Tire Fiber Material For Maximizing Waste

Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Advances in Civil Engineering

Volume 2011, Article ID 354305, 8 pages
doi:10.1155/2011/354305
Research Article
Cementitious Spray Dryer Ash-Tire Fiber Material for
Maximizing Waste Diversion
Charles E. Riley,1 Rebecca A. Atadero,2 John W. van de Lindt,3 and Paul R. Heyliger2
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Oregon Institute of Technology, 3201 Campus Drive, Klamath Falls, OR 97601, USA
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, Campus Delivery 1372, Fort Collins,
CO 80523-1372, USA
3 Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205, USA
Correspondence should be addressed to Rebecca A. Atadero, [email protected]
Received 31 December 2010; Accepted 17 May 2011
Academic Editor: Paola Bandini
Copyright © 2011 Charles E. Riley et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Spray dryer absorber (SDA) material, also known as spray dryer ash, is a byproduct of coal combustion and flue gas scrubbing
processes that has self-cementing properties similar to those of class C fly ash. SDA material does not usually meet the existing stan-
dards for use as a pozzolan in Portland cement concrete due to its characteristically high sulfur content, and thus unlike fly ash, it is
rarely put to beneficial use. This paper presents the results of a study with the objective of developing beneficial uses for SDA mate-
rial in building materials when combined with tire fiber reinforcement originating from a recycling process. Specifically, spray dryer
ash was investigated for use as the primary or even the sole binding component in a mortar or concrete. This study differs from
previous research in that it focuses on very high contents of spray dryer ash (80 to 100 percent) in a hardened product. The over-
arching objective is to divert products that are normally sent to landfills and provide benefit to society in beneficial applications.
1. Introduction Spray dryer ash is produced in far smaller quantities

