ENGINEER - Vol. L, No. 01, pp.

[41 - 52], 2017

© The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Techno Economic Analysis of the Use of High

Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) Conductors in the
Sri Lanka’s Transmission System
H.B.D. Yasaranga, W.D.A.S. Wijayapala and K.T.M.U. Hemapala

Abstract: High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors are introduced with the intention of
mitigating some of the disadvantages of the conventional overhead conductors. When compared to
conventional conductors, HTLS conductors have better electrical and mechanical characteristics and
by using these conductors in overhead transmission lines, some of the complex issues related to power
transmissions could be resolved. However, most of the utilities are still in a quandary about using
these conductors in place of conventional overhead conductors which have provided a commendable
service to them over a period of a century or so. It is because of their lack of experience in using them
in the field as well as because of the novel appearance of the conductors. Almost the entire
transmission system in Sri Lanka comprises of overhead lines constructed using conventional
conductors, especially ACSR conductors. Utility engineers therefore do not have much knowledge on
HTLS conductors and also have very little experience in using them.

This paper discusses the possibility of adopting the HTLS conductor technology in the Sri Lanka’s
transmission system. The properties, behavior and special characteristics as well as the techno-
economic feasibility of using HTLS conductors instead of the conventional conductors are discussed in
depth. Lastly, the issues and challenges related to the application of HTLS conductors are discussed.

The results of this research will provide valuable information on the possibility of using HTLS
conductors in the Sri Lanka’s transmission system.

Keywords: HTLS conductors, Energy loss, Electromagnetic field, Knee point temperature,
Thermal expansion, Sag, Tension

1. Introduction proposed to be uprated, to cater to the

increasing electricity demand in the country.
Most of the overhead transmission lines in the
However, the conventional types of conductors
transmission system in Sri Lanka have been
cannot be used to increase the capacity of
developed using ACSR (Aluminium Conductor
existing lines mainly due to the mechanical
Steel Reinforced) conductors. There have been
limitations of towers. As existing towers have
however occasions when other types of
been designed for a particular type of
conductors such as AAAC (All Aluminium
conductor, conductors with higher cross
Alloy Conductors) have been used, especially
sections which have a higher capacity cannot be
in coastal areas where problems related to
strung on them without violating safety limits.
corrosion have to be mitigated. The ACSR
conductor is the best among the conventional To mitigate all these restrictions, conductor
types of conductors, mainly due to its manufacturers have come up with a new
robustness, low unit weight, flexibility and technology called HTLS, and the conductors
cost-effectiveness. made using this technology are said to be of
However, ACSR conductors have limitations.
Conventional ACSR conductors cannot be Eng. W.D.A.S. Wijayapala, PEng, CEng, FIE(Sri Lanka,
operated at high temperatures and their energy B.Sc.Eng (Moratuwa), MEng (Moratuwa), MIEEE, Senior
Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, University
loss during bulk power transmission is of Moratuwa. Email:[email protected]
significant. At the same time, with the increase
Eng.(Dr.)K.T.M.U. Hemapala, AMIE (Sri Lanka),
in the electricity demand in the country, the B.Sc.Eng(Moratuwa), PhD(Italy), MIE, Senior Lecturer,
capacity of most of the older transmission lines Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Moratuwa.
has become insufficient and the construction of Email:[email protected]
new lines has become more and more Eng. H.B.D. Yasaranga, CEng, MIE(Sri Lanka),
challenging due to constraints imposed by B.Sc.Eng(Moratuwa), MSc (Moratuwa), Electrical Engineer,
Transmission Design Unit, Ceylon Electricity Board.
ROW (Right of Way) requirements. Therefore, Email: [email protected]
many transmission lines in the system are being

