Chapter 1 Tests and

measurements
Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, C. O. (2014). Psychological testing,
principles and applications (6th edition). Harlow: Pearson Education
Tests and measurements
Psychological tests represent systematic applications of a few relatively
simple principles in an attempt to measure personal attributes
Psychological tests are used in education, industry and clinical practice.
Some universities screen out students applying for admission using
psychological tests
The tests are used to choose a course of treatment for patients
presenting with psychological problems
In the military, the tests are used to assign soldiers to tasks
In the workplace, tests are used for employee selection
Tests and measurements
• Psychological tests are used to measure intelligence, motivation,
cognitive ability, vocational preferences (career choice), spatial ability,
anxiety, form perception and many other uses.
• They are not completely accurate like most of the measuring
instruments but they represent the best, fairest, and most economical
method of obtaining necessary to make sensible decisions about
individuals.
• They are the most accurate technology available for making decisions
about individual behaviour.
Tests and measurements
• Psychological testing is highly controversial and this dates back to the
1920s.
• There are issues of test bias and test fairness.
• Many countries regulate psychological testing.
• In South Africa standardised tests have to be used
• The public has to be educated about test use and development.
• Tests and testing programmes have been challenged in the courts
• Psychological testing is a specialised and technical enterprise or
business.
Tests and measurements
• In the natural sciences, measurement is relatively straight forward
measuring aspects such as height, weight, or velocity.
• Creativity or intelligence cannot be measured by the same methods
as the behaviour of the individual is assessed.
• Behaviour does not reflect one psychological attribute but a rather a
variety of physical, psychological, and social forces.
• Psychological measurement is rarely as simple as or direct as physical
measurement.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Types of psychological tests:
Personality inventories, IQ tests, scholastic examinations, and
perceptual tests
A psychological test is a measurement instrument that has three
defining characteristics:
1. A psychological test is a sample of behaviour.
2. The sample is obtained under standardised conditions
3. There are established rules or scoring or for obtaining quantitative
(numeric) information from the behaviour sample.
Psychological tests
Behaviour sampling
Every psychological test requires the respondent to do something.
The subject`s behaviour is used to measure some specific attribute (eg
introversion) or to predict some specific outcome (eg success in a job
training programme).
A psychological test is not an exhaustive measurement of all possible
behaviours that could be used in measuring or defining a particular
attribute.
A psychological test only collects a systemic sample of behaviour
Psychological tests
The second implication of using behavioural samples to measure
psychological variables is that the quality of a test is largely determined by
the representativeness of this sample.
For example, one could construct a driving test in which each examinee was
required to drive the circuit of a race track. This test would certainly sample
some aspects of driving but would omit others.
The behaviour elicited by the test also must somehow be representative of
behaviours that would be observed outside the testing situation.
For example, if a scholastic aptitude test were administered in a burning
building, it is unlikely that students` responses to that test would tell us
much about the their scholastic aptitude.
Psychological tests
Standardisation
A psychological test is a sample of behaviour collected under standardised
conditions.
The Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT) which are administered to thousands
of high school learners provide a good example of standardisation.
The test supervisor reads detailed instructions to all examinees before
starting, and each portion of the test is carefully time.
In addition, the test manual includes exhaustive instructions dealing with the
appropriate seating patterns, lighting, provisions for interruptions and
emergencies and answers to common procedural questions.
Psychological tests
• The test manual is written in sufficient detail to ensure that the
conditions under which the SAT is given are substantially the same at
all test locations.
• The conditions under which a test is administered are certain to affect
the behaviour of the person or persons taking the test.
• A student is likely to do better on a test that is given in a regular
classroom environment than he or she would if the same test were
given in a hot, noisy auditorium.
• Standardisation of conditions under which a test is given is a
requirement in psychological testing.
Psychological tests
• The problems of standardisation of testing conditions are that it is not
possible to achieve the same degree of standardisation with all
psychological tests.
• Psychologists, personnel managers and clerks in some situations might
administer tests differently and not following the conditions or instructions
strictly.
• Some of the examiners could be threatening or surly.
• The same individually administered test given to an individual by two
different examiners is certain to elicit a somewhat different set of
behaviours
• Training of examiners in testing administration helps to achieve testing
standardisation.
Psychological tests
Scoring rules
The immediate aim of testing is to measure or to describe in a
quantitative way some attribute or set of attributes of the person
taking the test.
A psychological test should have rules or procedures for describing in
quantitative or numeric terms the respondent`s behaviour in response
to the test.
The rules should be similar so that different examiners will assign
scores that are at least similar if not identical
Psychological tests
• Most of mass-produced standardised tests are characterised by
objective scoring rules.
• A test is objective when two examiners applying the same set of
scoring rules will always arrive at the same score for the individual
they tested.
• Most psychological tests are subjective.
• Subjective scoring rules rely on the judgement of the examiner
• Human judgement is an integral part of the scoring of a test.
• Multiple choice tests are objective, there is no subjective judgement
of the marker
Psychological tests
• Unstructured tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test in which the
examinee describes their interpretation of an ambiguous abstract
figure are subjective.
• The same is true of essay tests, they are subjective
• Test scorers will differ in scoring the test
TYPES OF TESTS