than fly ash in the US. The American Coal Ash Association,
Portland cement concretes and mortars are used exten- ACCA, estimates 1.4 million tons for all dry flue gas desulfu-
sively in construction of buildings, bridges, and other in- rization products, of which spray dryer ash makes up a large
frastructure ranging from low-strength sidewalks to high- portion [3]. While nearly 42 percent of all fly ash produced
performance airport runways. Despite recent advances in in the United States (approximately 72 million tons annually
manufacture, Portland cement remains an energy-intensive [3]) is used beneficially, only about 25 percent of dry FGD
product that requires mining of raw materials as well as products was used in 2008 [3]. Furthermore, the Electric
significant energy input and processing. Incorporation of Power Research Institute (EPRI) [2] estimates much higher
coal fly ash into concrete mixtures is now widely accepted annual production rates for SDA material than does ACAA:
given its capacity to produce an equivalent or even improved between 3.3 and 3.8 million tons, with that number projected
hardened concrete product with less Portland cement and, to grow to 14 million tons by 2017 as more plants are
therefore, reduced raw materials extraction and carbon emis- required to reduce airborne sulfur emissions. Thus, the need
sions [1]. However, a substantial portion of fly ash produced for more beneficial applications of this material is critical.
each year goes unused, and a significant portion of the While fly ash use and performance in concrete has been
country’s ash material is deemed useless because it is involved well documented [1], the mechanical properties of hydrated
in the flue gas desulfurization process within the spray dryer SDA material have not been studied adequately, in part
absorbers utilized at many of the United States coal power due to concerns that the elevated sulfur levels will lead to
plants [2]. It is the material from this subset of plants, alter- sulfate attack in the hardened product [2]. A recent literature
natively called spray dryer absorber material, SDA material, review by EPRI [2] surveyed the current uses for SDA and
or spray dryer ash, that is the subject of this research. found applications ranging from agriculture to cementitious
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2 Advances in Civil Engineering
Table 1: Bulk chemical composition of rawhide power station SDA.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Content C ASTM C618 limit for ASTM C 618 limit for class
Compound
Content A (%) Content B (%) (%) Class C fly ash (2005) F fly ash (2005)
Sum between 50 % and
Silicon dioxide, SiO2 39.76 29.84 Sum greater than 70 %
70 %
Aluminum oxide,
14.31 14.24
Al2 O3
Iron oxide, Fe2 O3 5.56 5.82
SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 59.63 49.90 60.63
Calcium oxide, CaO 23.45 26.48
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 6.19 10.01 3.70 5% maximum 5% maximum
Magnesium oxide,
4.06 4.93
MgO
Sodium oxide, Na2 O 1.42 1.66
Titanium dioxide,
1.15 0.98
TiO2
Phosphorous
0.98 1.59
pentoxide, P2 O5
Barium oxide, BaO 0.61 0.68
Potassium oxide, K2 O 0.53 0.48
Strontium oxide, SrO 0.33 0.42
Manganese dioxide,
<0.01 0.02
MnO2
Moisture 1.86 1.04 1.33 3% maximum 3% maximum
Loss on ignition 1.65 2.85 1.64 6% maximum 6% maximum
A: sampled 4/3/2007 and tested by SGS North America, Inc., Denver, Colo, USA.
B: sampled 7/26/2007 and tested by Wyoming Analytical Laboratories, Inc., Golden, Colo, USA.
C: reported in Little, 2008 [10].
materials to wallboard; however, most of the applications with this presently underutilized industrial byproduct. They
noted in this paper were found in Europe where the also indicate the value of further study of SDA material
composition of SDA is different from that produced at the US sources and long-term material performance.
electric power plants. In European processes, the fly ash and
spray dryer product are collected separately. The fact that US
sources combine the fly ash and spray dryer product means
2. Materials and Specimens
not only that the resulting material is more variable, but also Two different types of materials were studied. The first
that the beneficial properties of the fly ash can be exploited. was a material comprised solely of spray dryer ash and
The project described here seeks to leverage the self- water, with some specimens also including recycled polymer
cementing nature of this material to create a cementitious fibers from used automobile tires (described in more detail
product with as little Portland cement as possible. Thus, the below). Second, mortar specimens manufactured with spray
emphasis of this work is not on achieving the highest possible dryer ash, sand conforming to ASTM C33 [4], varied
strength, but in diverting as much waste material as possible amounts of Portland cement, and recycled polymer fibers
into a useful product that maintains adequate properties. In were considered.
the present study, applications with lower strength require- Table 1 shows details of the chemical composition of
ments (e.g., nonstructural components) are targeted with three samples of the SDA material produced by the Rawhide
the cemented SDA combined with fibers collected during power plant in Northern Colorado. The quantities in Table 1
the automobile tire recycling process as reinforcement. The indicate the level of variability present in SDA material from
results indicate that good compressive and tensile strength is just a single source, thus underscoring a need for site-specific
possible. While these results are for a specific SDA material study to ensure the quality control of SDA material as an
source, they suggest that useful materials may be produced input. Of particular note is the very high lime content (over
Advances in Civil Engineering 3
Table 2: Mixture proportions.
Mixture number Cement type Cementa SDAa Sanda Watera Fibersb