41 ENGINEER
superior performance compared to the Right of Way (ROW) of most of the older lines
conventional conductors. Basically, they have has been disturbed by the public, for instance,
been designed to operate at elevated by constructing illegal buildings beneath the
temperatures which result in lower conductor lines.
sags and improved loss reduction. However, in
The increase in the thermal sag may violate the
Sri Lanka, utility engineers have very limited
electrical clearances and will require the
knowledge and experience in the use of HTLS
removal of such illegal constructions leading to
conductors.
complicated social issues.
Some of the most popular HTLS conductors
Therefore, conductors having higher thermal
available in the market are[1] as follows:
limits and lower thermal expansion will be
 G(Z)TACSR – Gap Type (Super) Thermal
required to overcome the limitations of the
Resistant Aluminium Alloy Conductor
conventional overhead conductors. Typically,
Steel reinforced
HTLS conductors could be operated at elevated
 ZTACIR – Thermal Resistant Aluminium
temperatures in the range of 150°C to 250°C,
Alloy Conductor Invar Reinforced
with reduced sag[2].
 ACCC – Aluminium Conductor Composite
Core With the reduction of the natural energy
 ACSS – Aluminium Conductor Steel sources and the high investments required for
Supported power generation, most of the utilities are
 ACCR – Aluminium Conductor Composite compelled to improve the efficiency of their
Reinforced existing electricity systems. HTLS conductors
have been formed in such a way that they have
2. Necessity of HTLS Conductors lower thermal resistance, thus improving the
efficiency of the transmissions.
More than 95% of the transmission lines in the
Sri Lankan grid have been developed using 3. Features of HTLS Conductors
conventional ACSR conductors. They cannot be
operated at temperatures above 90° C. 3.1 Higher Thermal Rating

Most of the proposed lines in the system that As discussed above, HTLS conductors can be
are to be uprated also have been constructed operated at elevated temperatures, and their
using ACSR conductors. Because of their current ratings will be higher than those of the
operating temperature limitations, they are similarly sized conventional conductors. Their
unable to tolerate additional current flows. current ratings can be found using IEEE 738-
Their operation beyond 90°C could cause their 2006 or IEC 61597 standards. This current rating
aluminium outer layers to lose their mechanical is measured using the heat balance equation[3]:
properties due to annealing.
√ …(1)
The second option would be to replace the
where RT-Unit resistance at a given temp. (Ω)
existing conductors with the same type of
PSol-Solar heat gain by the conductor (W)
conductors of a higher cross section. By doing PRad- Heat loss by radiation (W)
so, the current flow can be increased up to the PConv-Convection heat loss (W)
desired limit without exceeding the maximum
operable temperature. However, with the HTLS conductors are so manufactured that
introduction of larger conductors, the increased their AC resistance is lower than that of
forces that will acton the towers will violate the similarly sized (diameter) ACSR conductors at
safety factors of the towers. any given temperature. This is usually achieved
by altering the heat treatment of their
Therefore, conductors having mechanical aluminium outer layers and by increasing the
properties similar to those of ACSR conductors fill factor using trapezoidal outer strands.
capable of withstanding higher temperatures
will have to be used in the thermal uprating of Table 1 - Aluminium conductor outer layer
Max.
the existing lines. Type
%
Operating
IACS*
Tem. (°C)
When conductors are operated at elevated
Hard Drawn 1350-H19 61.2 90
temperatures, the thermal sag of the lines will Fully Annealed 1350-O 63 250
increase, violating the stipulated ground Thermal Resistant TAL 60 150
clearances. This may cause the violation of the Ultra-Thermal
ZTAL 58 200
Electro Magnetic Field (EMF) limits under the Resistant
Source: CTC conductor manual
power lines. It can also be observed that the

