Ethics in Scientific Research

Research Ethics: What Are They?

 When some people think of ethics, they think of moralistic sermons and endless
philosophical debates. However, research ethics is a set of principles that assist
the community of researchers in deciding how to conduct ethical research. Within
the social and behavioral sciences, ethical concerns can be divided into three
areas:
 Relationship Between Society and Science
 The ethical issue in the relationship between society and science centers on the
influence of societal concerns and cultural values on scientific investigation.
 The federal government allocates millions of dollars annually for research, setting
priorities that guide the type of research conducted. Researchers often tailor their
proposals to align with these governmental priorities to increase their chances of
receiving funding.
 An example is AIDS research: before 1980, little federal funding was allocated to
it, but once AIDS became a national concern, substantial funds were directed
toward investigating its causes and possible cures.
 Corporate support for research has significantly increased over the past 30 years,
growing from less than $5 million annually to hundreds of millions.
 This corporate funding often comes with biases and restrictions, such as drug
companies focusing on developing variants of existing drugs to boost sales rather
than creating new drugs.
 Studies funded by drug companies are more likely to support the new drug
compared to studies funded by other sources, which can be influenced by the
company's profit motives.
 While corporate support can help advance research, it can also create conflicts of
interest, where a researcher’s decisions may be influenced by corporate interests
rather than scientific integrity. Such conflicts can undermine public trust in
science, leading to the inclusion of ethical standards, such as the APA Ethics Code
(Standard 3.06), which advises psychologists to avoid professional activities
where conflicts of interest exist.
 Professional Issues
 Research Misconduct:
 Defined by the U.S. Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) as
"fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism (FFP) in proposing, performing, or
reviewing research, or in reporting research results."
 Misconduct is antithetical to the search for truth in science and is considered the
most serious crime in the scientific profession.
 There has been an increase in reports of scientists forging or falsifying data,
manipulating results, or selectively reporting data.
 In the past 20 years, the federal government confirmed 200 cases of fraud,
though this may underrepresent the actual number.
 Fraudulent activity discredits the scientific profession and can destroy the career
of the individual involved.
 Broader Range of Unacceptable Practices:
 Includes overlooking the use of flawed data, failing to present contradicting data,
altering study design or results due to pressure from funding sources, and
bypassing minor human-participant requirements.
 These practices are less serious than FFP but are still of concern, as over a third
of U.S. scientists surveyed admitted to engaging in these practices in the past 3
years.
 Prevention and Deterrence:
 Emphasizes the development of an institutional culture where key faculty
members model ethical behavior and stress research integrity.
 Prevention strategies include working with the IRB to ensure ethical procedures
are followed, and the IRB conducting audits of research practices.
 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Science Foundation (NSF)
mandate training and oversight in the responsible and ethical conduct of
research for investigators, including undergraduates, graduate students, and
postdoctoral researchers.
 Starting January 25, 2010, NIH requires similar training for career development
awards, research education grants, and dissertation research grants.
 Many universities extend these training requirements to all investigators
conducting research with human participants, even if their research does not
receive NIH funding.

 Treatment of Research Participants:

 The treatment of research participants is the most crucial ethical issue for
scientists, particularly when conducting research with humans.
 Potential for Harm:
 Research involving human participants can cause significant physical and
psychological harm.
 An example is the U.S. government-sponsored radiation experiments (1944-
1974), where over 4,000 experiments were conducted on tens of thousands of
Americans to study the effects and potential medical benefits of radiation.
 Controversial Experiments:
 In some cases, cancer patients were told that radiation treatments might cure
their cancer, but documents revealed that many of these treatments were
conducted primarily to gather data on radiation's effects on humans.
 Other experiments involved patients with radiation-resistant cancer, where the
primary goal was data collection, not treatment, resulting in a 25% mortality rate.
 These experiments are considered unethical and should not have been
conducted.
 Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research:
 Psychological experiments may subject participants to humiliation, physical pain,
or embarrassment.
 Scientists must consider the ethics of conducting research, especially when the
possibility of harm cannot be entirely eliminated.
 Researchers often face the dilemma of whether to proceed with a study when
potential harm is unavoidable.
 Ethical dilemmas
 Research psychologists face dilemmas between their obligation to conduct
research and the potential harm to participants, such as stress, pain, aggression,
or deception.
 The ethical challenge is determining whether the potential gain in knowledge
outweighs the cost to participants.
 Primary consideration should be given to the welfare of participants, and
decisions should not be made solely by the researcher or their colleagues due to
potential bias.
 Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB):
 IRBs review research proposals involving human participants, particularly at
institutions receiving federal funds.
 The IRB ensures that research protocols are explained to participants, risks of
harm are reasonable, and informed consent is obtained.
 IRBs must have sufficient information about the research protocol to judge its
ethical acceptability, with the welfare of participants as the primary concern.
 Cost-Benefit Analysis in Research Approval:
 The IRB uses a cost-benefit analysis to evaluate studies, categorizing them into
areas based on the potential cost to participants and benefits of the research.
 Studies with high costs and low benefits (Area A) are not approved, while those
with low costs and high benefits (Area D) are easily approved.
 Studies in Areas B and C are more challenging to evaluate due to varying levels
of cost and benefit.
 Challenges in IRB Decision-Making:
 The composition of the IRB can influence decisions, with research-oriented
individuals more likely to approve studies than those in service-oriented or
applied contexts.
 Even with IRB approval, the ultimate ethical responsibility lies with the researcher
conducting the study.

Ethical Guidelines
 Researchers in psychology face the ethical dilemma of balancing the pursuit of
knowledge with the potential harm that research may cause to participants.
 The dilemma is resolved by adhering to ethical guidelines and standards that
prioritize the welfare of participants.
 Nuremberg Code:
 Developed after the Nazi scientists' inhumane experiments during World War II.
 Established 10 conditions for ethical research involving human participants.
 Two key conditions are voluntary informed consent and a valid research design
with the potential to yield valuable results.
 Post-Nuremberg Ethical Concerns:
 Despite the Nuremberg Code, unethical research continued in the medical and
psychological fields.
 Notable unethical experiments include the Tuskegee experiment, which
highlighted violations of human rights in medical research.
 Ethical Guidelines and Standards:
 The increase in awareness and concern for human rights led to the development
of guidelines such as the Belmont Report and the APA’s Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct.
 The APA Ethics Code includes five general principles:
o Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
o Fidelity and Responsibility
o Integrity
o Justice
o Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
 These principles aim to inspire psychologists to the highest level of ethical
behavior.
 Beneficence and nonmaleficence
 Beneficence: Acting for the benefit of others, striving to help clients, the field,
research, and society.
 Nonmaleficence: Doing no harm to others, avoiding actions that may cause harm.
 Psychologists have a responsibility to maximize good and minimize harm when
conflicts arise between their concerns and obligations.
 Application in Research:
 Researchers should design and conduct studies that minimize harm and
maximize benefits for participants.
 The costs and benefits of research are often uncertain, and psychologists must
strive to avoid or minimize harm when conflicts arise.
 Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB):
 Researchers must submit proposals to the IRB, detailing the elements of their
study.
 The IRB reviews these proposals to assess potential risks and benefits and
decides whether to approve or disapprove the study.
 Three Categories of IRB Review:
 Exempt Status:
 Applies to studies with no known risk to participants.
 Exempt studies do not require full IRB review.
 Studies involving prisoners or children typically cannot be exempt.
 Expedited Review:
 Applies to studies involving minimal risk, where the expected discomfort or harm
is no greater than daily life experiences.
 Expedited review is conducted by fewer IRB members.
 Includes research on existing data, recordings, or behavior with minimal risk.
 Full Board Review:
 Required for studies involving more than minimal risk, such as experimental
drugs or stressful psychological testing.
 Full board review involves all IRB members and is necessary for studies raising
significant ethical concerns.
 Key Considerations:
 The IRB's decisions are based on the potential risks and benefits, with a focus on
protecting participants. The final ethical responsibility remains with the
researcher, even after IRB approval.