1A — 0 100 0 40 0
1B — 0 100 0 35 0
1C — 0 100 0 30 0
1D — 0 100 0 25 0
1E — 0 100 0 25 0.5
1F — 0 100 0 25 1.0
1G — 0 100 0 25 2.0
2A — 0 100 100 40 0
2B III 5 95 100 40 0
2C III 10 90 100 40 0
2D III 15 85 100 40 0
2E III 20 80 100 40 0
2F I/II 5 95 100 40 0
2G I/II 10 90 100 40 0
2H I/II 15 84 100 40 0
2I I/II 20 80 100 40 0
2J I/II 10 90 100 40 1.0
2K I/II 10 90 100 40 1.5
2L I/II 10 90 100 40 2.0
a
These quantities are expressed as a percent by weight relative to the total weight of SDA and cement in the mixture.
b Expressed as a percent by weight of the total solids (SDA, cement and sand) in the mixture.
20 percent CaO), which contributes to the self-cementing paste. Sets 1E through 1G included varying percentages of
capacity of the material. The SO3 content, which is typically the recycled polymer fibers, in order to investigate their effect
slightly in excess of the 5 percent limit for fly ash used in on the hydrated ash pastes.
concrete as specified by ASTM C618 [5], is also notable. This The mortar mixtures had a constant water/cementitious
excess sulfur has prevented the application of the material materials ratio of 0.40 but had varying amounts of Portland
in concrete to date, but because the amount of excess is still cement and recycled polymer fibers in an effort to improve
quite modest, the material merits individual study. on the properties observed in the spray dryer ash pastes.
The polymer fibers used in this study were obtained Two types of Portland cement were used. Type I/II was
from an automobile tire recycling facility and represented used because it is very commonly available. Type III cement
a combination of polymers commonly used as tire rein- was also used because in the case of fly ash, there is
forcement such as nylon, polyester, and aramid with lengths usually a reduced rate of strength gain when mixtures
randomly distributed between approximately 2 mm and including fly ash are compared to mixtures with just Portland
30 mm. The steel wires present in most automotive tires were cement, and it was anticipated that the same situation
removed magnetically at early stages of the recycling process. might occur with spray dryer ash. Research by Bilodeau and
The polymer fibers were interspersed with rubber particles Malhotra [6] indicated the high early strength properties
varying from fine dust to larger pieces less than 5 mm in of Type III cement would bring the strength versus time
dimension as well as raw chopped fibers that were still twisted characteristics of the hydrated ash (Class F fly ash in the case
together in cords. These recycled fibers were chosen for their of Bilodeau and Malhotra) closer to those of conventional
compatibility with the theme of waste diversion and sustain- concrete. This is important for construction scheduling for
able construction, which is a prime motivator for developing structural applications and shipping/trucking scheduling for
a cementitious material with industrial byproducts. Because nonstructural construction materials such as siding or roof
of variability in fiber size and constitution, all fiber fractions tiles.
are by weight, as without the density it was not possible to The compressive strengths of the mixtures in Table 2 were
determine a volume fraction. However, given the range of investigated using 5.08-cm cubes following the dimensions
specific gravities of the potential reinforcing fibers, a volume suggested in ASTM C109 [7]. Mortar testing also included
fraction very nearly equal to the weight fraction is reasonable. flexural specimens: beams with approximate dimensions
The mixture proportions of the specimens are shown in 5.08 cm by 5.08 cm by 20.3 cm tested according to ASTM C78
Table 2. Mixtures numbered 1 are spray dryer ash pastes, [8] with a 15.2-cm clear span.
while those numbered 2 are spray dryer ash-based mortars. For both pastes and mortars, the constituent materials
Sets 1A through 1D were composed solely of spray dryer ash were mixed approximately according to ASTM C 305 [9] to
and water and were intended to study the effect of water- ensure uniformity of the mixtures, which was particularly
to-ash ratio on the compressive strength of the hardened important for the paste mixtures with a low water/ash ratio.
20
Compressive strength (MPa)
20