ENGINEER 42
*IACS (International Annealed Copper Standards) a value of layer is responsible for takingup the mechanical
100% refers to a conductivity of 5.8 x 107 Siemens per meter[4]
tension of the conductor.
Table 1 shows the heat treatment methods of
Usually during the initial stage, conductor
various types of outer layers made of
tension is shared between the outer and inner
aluminium and aluminium alloy that are used
cores. When the temperature of the conductor is
for bare overhead conductors. The outer layer
increased, the amount of tension taken up by
of ACSR conductors is made of hard drawn
each core will get changed as the two cores
aluminium and thus they cannot operate
have different expansion coefficients. Since
beyond 90°C.
steel has a lower thermal expansion coefficient,
However, HTLS conductors are made of other there will be more tension in the steel core and
types of aluminium alloys or by using alternate the aluminium outer layer will begin to
heat treatment methods and they can therefore compress.
withstand higher temperatures.
In ACSR conductors, the total tension cannot be
3.2 Lower Linear Thermal Expansion taken up by the steel core since the temperature
The conductor sag will depend on the linear cannot exceed a particular temperature.
expansion of the conductors. It is calculated However, HTLS conductors have been formed
using Equation (2). to enable the core material to take up the entire
tension beyond a certain temperature, which is
…(2) known as the KPT. Therefore, when finding the
tension of a HTLS conductor at a temperature
where D- Conductor Sag (m)
W - Unit weight of the conductor (N/m)
higher than the KPT, the state equation will
T- Conductor tension at any given have to be used twice, initially for the tension
temperature (N) shared between the outer and the inner layers
S- Span (m) when the temperature is between the initial
(minimum) temperature and the KPT and later
The conductor tension (T) at a given temperature
will depend on several factors. Usually, it is
for only the inner layer when the temperature
calculated using the State Equation given by; lies between the KPT and the final operating
temperature.
* + ...(3)
Modulus of Elasticity
where H2- Stress at given temperature (N/mm2)
H1- Initial Stress (N/mm2) The value of “E” in Equation (3) has to be
E- Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) selected depending on whether the temperature
A - Conductor Cross Section (mm2) is less than or more than the KPT.
mc1- Initial unit mass (kg/m)
mc2- Unit mass at given temp. (kg/m) …(4)
g- Gravitational Constant (ms-2)
α- Thermal Expansion coefficient (°C-1) where EAL- Elasticity of aluminium (GPa)
t1- Initial Temperature (°C) EST- Elasticity of steel (GPa)
t2- Operating temperature (°C) EAS- Elasticity of aluminium +steel (GPa)
S - Span Length (m) ATOTAL- Total cross sectional area (mm2)
AAL- Area of aluminium strands (mm2)
“T” can be calculated by multiplying the stress
AST- Area of steel strands (mm2)
by the conductor cross section. With the
increase in the temperature, the conductor Expansion Coefficient
tension will decrease. However, according to In Equation (3), “α” shall also be selected based
Equation (3), when the thermal expansion is on the temperature as the effective expansion
reduced, the reduction of the tension can also will depend on the amount of tension shared
be lowered and according to Equation (2) the between the core and the outer layer.
sag will then not increase. This phenomenon is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) …(5)
used in the HTLS conductors in a unique way.
3.3 Knee Point Temperature Where αAS -Conductor coefficient of thermal
Knee Point Temperature (KPT) is the expansion
temperature at which the conductor tension is αST - Steel coefficient of thermal
completely takenup by the conductor core. expansion
αAL- Aluminium coefficient of thermal
Normally, conductors are made up of two
expansion
layers which are known as inner and outer
layers. The outer layer is mainly responsible for Usually, the conductor core is made of material
conducting the current flow while the inner that has a lower thermal expansion co-efficient.