 Fidelity and Responsibility

 Refers to how psychologists interact with others, focusing on developing trusting
relationships.
 Psychologists should be aware of their influence and be concerned with the needs
of others, including their research participants.
 Establishing trust with research participants is crucial, often through informed
consent.
 Informed consent involves clearly informing participants about what they are
getting into before they agree to take part in the study.
 Public mistrust of science and institutions has grown due to past unethical studies
(e.g., the Tuskegee study) and fraudulent activities (e.g., Enron, WorldCom).
 Trust in psychological research can be compromised by the use of deception,
which, while sometimes necessary for unbiased data, violates the trust
participants place in researchers.
 Trust is also violated if the confidentiality of participant information is not
maintained.
 Researchers must implement safeguards in their studies to address issues of
deception and confidentiality.
 These measures help maintain and maximize a trusting relationship with
research participants, despite the inherent challenges.
 Integrity
 Psychologists are committed to being honest, accurate, and truthful in all
professional activities, including teaching and research.
 Integrity involves conducting quality research and truthfully reporting the results,
which are essential for advancing understanding and contributing to the
knowledge base in psychology.
 Well-designed and executed studies produce valid information that enhances
psychological knowledge.
 Poorly designed studies result in questionable information, undermining the
pursuit of truth in science.
 Reporting research results truthfully is crucial for maintaining a valid knowledge
base.
 Integrity opposes the presentation of fraudulent results, emphasizing that faking
or altering scientific data is unacceptable in the scientific community.
 Justice
 The principle of justice asserts that everyone should have access to and benefit
from the contributions of psychology.
 Individuals should be treated fairly and have access to equal quality services.
 Achieving justice in research is challenging, particularly in ensuring that benefits
and burdens are fairly distributed.
 Justice raises questions about who should receive the benefits of research and
who should bear its burdens.
 In some studies, participants may not benefit and may even be harmed,
highlighting a lack of fairness in the distribution of benefits.
 Researchers face the difficult question of how to ensure that the benefits of a
study are fairly distributed among participants.
 Ideally, all participants should benefit equally, but the actual benefits of research
are often unknown until the study is completed.
 Respect for People’s Rights and dignity
 Psychologists must respect the worth and dignity of every individual, ensuring
their rights to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
 Special attention is required for vulnerable individuals whose decision-making
ability may be impaired.
 In research, respecting participants' rights and dignity involves obtaining their
informed consent.
 Informed consent means providing all necessary information about the study to
help participants make an informed decision about their participation.
 Denial of informed consent shows a lack of respect for the individual.
 Difficulties arise when participants have limited capacity to understand the
consent agreement, such as young children or individuals with mental disorders.
 In such cases, a proxy, like a parent or guardian, must provide informed consent
to ensure the participant's interests are protected and they are not placed at risk.
 In some situations where participation is deemed to involve no risk, informed
consent may not be required. However, determining whether there is truly "no
risk" can be challenging.

APA Ethical Standards for Research

 Any psychologist conducting research must ensure that the dignity and welfare of
the research participants are maintained and that the investigation is carried out
in accordance with federal and state regulations and with the standards set forth
by the American Psychological Association (APA).
 The code includes discussion of important topics such as institutional approval,
informed consent, deception, debriefing, humane care and use of animals,
plagiarism, and issues relevant for publication.