18 18
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2
2
0
7 14 56 7 14 56 7 14 56 7 14 56 0
7 14 56 7 14 56 7 14 56 7 14 56
(day) (day)
Set 1A Set 1B Set 1C Set 1D
Set 1D Set 1E Set 1F Set 1G
W/SDA = 0.4 W/SDA = 0.35 W/SDA = 0.3 W/SDA = 0.25
No fibers 0.5% fibers 1% fibers 2% fibers
Figure 1: Early compressive strength of hydrated spray dryer ash Figure 2: Early compressive strength of hydrated spray dryer ash
pastes. with fibers.
The sole deviation from ASTM C 305 was the mixing device. Table 3: Average 56-day compressive strength and modulus of
A mixing bit and hand drill were used in lieu of a planetary elasticity measured from cube specimens.
rotary mixer. Paste specimens were cured at approximately Average 56-day
80 percent humidity and between 26 and 32 degrees C (79– Average 56-day modulus
Set compressive strength
90 degrees F). This slightly elevated temperature was meant of elasticity (MPa)
(MPa)
to accelerate curing, as would be found at a manufacturing 1A 1.63 119.6
plant for a prefabricated building material. The mortar
1B 7.57 408.4
specimens were placed in a more traditional curing room
that maintained a relative humidity of approximately 90 1C 5.40 382.8
percent and a temperature of approximately 22 degrees C 1D 7.16 376.9
(72 degrees F). For both pastes and mortars, the specimens 1E 12.79 565.9
were placed in the curing environment directly after casting 1F 15.34 557.2
and were returned to the curing environment following 1G 9.28 395.5
removal of the molds after approximately one day. Paste tests
were conducted at seven-day intervals, with five cubes tested
from each mixture. For the mortars, three cubes were tested 1E, 1F, and 1G had increasing fiber fractions as shown in
at seven-day intervals up to 28 days, while three beams were Table 2. Based on the results shown in Figure 2, the fiber
tested at 14 and 28 days for each of the nine mixtures. reinforcement appears to be beneficial to the compressive
strength with an optimum fiber fraction around 1 percent.
3. Discussion Set 1E with 0.5 percent fibers (recall, by weight) shows a clear
increase in strength over Set 1D with no fibers. It appears
3.1. Hydrated Spray Dryer Ash Pastes. Recall that the objec- that the addition of more fibers (Set 1F with 1 percent and
tive of this study was to divert as much spray dryer ash Set 1G with 2 percent) has little impact on the strength,
as possible from landfilling. Thus, the first experiments or may even weaken the mixture slightly, perhaps due to
evaluated the potential of hydrated spray dryer ash alone greater difficulty in creating a uniform mix. The increase
in manufactured structural and nonstructural construction in strength may be attributed to the ability of the fibers
products. Early strength gain is an important item of to bridge cracks and act as reinforcement in a relatively
consideration for these materials because manufacturers of weak and brittle matrix material. The pictures shown in
commercial products require shipment as quickly as possible, Figure 3 are examples of the appearance of typical cubes with
often in as little as seven days. Figure 1 shows the results of 7, and without fibers after testing to failure. In general, cubes
14, and 56 day tests for Sets 1A through 1D. These sets were without fibers fractured into numerous pieces, while cubes
composed of spray dryer ash pastes with water/ash ratios with fibers showed cracking and deformation but maintained
ranging from 0.40 for Set 1A to 0.25 for Set 1D. Figure 1 their general shape even after the initial cracking and the
shows the average strength as well as the high and low values. associated significant reduction in capacity. The inclusion
Although the compressive strengths showed considerable of a small amount of fibers leads to a significant (20 to 70
variability, in general, there is an increase in compressive percent) increase in compressive strength, but this increase
strength that is inversely linear with water/ash ratio. appears to peak at fairly low fiber weight fractions.
Figure 2 shows the results for compressive strength for The ultimate compressive strength of hydrated spray
Sets 1D through 1G with high, low, and average strengths dryer ash will depend on the specific chemical composition
included. These sets all had a fixed water/ash ratio of 0.25 of the ash and the long-term curing conditions. However, it
and demonstrate the effect of inclusion of the polymer fibers is of interest to know approximate values for the compressive
derived from tire recycling. Set 1D had no fibers, while Sets strength for both neat and fiber-reinforced spray dryer ash.
Table 4: Compressive strength for different types of cement, testing ages and percents of cement added (MPa).
Type I cement (Sets 2F–2I) Type III cement (Sets 2B–2E)

Days 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 5% 10% 15% 20%
7 4.09 17.62 13.03 16.19 15.88 15.18 23.00 19.85 23.04
14 6.91 23.61 17.83 23.92 25.70 20.65 27.09 27.82 24.37
21 8.03 24.43 24.53 32.64 32.84 23.64 29.98 27.06 31.91
28 7.99 27.37 27.15 34.00 37.18 22.87 29.26 29.23 28.79
40
35