43 ENGINEER
Table 2 shows the coefficient of expansion The ACSR conductor is non-homogeneous. The
values of different conductor material. outer layer is made of hard drawn aluminium
(1350-H19) and the inner layer is made of
Table 2 - Properties of conductor core material galvanized steel. Conductor strands are circular
Modulus in shape. Hard drawn aluminum is not heat
Tensile Coefficient
of
Description Strength of Exp. (x 10- treated and hence ACSR conductors cannot be
Elasticity
(N/mm2) 6/°C)
(GPa) operated at temperatures above 90°C.
HS steel 200 1379-1488 11.50
EHS steel 200 1517 11.50
Aluminium 4.2 GTACSR Conductor (Gap)
162 1103-1344 13.00
Clad
Carbon
Hybrid 110-150 2275-2585 1.60
Epoxy
Invar Alloy 160 1034-1069 3.00
Source: CTC conductor manual
Unlike ACSR conductors, all HTLS conductors Thermal Resistant
achieve their KPTs within their operating Al Strands Grease
ranges. However, different HTLS conductors EHS Steel Core
have different KPTs, depending on the
conductor material, conductor formation etc. It
is always better to have a smaller KPT, so that Figure 3 - Gap Conductor
low sag properties could be achieved In this conductor, there is a gap between the
beforehand. Figure 1 summarizes KPTs of outer and the inner layers. The outer layer is
different types of conductors[5]. made of a zir conium doped hard drawn
aluminium alloy. The strands in the outermost
layer are circular in shape and the strands in
the layer below are trapezoidal in shape. The
annular gap is filled with thermal resistant
grease. The inner core is made of high strength
steel. The steel core and the aluminium core can
move independently due to the presence of
grease [6].
GTACSR conductors can be operated at 150°C
(TAL) and GZTACSR conductors can be
operated at 210°C (ZTAL). Stringing
requirements of these conductors are different
to that of conventional conductors. Two-stage
Figure 1 - KPT of different types of conductors stringing is used with gap conductors where
It can be seen from Figure 1 that the KPT of ACSR 70% of the conductor is tensioned together with
conductors is more than their maximum operating Al and steel cores. The rest of the 30% is
temperatures. ACCC and GTACSR have lower tensioned on the steel core alone. By doing so,
KPTs, thus they start showing lower sags at low conductor sag can be made to depend only on
operating temperatures. the expansion behavior of the steel layer.
4.3 ACCC Conductor
4. Formation of various
conductors Composite
1350-O Al
Core
layer
4.1 ACSR Conductor

Steel Core
Outer Al layer

Figure 4 - Formation of ACCC conductor

The core of the ACCC conductor is made of
Figure 2 - ACSR Conductor hybrid carbon and the glass fiber composite

ENGINEER 44
core utilizes a high temperature epoxy resin 4.6 ACCR Conductor
matrix to bind hundreds of thousands of
The ACCR conductor is similar to the ZTACIR
individual fibers into a unified load bearing
conductor in shape. However, it has a unique
tensile member. The central carbon fiber core is
conductor core which is made of an aluminium
surrounded by high grade boron free glass
fiber matrix. The Al-Zrouter layer is fully
fibers to improve flexibility and toughness. This
annealed and can operate up to 240°C[10].
also prevents galvanic corrosion between the
carbon fiber core and the aluminium strands. 5. Use of HTLS Conductors in the
The aluminium strands are made of annealed Transmission System in Sri Lanka
aluminium (1350-O) which has a higher
conductivity compared to hard drawn In this paper, the use of HTLS conductors in the
aluminium and they are trapezoidal in shape. Sri Lanka’s grid is discussed under the
ACCC conductors can be safely operated up to following three main categories.
180°C. These conductors require special  Re-construction of existing lines
installation methods and careful handling  Clearance improvement of existing lines
during stringing [7].
 Construction of new transmission lines
A separate algorithm is proposed for each
4.4 ZTACIR Conductor category to enable the identification of the most
appropriate conductor.

5.1 Re-construction of Existing Lines

As old transmission lines are not capable of
catering to the increasing electricity demand,
Thermal Resistant capacity improvement is required. Due to the
Al-Alloy Strands Invar Core
unavailability of ROW requirements, new line
construction has become increasingly difficult,
Figure 5 – ZTACIR conductor
leaving design engineers with only the option
The outer strands of the Invar conductor are of re-conductoring the existing transmission
made of heat treated annealed aluminium lines.
strands which can operate at elevated
temperatures. The core of the conductor is The algorithm in Figure 7 is proposed for the
made of nickel iron alloy (Fe – Ni) which has a selection of appropriate conductors when
lower thermal expansion coefficient. These improving the capacity of an existing
conductors can be operated up to 210°C[8]. transmission line.