Ethical Issues to Consider When Conducting Research

 Institutional Approval:
 Most institutions with active research programs require that all human research
be reviewed by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).
 The requirement for IRB review of human research dates back to 1966, initiated
by the U.S. Surgeon General due to concerns about the design and conduct of
medical research.
 This policy initially applied to investigations funded by the Public Health Service,
including social and behavioral sciences, and by 1973, it was mandated for all
research receiving Public Health Service funds.
 As a result, most higher education institutions had to establish an IRB and file an
assurance policy with the Office for Protection from Research Risks (OPRR) of the
Department of Health and Human Services.
 This assurance policy outlines the responsibilities of the IRB within the institution
and becomes a legal document that must be complied with by both the
institution and researchers. Even though the original mandate applied only to
federally funded projects, most institutions extended IRB oversight to all research
involving human participants, including exempt categories.
 APA Ethical Standard 8.01:
 Specifies that when institutional approval is required, psychologists must:
 Provide accurate information about their research proposal.
 Receive approval from the IRB.
 Conduct research in accordance with the approved protocol.
 Informed Consent:
 Informed consent involves fully informing research participants about all aspects
of the study, including the purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and any
incentives.
 This allows participants to make an informed decision about whether to
participate, respecting their fundamental right to determine what is done to their
minds and bodies. The principle of informed consent aligns with the broader
ethical principle of "respect for people’s rights and dignity."
 Dispensing With Informed Consent:
 Although ideal, informed consent may sometimes be waived, particularly if
providing full information compromises the integrity of the data.
 The APA’s Ethics Code (Standard 8.05) allows for dispensing with informed
consent under specific conditions, such as when the research poses no risk of
distress or harm, or when permitted by law or regulations.
 Federal regulations also allow for waiving informed consent if the only link
between the participant and the research is the consent form, and the research
poses minimal risk.
 Informed Consent and Minors:
 Minors are considered legally incompetent to provide informed consent.
Therefore, consent must be obtained from a legally authorized person, typically a
parent or guardian.
 In addition to obtaining parental consent, minors should provide assent, which is
an age-appropriate agreement to participate after receiving a suitable
explanation of the study.
 The ability to provide assent depends on the cognitive development of the child,
with most children over age 9 generally capable of making a decision, and those
over age 14 making decisions comparable to adults.
 Active vs. Passive Consent:
 Active Consent: Involves participants or their guardians actively agreeing to
participate by verbally agreeing and signing a consent form.
 Passive Consent: Consent is presumed if a consent form is not returned, meaning
the parent or guardian only responds if they do not want their child to participate.
 Passive consent is controversial because it may include participants whose
guardians oppose their involvement but did not return the form. It is not fully
consistent with APA Ethics Code or federal regulations, except under special
circumstances.
 The APA recommends using active consent whenever possible, as it is the most
ethically sound method. Passive consent should only be considered when active
 consent would seriously compromise the study's integrity, and IRB approval is
required for its use.
 Ethical Considerations:
 Active consent is preferred and should be used whenever possible to ensure
ethical standards are met. Passive consent may be appropriate in specific
circumstances, but it must be handled carefully and with IRB approval to ensure
it aligns with ethical guidelines.
 Deception:
 Deception involves misleading or withholding information from research
participants, which conflicts with the principle of fully informing them and the
moral principle of trust.
 Despite this, deception is sometimes necessary for conducting well-designed
studies that advance understanding of behavior, and the APA Ethics Code allows
it under strict conditions.
 APA Guidelines on Deception:
 Deception is only permitted when no alternative methods are available, and the
study has the potential to produce significant knowledge.
 Deception must not be used in studies likely to cause harm or severe emotional
distress.
 Participants must be informed of the deception as early as feasible, typically
during debriefing.
 Types of Deception:
 Active Deception (Deception by Commission): Participants are deliberately
misled, such as by providing false information or involving confederates posing as
participants.
 Passive Deception (Deception by Omission): Certain information is withheld from
participants, such as not revealing all the details of an experiment.
 Impact of Deception on Participants:
 Studies have shown that most participants do not mind being deceived and do
not perceive harm from such experiments.
 Research indicates that deception does not negatively affect participants'
attitudes toward psychology or science. In fact, some studies suggest that
participants enjoy deception experiments more and find them more educational.
 However, the acceptability of deception varies, especially in studies involving