30
25
Type III
20
15
Type I/II
10
(a) 5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cement fraction (%)
Figure 4: Comparison of compressive strength at 7 days for

mixtures with type I/II and type III cement.
been absorbed into the cube. Based on these results, the

mortar mixtures were developed and tested to study potential
means of achieving enhanced properties while still utilizing
(b) large quantities of spray dryer ash.
Figure 3: Typical cube appearance after compressive testing
without (a) and with (b) polymer fibers. 3.2. Hydrated Spray Dryer Ash Sanded Mortars. Seeking
to improve the properties of the spray dryer ash pastes,
the researchers considered the addition of sand and small
Table 3 shows the average 56-day compressive strengths and amounts of Portland cement. To maximize spray dryer ash
moduli achieved. The modulus of elasticity was calculated usage, cement quantities of only five, ten, fifteen, and twenty
from the cube tests using a linear fit to initial portions percent were considered. This can be thought of as the
of the stress-strain curve, and the strain was calculated inverse of typical fly ash applications, where smaller amounts
from the test machine crosshead displacement data collected of fly ash are used as additives to traditional concrete
during the compressive strength tests. For the most part, the mixtures. As indicated earlier, both Type I/II and Type III
trends witnessed in the early strengths are continued at later cements were tested.
strengths: decreasing the water/ash ratio results in an increase Table 4 summarizes the results of testing at 7, 14, 21, and
in strength, and modest use of tire fiber (about 1 percent) 28 days for specimens with varied cement fraction. From
yields additional increase that declines with the addition of this table, it is immediately obvious that the addition of
more fibers. even five percent Portland cement (of either type) has a
The highest average strengths observed for the hydrated significant impact on the compressive strength. At 28 days,
spray dryer ash with and without fibers were 15.3 MPa and including five percent of Type I/II cement in the mixture
7.5 MPa, respectively. These strengths were achieved at an age increased the compressive strength over the mixture with
of 56 days and indicate that hydrated spray dryer ash alone just spray dryer ash binder by about 3.4 times, from 8.0 to
is not likely to be suitable for many structural engineering 27.4 MPa, and the Type III cement increased the compressive
uses. Aesthetically, the finished cubes had limited resistance strength by nearly 2.7 times, from 8.0 to 22.9 MPa. Figures
to scratching or abrasion and for high water ratios especially, 4 and 5 compare the effect of the different types of cement
seemed to have a chalky finish. The material was also at ages of 7 and 28 days, respectively. Figure 4 shows that
observed to readily absorb water. A cube dipped in water Type III cement outperformed Type I/II cement at the
appeared dry in less than one minute because the water had early age of 7 days, as would be expected from cement
Table 5: Modulus of elasticity for different types of cement, testing ages and percents of cement added (MPa).

Days 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 5% 10% 15% 20%
7 686 2022 1666 1965 1720 1609 2354 2193 2474
14 1080 2681 2176 2337 2099 1835 2720 3095 2743
21 1051 2773 2612 3208 3122 2513 2612 2643 2938
28 881 2850 3172 3360 2869 2428 2648 2911 2819
40 35
Type I/II
35 30

30
Type III 25
25
20
20
15 15
10 10
5
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 0
Cement fraction (%) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age at testing (days)
Figure 5: Comparison of compressive strength at 28 days for
mixtures with type I/II and type III cement. 0% fibers 1.5% fibers
1% fibers 2% fibers
Figure 6: Effect of increasing percentages of recycled polymer fiber