4.5 ACSS Conductor

Annealed
Extra High Aluminium
Strength Strands
Steel

Figure 6 - ACSS conductor

The outer strands of the ACSS conductor are
made of heat treated fully annealed aluminium
of trapezoidal shape. The core of the conductor
is made of Extra High Strength(EHS) steel. This
conductor is very popular in the USA, as well
as in some European countries. ACSS
conductors can be operated at 250°C without
compromising their tensile strength. The
stringing requirements of this conductor are
very similar to those of conventional
conductors[9].

45 ENGINEER
 The forces on the towers with the Zebra
conductor were calculated and the additional
forces due to the Lynx conductor are
summarized in Table 4.
Table 4 - Additional Forces exerted by the
Zebra conductor compared to the existing
Lynx conductor
Additional Transverse force 46.5%

Additional Vertical Force 92.5%

Additional Longitudinal Forces 68.0%
Reduction of Safety Factor 39.5%

With these additional forces present, it was

noted that the safety factors were reduced by
39.5 in the worst case which is a considerable
violation of the current transmission tower
design philosophy.
However, most of the transmission towers in a
line are not using their maximum wind and
weight spans for which they have been
Figure 7 - Algorithm for capacity originally designed. Therefore, some of the
improvement towers are still capable of handling additional
vertical and transverse forces.
Case Study 1
The longitudinal force on the tower will depend
The Pannipitiya – Ratmalana 132 kV double
on the tension of the conductor and will be
circuit, ACSR Lynx transmission line was to be
limited to 40% of the maximum UTS of the
uprated according to the transmission plan of
conductor(based on the CEB design
the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB). Due to the
specification).
difficulty of ROW allocation, re-conductoring
seemed to be the best option. The original Therefore, with the reduction of the initial
requirement was to double the existing capacity tension in the conductor, the safety factor of the
of the ACSRLynx conductor. towers can be improved. When the initial
tension is reduced, the conductor sag will
Therefore, this same line was first considered to
increase and this increase can be calculated
be uprated using an ACSR conductor with a
using Equation (2). The results given in Table 5
larger cross section. The new selection was an
were observed for different initial tensions on
ACSR Zebra conductor. Table 3 shows the
the ACSR Zebra conductors.
properties of Zebra and Lynx conductors.
Table 5 - Tension versus conductor sag
Table 3 - Zebra and Lynx conductor properties
Sag @
Conductor Zebra Lynx Ground Safety
Longitudinal Maximum
Clearance Factor
Force (kN) Operating
Diameter (mm) 28.62 19.53 (m) (% UTS)
Tem. (m)
Unit Weight (kg/km) 1621 842 52 7.52 8.195 66.12
Ultimate Tensile Strength (kN) 131.9 79.8 50 7.96 7.755 62.66
45 8.85 6.865 56.39
The next step was to check whether the existing
40 9.91 5.805 50.13
towers were capable of handling these
35 11.22 4.495 43.86
additional forces exerted by the larger sized
Zebra conductor. 32 12.21 3.505 40.00
From Table 5, it can be seen that the ground
Usually, there are three types of forces on clearance is only 3.5 m when the desired safety
towers.[11] They are, factor of 40% is achieved while the required
o Transverse force due to wind pressure on minimum value is 6.7 m. This will increase the
conductors, EMF level under the power line as shown in
o Longitudinal force due to conductor Figure 8a and Figure 8b.
tension and
o Vertical force due to conductor weight

ENGINEER 46
 HTLS conductors having similar dimensions,
Electric Field Vs Offset
unit weights and UTS as the existing Lynx