Most psychological tests can be sorted into three general categories:

1. Tests in which the testee performs some specific task, such as
writing an essay, answering multiple choice items, or mentally
rotating images presented on a computer screen.
2. Tests that involve observations of the subject`s behaviour within a
particular context .
3. Self-report measures, in which the subject describes his or her
feelings, attitudes, beliefs, interests and the like.
TYPES OF TESTS
Tests of performance
The testee is asked to complete a task.
Cronbach describes this test as a ``test of maximal performance``.
A performance test assumes that the examinee knows what they
should do in response to the questions or tasks that make up the
performance test and that the individual being tested exerts maximum
effort to succeed.
Performance tests are designed to assess what a person can do under
the conditions represented by the testing situation.
TYPES OF TESTS
Standardised tests of general mental ability referred to as IQ tests are
performance tests.
Testees respond to hundreds of multiple-choice items and the test score is
determined by the number of items answered correctly.
Spatial ability or mechanical comprehension are performance tests.
Tests of more specific skills or proficiency such a biology test or a music test
is a performance test
Tests that ask testees to perform physical or psychomotor activity such as
psychomotor ability test in which a joystick is used to keep a cursor in
contact with a specific spot are performance tests.
Flight simulators or road test are performance tests.
TYPES OF TESTS
Behaviour observations
The psychologist observes the behaviour and responses of a respondent.
For example, salespeople are observed dealing with customers or the
observer could pretend to be a difficult customer in a way to observe how a
salesperson would handle the query and behave towards the customer
Observations are used in measuring a variety of attitudes such as social skills,
friendship formation, or job performance.
Systematic observation of behaviour in naturalistic settings are particularly
useful in assessing attributes such as social skills or adjustment.
A child can be observed in various settings interacting with peers in
structured and unstructured settings such as the classroom and playground.
TYPES OF TESTS
• The recording will include frequency, intensity, or direction of several
types of critical behaviours.
• Mental patients are observed and their behaviour is recorded after
taking specific treatments
TYPES OF TESTS
Self-reports
The examinee is asked to report or describe their feelings, attitudes,
beliefs, values, opinions, or physical or mental state.
This includes surveys, questionnaires, and polls
They provide valuable information about the respondent`s state of
mind.
The testee states their preferences or dislikes
TESTS AND DECISIONS
Origins of testing
Informal tests were used in ancient times to test people
Over 3000 years ago, the Chinese used written tests in filling civil
service posts and systematic testing of both physical and mental
prowess was employed by ancient Greeks