private behaviors or those with a high potential for harm.
 Ethical Considerations:
 Deception should not be used in research that investigates private or sensitive
behaviors or in procedures with significant potential to harm participants.
 The ethical acceptability of deception depends on the context of the study, and
special caution is needed when the research involves private behaviors or might
result in emotional distress.
 Debriefing:
 Debriefing is a post-experiment discussion where participants are informed about
the purpose and details of the study, including explanations for any deception
used.
 According to APA Ethics Code Standard 8.08, psychologists must debrief
participants as soon as possible after the study and take measures to minimize
any harm if the debriefing is delayed.
 Purpose and Benefits of Debriefing:
 Debriefing helps eliminate any harmful effects of deception and ensures
participants leave the study without negative feelings.
 Studies have shown that effective debriefing can alleviate distress caused by
deception, with participants often reporting positive experiences even after being
misled.
 Key Components of Effective Debriefing:
 Dehoaxing: Informing participants about any deception used in the study and
convincing them that the misleading information was not real.
 Desensitizing: Helping participants process any distressing information about
their behavior during the study, often by attributing their actions to situational
factors rather than personal traits.
 Effectiveness of Debriefing:
 Research indicates that well-conducted debriefing is effective in reducing stress
and negative feelings associated with deception.
 Proper debriefing can help participants understand that their behavior in the
study was not abnormal or extreme, aiding in the desensitization process.
 Caution in Debriefing:
 While effective debriefing is possible, it must be done properly to achieve its
intended effects. A poorly executed debriefing can have the opposite impact.
Some researchers, like Campbell, suggest that debriefing may not be necessary if
the experimental conditions fall within the participant's ordinary experiences,
though this is a debated point.
 Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation:
 APA Ethics Code Standard 3.08 states that psychologists should not exploit
individuals over whom they have authority, including students and
clients/patients.
 Concerns about coercion are common in research participant pools, particularly
in the relationship between professors and students.
 Offering extra credit for participation in research can create a perception of
coercion, where students may feel pressured to participate.
 Perceptions of Coercion:
 Studies, like Leak, show mixed perceptions among students regarding the
coerciveness of extra credit as an inducement for participation. However, many
students do not resent it and often find the research experience valuable.
 Freedom to Decline Participation:
 Participants must always feel free to decline or withdraw from research at any
time without penalty.
 While this principle is ethically necessary, it can influence research outcomes, as
shown in Gardner's study on environmental noise.
 Impact of Freedom to Withdraw:
 Gardner discovered that informing participants they could withdraw without
penalty eliminated the negative aftereffects of environmental noise, a result not
observed when this information was not provided.
 This finding suggests that ethical principles, like the freedom to withdraw, can
subtly affect study outcomes and should be considered when replicating
research.
 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy
 Privacy refers to an individual's control over how and when information about
them is shared or withheld from others.
 There are two aspects to privacy:
 The freedom to determine when and under what circumstances personal
information is shared.
 The right to decline receiving information they do not want.
 Anonymity:
 Anonymity involves keeping the identity of research participants unknown,
meaning that the researcher cannot connect the data to any specific individual.
 While anonymity is an effective way to protect privacy, removing identifiers may
not always be sufficient, as responses could still potentially reveal a participant's
identity.
 Confidentiality:
 Confidentiality refers to an agreement between the researcher and participant
that the information collected will be kept private and not disclosed to anyone
outside the research team.
 The APA Ethics Code requires that researchers keep participant information
confidential to protect their privacy.
 Challenges to Confidentiality:
 Confidentiality is promised as part of informed consent, but researchers must be
cautious about what they promise, as there are legal exceptions.
 Confidential information may be disclosed without consent to protect others from
harm, in cases of mandatory reporting (e.g., child or elder abuse), or when
required by state or federal laws.
 Research records can be subpoenaed by courts, though courts typically protect
the identity of participants promised confidentiality. Researchers can obtain a
"certificate of confidentiality" from the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services to provide immunity from revealing participant identities in legal
proceedings.
 Ensuring Privacy:
 Protecting the privacy of research participants can be complex and may involve
obstacles beyond the researcher's control.
 Researchers should carefully consider the nature of their study, the potential for
data to be involved in litigation, and implement prudent controls to safeguard
participant privacy.
 It is also crucial to inform participants of any limits to the researcher’s ability to
maintain confidentiality.