Electric Field (kV/m)

conductor had to be selected, to avoid any
additional forces on towers.
Table 8 summarizes conductor operating
temperatures when the intended Current
Carrying Capacity (CCC) of 800A is delivered
Offset (m)
and the consequent sag as well as the annual
Figure 8a - Existing Electrical Field energy losses due to the resistance of the line.
Electric Field Vs Offset
Table 8 - Performance of HTLS conductors
Electric Field (kV/m)

ACCC GAP ZTACIR ACSS

Operating
Temp.
114 140 173.5 147.8
when CCC
is 800A (°C)
Offset (m) Sag @
operating 5.72 7.81 7.33 8.84
Figure 8b - New Electrical Field Temp. (m)
Annual
ICNIRP (International Commission on Non- Energy Loss 15,774 18,720 23,295 17,810
Ionizing Radiation Protection) is an (MWh)
independent organization, which provides Note: Amb. Tem32°C, Emissivity and solar absorption 0.5, Solar
Radiation 1000 W/m2, Atmosphere clear, wind speed 0.5 ms-1
scientific advice and guidance on the health
and environmental effects of non-ionizing It can be seen from Table 8 that by selecting
radiations. Table 6 shows the limitations under HTLS conductors, the required capacity
power lines published by ICNIRP.[12] improvement could be achieved without
Table 6 – ICNIRP published values for affecting the tower safety. Additionally, it can
permissible EMF levels be observed that the ACCC conductor provides
the lowest sag and lowest energy loss. If Zebra
Electric Filed Magnetic Field conductors are used, the energy loss will be
(kV/m) (μT) 7,111 MWh. Therefore, the energy loss in HTLS
Public 5 100 conductors will be higher as shown in Table 8.
Occupational 10 500 Thus, designers will have to make compromises
on the energy loss when selecting HTLS
However, once the initial tension is reduced up
conductors for capacity upgrading.
to 32kN (40% UTS), it could be observed that
the electric field and the magnetic field under 5.2 Clearance Improvement of Existing Lines
the power line become 6.4 kV/m and 12.2 μT
Most of the older transmission lines have
respectively. Therefore, it is clear that the
violated their required safe clearances due to
electric field has violated the required ICNIRP
reasons such as,
limitations.
In conclusion, it can be seen that the capacity  Conductor creep which has taken place
uprating is hard to achieve with conventional over the years
conductors due to issues related to the safety of  Alteration of ground profile by human
the towers and ground clearance. activities and weather
As a solution, the option of using HTLS  Construction of illegal buildings/
conductors was considered. residences under the power lines
Table 7 - HTLS Conductors considered for the Some of the conventional methods used to
case study improve such clearances are as follows:
1. Reduction of number of discs in suspension
ACCC GAP ZTACIR ACSS insulators strings wherever possible.
2. Use of suspension towers as section towers.
Name Oriole 200 mm2 159-160 Lark
3. Use of new conductors replacing the conductors that
77.8 have crept
UTS (kN) 98.3 80 63.7
4. Tower modifications such as addition of body
Safety 4.4 Extensions
5.5 4.5 3.5
Factor
RTS 18.1 22.2 27.8 22.8

47 ENGINEER
 Table 9 - Selection of HTLS conductors
GAP ZTACIR ACCC ACSS

Thermal
Exp. Coef. (x 11.5 3.78 1.6 11.5
10-6 °C-1)
KPT (°C) 32 >110 30-80 50-100
Temp. when
69.6 69.5 60.2 62.9
I = 450 A
Sag at
operating 5.82 5.89 4.39 5.91
Temp. (m)

From Table 9, it could be seen that Gap

conductors and ACCC conductors could be
quite suitable for the improvement of
clearances in this case. Unlike in the case of
uprating, the energy loss was not be an issue as
the operating temperature of the conductors
was low. However, the stringing requirements
of the conductors had to be taken into account
as the performance of the conductor section
was heavily dependent on its workmanship.