formulated to give high early strengths. However, Figure 5 on the compressive strength of a mortar with ten percent type I/II
shows that the long-term strength was generally higher cement.
with the addition of Type I/II cement. These figures also
show that the increase in strength with the addition of
Table 6: Modulus of elasticity for different percentages of fibers for
cement is not a linear relationship, as only comparatively
a mortar made with 10% type I/II cement (MPa).
modest strength gains occur as the percentage of cement is
increased from five to twenty percent. Inherent variability % Fibers
in constituent materials and questionable homogeneity of Days 0.0% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
the mixed materials contribute to some variability in the 7 1666 2034 1724 1839
compressive strength results. However, the coefficients of
14 2176 2468 2804 2237
variation for the three-specimen sets were generally within 10
21 2612 2969 2596 2815
percent and rarely exceeded 15 percent. In all cases, dramatic
compressive strength gains came with very modest (between 28 3172 2697 2739 2861
5 and 10 percent) additions of cement.
The modulus of elasticity of the test specimens was
computed based on results from the compression testing. The effect of polymer fibers on the compressive strength
These results are shown in Table 5. Because cube specimens was also considered with the addition of cement. Mortars
were used and the strain was calculated from displacement were prepared with ten percent Type I/II cement and varying
of the loading platen, these stiffness results should be fiber contents. Figure 6 shows the results of different fiber
considered estimates. However, they can be used to observe contents on the compressive strength over the full testing
the relative effect resulting from the addition of Portland period. At early ages, it appears that the addition of some
cement. The addition of cement clearly increases the stiffness, fibers is helpful, but over time the strength benefit of the
with values of two to three times those for specimens made fibers is lost. Furthermore, there appears to be an optimal
with SDA material as the only binding agent. However, as fiber fraction around 1 percent. The mixtures with 1 percent
with the compressive strength results, there do not appear to fibers (by weight) are stronger than the mixtures with
be coherent trends in the data relating increased percentages 1.5 percent fibers at most ages, and both outperform the
of cement to further increases in stiffness. Essentially, the mixtures with 2 percent fibers. This result is consistent with
addition of Portland cement has a significant stiffening effect the SDA paste results where the addition of 1 percent fibers
without respect to the amount of cement. clearly improved the compressive strength, and 2 percent
Table 7: Modulus of rupture results for different types of cement, testing ages and percents of cement added (MPa).

Days 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 5% 10% 15% 20%
14 1.19 3.27 2.61 3.74 5.24 2.38 3.14 3.28 3.99
28 1.54 3.05 3.11 4.85 6.44 2.58 3.74 3.34 4.21
fiber addition had a detrimental effect. Results indicating 8

the effect of fiber addition on the modulus of elasticity are 7
shown in Table 6 and show that the addition of fibers to
a mixture already containing cement is of little benefit to 6
Type I/II
stiffness. There may be some mild advantage to fiber addition
MOR (MPa)
5
at early ages, but by 28 days the stiffness of specimens with
4
fibers was less than that of the specimens without fibers.
Given the mechanics of failure of a brittle material 3 Type III
in compression (shear failure along 45-degree planes and 2
splitting along the axis of loading), the addition of rein-
forcing fibers to a stiff and brittle matrix may not have a 1
significant impact on compressive strength or stiffness. Thus, 0
the strengthening observed in the SDA paste specimens is 0 5 10 15 20
likely the result of the weaker and less stiff matrix being Cement fraction (%)
reinforced by fibers that are relatively stiffer and thus able
Figure 7: Comparison of MOR at 28 days for mixtures with type
to reinforce the matrix prior to cracking. Once the matrix
I/II and type III cement.
itself is stronger and stiffer, as is the case in the mortars
with added cement, fibers can have a detrimental effect (due
perhaps to a loss in workability) until cracking has occurred, 4.5
and the fibers deform sufficiently to carry significant loads.
4
These results are consistent with the highly variable results
for fiber-reinforced concrete reported by other authors and 3.5
summarized by Johnston [11]. Qualitatively, the mortar 3
MOR (MPa)
cubes with fibers behaved similarly to the neat spray dryer