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

 The Internet has become a popular medium for conducting psychological
research due to its ability to access large, diverse populations quickly and cost-
effectively.
 Unlike traditional studies limited to university participant pools, Internet studies
can reach individuals worldwide.
 Ethical Issues in Internet Research:
 The use of the Internet in research introduces ethical challenges, particularly
related to informed consent, privacy, and debriefing.
 Although organizations like the American Association for the Advancement of
Science and the Association of Internet Research have discussed these issues,
firm guidelines have not yet been established.
 Advantages of Internet Research:
 The absence of a face-to-face environment in Internet research reduces the
likelihood of coercion, as participants do not experience the direct influence or
authority of the researcher.
 Participants have more autonomy, as they can easily choose not to participate by
simply ignoring or deleting the research invitation.
 Informed Consent and Privacy Concerns:
 Internet research raises unique concerns about obtaining informed consent,
ensuring participant privacy, and providing proper debriefing, especially given
the lack of direct interaction between researcher and participant.
 Addressing these concerns effectively is critical, though the lack of established
guidelines makes this challenging.
 Informed Consent and Internet Research
 Informed consent is crucial for ethical research as it acknowledges the autonomy
of participants.
 Obtaining informed consent is usually straightforward in traditional experiments
but presents challenges in Internet research.
 Challenges in Internet Research:
 When Informed Consent is Required: Determining whether informed consent is
needed depends on whether the behavior being studied is public or private.
 Data from clearly public domains, such as television, radio programs, or books,
may not require consent.
 However, there is debate about whether data from newsgroups, listservs, and
chat rooms are public or private, as participants may expect some degree of
privacy in these spaces.
 How to Obtain Informed Consent:
 Informed consent involves three key components: providing information,
ensuring comprehension, and obtaining voluntary agreement.
 Online consent forms can be used, where participants read the form and check a
box to indicate agreement. However, ensuring comprehension and answering
participant questions pose challenges since researchers may not be available
24/7.
 Suggested Solutions:
 FAQs: To address the issue of comprehension and questions, researchers can
include a section of frequently asked questions (FAQs) alongside the consent
form. This can help anticipate and answer potential concerns that participants
might have.
 Privacy and Internet Research
 Maintaining the privacy of research data is crucial for ethical studies, as breaches
of privacy or confidentiality can harm participants.
 This is particularly challenging in Internet research, where privacy can be
compromised during data transmission and storage.
 Risks to Privacy and Confidentiality:
 Data can be vulnerable to hacking, accidental sharing, or being sent to the wrong
address.
 Identifying information stored on Internet-connected servers is at higher risk of
being compromised.
 Enhancing Privacy in Internet Research:
 Data transmitted over the Internet can be encrypted to enhance privacy.
 If no identifying information is collected, the only potential link to a participant
might be their Internet protocol (IP) address, which identifies a machine, not an
individual.
 The risk of connecting an IP address to a specific participant is low unless the
participant is the sole user of that machine.
 Considerations for Researchers:
 Although most psychological data may not interest hackers, researchers must
still take precautions to protect privacy.
 It is essential for researchers to be aware of the risks and to implement
necessary measures to safeguard participant information when conducting
Internet-based studies.
 Debriefing and Internet Research
 Debriefing is essential for conducting an ethical study, especially if deception is
used or if the participant might feel uncomfortable during the research.
 Effective debriefing should be interactive, providing participants with a clear
explanation of the study’s purpose and procedures, and ensuring they are
dehoaxed (if deception was used) and desensitized.
 Challenges of Debriefing in Internet Research:
 The Internet presents unique challenges to effective debriefing, such as technical
issues (e.g., computer crashes, broken connections, power outages) that could
prevent the study from completing properly.
 Participants might also voluntarily terminate their participation due to boredom,
frustration, or irritation, which can complicate the debriefing process.
 Strategies for Ensuring Debriefing:
 Email Debriefing: Require participants to provide an email address so that a
debriefing statement can be sent to them if they leave the study prematurely.
 Leave-the-Study Button: Include a "leave the study" button on every page that
automatically redirects participants to a debriefing page if they choose to exit
early.
 Automated Debriefing Page: Program the experiment to automatically direct
participants to a debriefing page if the study is terminated before completion.

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

 After completing a study, researchers must ethically communicate the results,
typically through professional journals.
 The report should accurately describe how the research was conducted and what
was found, adhering to the moral principles of justice and fidelity, as well as
scientific integrity.
 Authorship:
 Authorship is important as it identifies who is responsible for the study and
contributes to decisions regarding professional opportunities (e.g., salary, hiring,
promotion, tenure).
 Authorship should be granted only to those who made substantial contributions
to the study's conceptualization, design, execution, analysis, or interpretation.
 The order of authorship typically reflects the extent of each individual's
contribution, with the most significant contributor listed first.
 Contributions of a technical nature, such as data collection or standard analysis,
do not warrant authorship but can be acknowledged in a footnote.
 Writing the Research Report:
 The primary ethical guideline is honesty and integrity—researchers should not
fabricate or falsify information and should report methodologies accurately to
allow replication and reasonable conclusions about the study's validity.
 Plagiarism:
 Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using someone else's work without giving
them credit, misleading the reader into believing it is your original work.
 Proper credit can be given by using quotation marks for direct quotes, indenting
longer quotes, and providing citations.
 When paraphrasing, even without direct quotes, the original source must be
credited.
 This principle also applies to the use of tables, figures, or any other material
taken from another source, including the Internet.