Figure 9 - Algorithm for clearance uprating 5.3 Construction of New Lines

The use of HTLS conductors is technically a
All these methods have their own risks and the
good option in the construction of new
designers will have to analyze the best option
transmission lines. However, the cost of HTSL
for the successful improvement of clearances. In
conductors is usually higher than the cost of
this regard, HTLS conductors can be a very
ACSR conductors. The special characteristics of
good selection due to their lower sags and
the HTLS conductors would result in additional
lower unit resistances. Usually HTLS
benefits that could compensate their high initial
conductors with similar dimensions could
costs. Therefore, a proper cost benefit analysis
achieve the required current at a lower
had to be done before making the final
temperature compared to the existing
decision.
conductor and due to their low sags, the
required clearance could be achieved without The Net Present Value (NPV) approach is one
going into high risk options. of the methods that could reveal the economic
feasibility of new projects with fairly long life
The algorithm in Figure 9 is proposed to find
spans. Typically, in transmission line projects,
out the most suitable conductor when there is a
30 to 40 years are considered as the life time of
necessity to improve safe clearances.
a project. Some of the major cost components
Case Study 2 involved in a transmission line project are listed
It was observed that the ground clearance below.
between Tower Nos. 11 and 12 of the Capital Investment Cost: This is the sum of all
Pannipitiya-Kolonnawa 132 kV line was around expenses associated with engineering,
5.6 m (required value was 6.7 m as per the CEB procurement and construction of the line
design specifications). Investigations revealed including the costs related to environmental
that the original ground profile had been assessments, compliance with regulatory
altered by the people. To achieve the required requirements etc.
clearances, the possibility of using HTLS
Total Annual Cost: The total annual cost is
conductors was considered.
defined as the sum of the annual capital cost
The conductor used in the line was of the ACSR and the annual cost of loss. This includes the
Lynx type. The maximum current carrying total cost of energy loss, interest for borrowed
capacity of the line was 450 A. The HTLS funds, cost of operation and maintenance,
conductor had to fulfill the current requirement depreciation etc.
as well as the clearance improvement.

ENGINEER 48
Annual Cost of Energy Loss = { ( ) }
[
, -
] …(6)
(Phase current)2 Unit Resistance Line Length
Number of Conductors Loss Factor 8760 where I =discount rate
n =number of years
Note: Load Factor = Average Demand/ Peak Demand
Loss Factor = 0.2 x Load Factor + 0.8 x Load Factor
C0 = Initial Investment
C = Recurring cash flow
Life Cycle Cost (LCC): The life cycle cost
Nowadays in the CEB, it is a common practice
associated with a transmission project is the
to use Zebra conductors for new transmission
sum of all recurring expenses including annual
lines. Zebra conductors are cheaper compared
capital costs and cost of line losses. The LCC, by
to similarly sized HTLS conductors. Therefore,
definition, is dependent on dynamic market
to be economically feasible, HTLS conductors
factors such as escalating energy costs, load
during their operation need to save an amount
growth etc. Therefore, the Net Present Value
sufficient enough to compensate their higher
(NPV) approach is more appropriate when
capital cost. This can only be achieved through
determining the best estimate of long term
the reduction of line losses.
project feasibility.