2.5
ash cubes (shown in Figure 3), remaining intact even after
losing their load-carrying capacity. 2
Flexural testing was conducted at 14 and 28 days for 1.5
mortar specimens with the addition of both cement and
fibers. Table 7 presents the moduli of rupture (MOR) from 1
these tests. The addition of cement appears to increase the 0.5
flexural strength, although not to the degree witnessed for 0
the compressive strength. The addition of 5 percent Type I/II 5 15 20 25 30
cement increased the MOR by a factor of 1.98 at 28 days, and Age at testing (days)
the addition of 5 percent Type III cement increased the MOR
by a factor of 1.68 at 28 days compared to the cement-free 0% fibers 1.5% fibers
mortar specimens. Figure 7 compares the effect of different 1% fibers 2% fibers
percentages of the two different types of cement on the MOR Figure 8: Effect of increasing percentages of recycled polymer fiber
achieved at 28 days. This plot shows that adding increasing on the MOR of a mortar with ten percent type I/II cement.
percentages of Type I/II cement continues to increase the
MOR; however, the continued addition of Type III cement
beyond 10 percent appears to offer little benefit. was not beneficial. The mixture with 1.5 percent fibers had
The addition of fibers to concrete typically provides an average MOR approximately equal to the mixture with
added capacity to the regions of the test specimen in tension, no fibers, and the mixture with 2 percent fibers actually
potentially increasing the overall flexural strength of the had a lower MOR than the mixture without fibers. Thus, an
specimen. Figure 8 shows the effect of different fiber contents optimal fiber content for both flexure and compression exists
on the flexural strength at both 14 and 28 days. The addition around 1 percent by weight for these particular materials.
of 1 percent fibers clearly improves the MOR compared to Overall, the mixtures tested with additions of both ce-
specimens without any fibers at all, with increases of between ment and tire fiber showed significant promise as a potential
10 and 30 percent. However, similar to the results observed engineering material. The strengths and stiffnesses showed
in compression, the addition of larger percentages of fibers significant improvement with as little as 5 percent addition
of Portland cement and approximately 1 percent of fibers. who worked on this project including Jeff Eulberg, Stephanie
Both Type I/II and Type III cements were found to be Thomas, Balaji Mahalingam, Fredrick Busch, and Karthik
effective, with Type III cement increasing early strengths, Rechan.
while Type I/II cement produced higher later strengths. In
terms of aesthetics and workability, the addition of the References
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additions of around 1 percent by weight, while greater fiber [10] J. Little, “Spray dryer ash finds a market,” Ash at Work, no. 1,
fractions had a limited or detrimental impact on strengths. pp. 10–11, 2008.
The fibers were very effective at preventing spalling and loss [11] C. D. Johnston, Fiber-Reinforced Cements and Concretes,
of material due to fracture and contributed to increased Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The
toughness and ductility. This attribute may be desirable for Netherlands, 2001.
certain applications.
This preliminary testing has been conducted on mortars,
and thus, testing of concretes with large aggregate is a
necessary next step. If structural applications are to be
pursued, these practical applications will also require testing
to ensure the durability of the product and its compatibility
with reinforcing bar from both a bonding and corrosion
perspective. The results of the study presented herein indicate
a high potential for useful application of this material
and provide justification for further studies focusing on
specific applications. Significant waste diversion through
beneficial use of spray dryer ash appears to be a viable
objective.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Colorado Com-
mission on Higher Education (CCHE) for support of this
research through contract no. 07 GAA 00018. The spray dyer
ash and recycled tire fibers were provided for this research
by the Platte River Power Authority and Jai Tire, respectively.
The authors also acknowledge the assistance of the students

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Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Civil Engineering

Correspondence should be addressed to Rebecca A. Atadero, [email protected]

Received 31 December 2010; Accepted 17 May 2011

Academic Editor: Paola Bandini

1. Introduction Spray dryer ash is produced in far smaller quantities

Table 1: Bulk chemical composition of rawhide power station SDA.

Table 2: Mixture proportions.

Mixture number Cement type Cementa SDAa Sanda Watera Fibersb

Compressive strength (MPa)

Type I cement (Sets 2F–2I) Type III cement (Sets 2B–2E)

Compressive strength (MPa)

Figure 4: Comparison of compressive strength at 7 days for

been absorbed into the cube. Based on these results, the

Type I cement (Sets 2F–2I) Type III cement (Sets 2B–2E)

Compressive strength (MPa)

Figure 6: Eﬀect of increasing percentages of recycled polymer fiber

Type I cement (Sets 2F–2I) Type III cement (Sets 2B–2E)

fiber addition had a detrimental eﬀect. Results indicating 8

cubes with fibers behaved similarly to the neat spray dryer

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