Some milestones in the development of tests are shown in the table

below
TESTS AND DECISIONS
Period Activity
1000 BC Testing in Chinese civil service
1850-1900 Civil service examinations in the United States
1900-1920 Development of individual and group tests of
cognitive ability, development of psychometric theory
1920-1940 Development of factor analysis, development of
projective tests and standardised personality
inventories
1940-1960 Development of vocational interest measures,
standardised measures of psychopathology
1960-1980 Development of item response theory,
neuropsychological testing
1980-Present Large-scale implementation of computerised adaptive
tests
TESTS AND DECISIONS
• Tests are developed for a specific purpose
• Binet and Simon developed the first general intelligence test to help the
Ministry of Public Instruction –France in assessing and classifying mentally
retarded students.
• Intelligence tests are not suitable for large-scale testing programmes
because they are administered on a one-to-one basis.
• Highly trained examiners administer them-only psychologists and
psychometrists administer them in South Africa.
• The USA army needed a large number of recruits during World War 1, the
group tests Army Alpha and Army Beta tests were developed to assess
general mental ability
TESTS AND DECISIONS
• Today, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery a standardised
group-administered test is used to test mental ability of army recruits
• Computerised adaptive tests tailor the test to the individual respondent or
testee.
• A personality test, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and
projective test such as Rorschach inkblot test were developed to assess
individuals` behaviour or make decisions about individuals based on test
scores
• Scholastic testing focuses on college/university admission to select large
groups of students –tests such as Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT), and
Graduate Record Examination (GRE) used to screen students in the US.
These are group tests
TESTS AND DECISIONS
Educational testing
Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SATs) are standardised tests that are used to
assess a large number of students seeking admission to university
Classroom tests and school admission tests developed by teachers are
not standardised.
Personnel testing
Ability tests and tests of specific skills are widely used in personnel
selection.
A high score on a written test is necessary to qualify for many jobs
TESTS AND DECISIONS
• Tests are used to assess training needs, to assess an individual worker`s
performance in training and to assess the success of training programmes.
• Tests are used for managerial development and career counselling
programmes.
• Interviews and managerial assessment tests are used in personnel
assessment
Clinical testing
Clinical psychologists use diagnostic tests projective and personality tests are
used.
Neuropsychological test batteries are used to detect brain damage.
TESTING ACTIVITIES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS
Psychologist (category) Activities
Clinical psychologist Assessment of psychopathology
Assessment of intelligence
Counselling psychologist Assessment of career interest
Assessment of skills
Assessment of social adjustment
Industrial/Organisational psychologist Assessment of managerial potential
Assessment of training needs
Assessment of cognitive and psychomotor ability
Educational Psychologist Assessment of ability and academic progress
Assessment of maturity and readiness for school
Assessment of handicapped children
Neuropsychologist Assessment of brain damage
Evaluation of Alzheimer`s syndrome patients
Research psychologist Conduct psychological research as a consultant
TESTING ACTIVITIES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS
• It should be noted that roles of the psychologists in South Africa are
defined by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA
scope of practice)
• The scope of practice overlaps, for example, all registered
psychologists administer intelligence tests in South Africa
• Psychometrists administer a number of tests but they are not allowed
to administer certain categories of tests
• All registered psychologists are required by the law and the profession
to have practising certificates that are renewed every year upon
paying annual fees
INFORMATION ABOUT TESTS
• The Mental Measurements Yearbook provide detailed information regarding
most of the tests currently available in English.
• In South Africa the HPCSA provides a test catalogue.
• Psychologists, counsellors and psychometrists are only required to use tests that
are listed in the catalogue.
• Psychologists should only work in their areas of competence-that is in their areas
of specialisation
• Use of tests not found in the catalogue is misconduct
• The information contained in the catalogue shows publisher, available forms,
price of the test, research articles that show reliability and validity of the test.
• The Buros Institute affiliated to the University of Nebraska produces the Mental
Measurements Yearbook and publishes reviews of published tests
STANDARDS FOR TESTING
• Psychological tests can be abused hence the use of tests is regulated
• In South Africa, the HPCSA regulates the use of tests
• In the US, the American Psychological Association (APA) develops
professional standards for testing
• Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct is a guide
used by psychologists in the US.
• In South Africa, the ethical guidelines are provided as law for health
professionals