.69-2.6) (0.68-6.8) (0.59-1.3) (0.18-0.61) (0.68-4.9)
Polonium-210 0.82 9.1 19 5.3 17 13 42 18 6.5 8.4
(0.18-4.4) (1.1-35) (4.1-35) (1.9-10) (1.2-69) (6.1-25) (19-69) (11-36) (1.2-11) (5.9-15)
Radium-226 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.08
Thorium-228 0.0054 0.0096 0.04 0.0096 0.37 0.46 0.37
Thorium-230 0.00081 0.0026 0.008 0.0026 0.19 0.26 0.19
Thorium-232 0.00097 0.0014 0.01 0.0014 0.28 0.33 0.28
Uranium-234 0.0045 0.040 0.055 0.040 0.99 0.99
Uranium-238 0.0039 0.035 0.046 0.035 0.89 0.89
a Values are quoted as medians with minimum and maximum values given in brackets
Table X4.2. Carbon-14 in terrestrial foodstuffs due to

natural sources
Food Category % Carbon content Concentration

(fresh) of carbon-14
(Bq kg-1 (fresh))
Milk 7 18
Beef meat 17 44
Sheep meat 21 54
Pig meat 21 54
Poultry 28 72
Game 15 38
Offal 12 31
Eggs 15 38
Green vegetables 3 8
Root vegetables 3 8
Legumes / other
domestic vegetables 8 20
Dry beans 20 51
Potato 9 23
Cereals 41 105
cultivated fruit 4 10
Wild fruit 4 10
Mushrooms 2 5
Honey 31 79
Nuts 58 148
28 CD Appendix

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ENVIRONMENT AGENCY

FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY

2. Methods of sampling, measurement and presentation ......................................................................6

3. Assessment methods and data ............................................................................................................12

Annex 2. Consumption, inhalation, handling and occupancy rates............................................................21

Annex 3. Dosimetric data ..............................................................................................................................25

Annex 4. Estimates of concentrations of natural radionuclides..................................................................28

Abbreviated Title Number ................................................ Page

Total dose method X1.1 ..........................................................13

This appendix contains a summary of the sampling,

Annexes are provided to this appendix giving further

• Modelling to extend or improve the results of monitoring

References in this appendix are given in the printed report.

Guidance on planning and implementing routine environmental

'Cut-off' method used

Figure X1.1. Steps in the total dose methodology

Quantitative estimation of uncertainties in doses is beyond the

References for the CD supplement are given in Section 9 of

Table X1.1. Data for food chain model

Parameter Nuclide Food

Milk Beef Beef Sheep Sheep

Foodstuff Location Radioactivity concentration (fresh weight), Bq kg-1

99Tc 106Ru 144Ce 241Pu

Milk Sellafield a 5.410-5 b 4.6 10-6

Beef Sellafield 2.0 10-2 5.4 10-2 b 4.6 10-4

Sheep Sellafield a 6.2 10-2 b 2.1 10-4

Beef offal Sellafield a 5.4 10-2 b a

Sheep offal Sellafield a 6.2 10-2 b 1.6 10-2

Table X1.4. Inhalation and occupancy data for dose assessment of

Age group, y Inhalation rates, m3 h-1 Fraction of time indoors

Flow rate, m3 d-1 Amersham (Maple Lodge STW) 1.5 105a

Table X2.1. Consumption rates for terrestrial foods

Food Group Consumption rates (kg y-1)

Site (Year of Last Survey) Groupa Rates

Amersham (2009) 1 kg y-1 pike

Berkeley and Oldbury (2007) 14 kg y-1 eels and other fish

Bradwell (2007) 25 kg y-1 fish

Capenhurst (2008) 10 year old children 500 h y-1 over sediment

Cardiff A (2003) 24 kg y-1 fish

Channel Islands (1997) 62 kg y-1 fish

Chapelcross (2010) A 8.7 kg y-1 salmonids

Culham (NA) 600 l y-1 water

Derby (2009) 600 l y-1 water

Devonport (2004) A 32 kg y-1 fish

Dounreay (2008) A 1700 h y-1 handling fishing gear

LLWR near Drigg (NA) 35 l y-1 water

Drinking water (NA) Adults 600 l y-1

Dungeness (2010) A 87 kg y-1 fish

Site (Year of Last Survey) Groupa Rates

Hartlepool (2008) A 28 kg y-1 fish

Harwell (2007) 1.1 kg y-1 fish

Heysham (2006) 25 kg y-1 fish

Hinkley Point (2010) 14 kg y-1 fish

Holy Loch (1989) 730 h y-1 over mud

Hunterston (2007) 47 kg y-1 fish

Landfill (NA) 2.5 l y-1 water

Rosyth (2010) 17 kg y-1 fish

Site (Year of Last Survey) Groupa Rates

Clyde (small users) (NA) 20 kg y-1 molluscs