Figure 10 - Algorithm for new constructions

49 ENGINEER
Therefore, in order to analyze the project, a operation and maintenance and the cost of
hypothetical double circuit transmission line of additional construction time required for HTLS
50 km length was considered. The maximum conductors because of the need for unique
current requirement of the line was taken as 600 stringing methods have not been considered in
A and with the use of IEEE 738-2006, the this study.
operating temperature of each HTLS conductor
The algorithm in Figure 10 shows the way to
was calculated for delivering the same current.
select the most appropriate conductor for the
Table 10 shows the results of the analysis.
construction of new transmission lines.
Table 10 - Selection of HTLS conductors for
The other advantage of HTLS conductors is that
new lines
they can reduce the number of towers required
Base Conductor ACCC GAP ZTACIR for a transmission line. This is due to the low
sags of these conductors. Unlike the typical
% Reduction in line loss 22.62 12.57 -1.53 galvanized steel core in the ACSR conductors,
Saving (MLKR/year) 82 46 -6
the rate of expansion of the cores of HTLS
conductors is not high. Their cores are designed
CO2 Saving
9.4 5.2 -0.6 with material such as St-Ni, epoxy carbon
(MLKR/year)
Reduction in 30-year matrices, aluminium fibres etc, and thus they
948.9 527.1 -64.3 exhibit lower sags even at high temperatures.
line losses (MLKR)
Initial Cost (MLKR) 2400 1950 2700 This phenomenon becomes very helpful in
situations where the construction of new towers
Net Saving over 30-year
period compared to 48.9 77.1 -1246.3 becomes difficult due to the presence of marshy
Zebra (MLKR) lands, archeologically important terrain, river
Note: i = 10% and construction cost of Zebra line = 30
crossings etc.
MLKR/km. cost factors of above conductors were taken as 4, 2.5,
Figures11a and 11b show the PLS-CADD
5 respectively. Average Electricity Cost=13 LKR/kWh, CO2
emission=0.8 kg/kWh, Carbon Credit 1860.2 LKR/MT simulation of Kirindiwela – Kosgama proposed
132 kV line with the use of Zebra ACSR and
According to Table 10, the use of correct HTLS ACCC drake conductors. The line is around 11
conductors could become profitable in the long km in length and requires 43 towers to
run when considering the cost of Zebra lines. construct the complete line using ACSR Zebra
However, this decision is highly sensitive to conductors. However, with ACCC conductors
economic factors that could vary with time due 30 towers would be sufficient.
to many external factors. Moreover, the cost of

Figure 11a- PLS Simulation of Kirindiwela- Kosgama line with ZebraACSR conductor

Figure 11b- PLS Simulation of Kirindiwela- Kosgama line with ACCC Drake conductor

ENGINEER 50
6. Stringing of HTLS Conductors introduction of HTLS conductors, such as the
cost of operation and maintenance, cost of
Unlike with conventional ACSR conductors, spares etc. need also to be considered in the
stringing plays a big role in the case of HTLS analysis.
conductors. The stringing requirements of
HTLS conductors are different to each other HTLS conductors can become advantageous in
and the process of stringing depends on many unique situations such as when there is a
factors such as conductor formation, KPT, necessity to construct a lower number of towers
material etc. due to ROW restrictions as its conductor sag at
high temperatures is lower than the sag of
Conductors such as those made of ZTACIR do conventional ACSR conductors.
not require special stringing techniques as they
have a higher KPT. ACCC, ACCR and ACSS
Acknowledgements
conductors require additional care during
handling/ stringing as they have been Authors would like to thank Eng. KP. Kusum
constructed with 1350-O aluminium that could Shanthi (DGM- Transmission Design and
get damaged rather easily compared to hard Environment) of the utility for his collaboration
drawn aluminium. At the same time, in this research.
conductors made of GTACSR have a KPT
below ambient temperature and requires a two-
References
stage stringing through which aluminium and
1. Zamora, I., Mazón, A. J., Criado, R., Alonso, C.,
steel layers are tensioned during two different
& Saenz, J. R. ,"Uprating using High-
stages. To achieve the KPT at a lower value or
Temperature Electrical Conductors [overhead
to release the tension on the outer layers, pre-
power lines]", In Electricity Distribution, 2001.
stressing is required for conductors such as
Part 1: Contributions. CIRED. 16th International
those made of ACSS and ACCC. Therefore, the
Conference and Exhibition on(IEE Conf. Publ No.
workmanship plays a vital role in the use of 482),Vol. 1, pp. 5.
HTLS conductors. Though, manufacturers
provide such special services which could be 2. Reddy, B. S., & hatterjee, D., "Performance
expensive, the utilities will definitely have to Evaluation of High Temperature High Current
manage their own staff in the operation and Conductors," IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics
maintenance work. At the same time, stocks and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 1570
will have to be maintained for the special types - 1579, June, 2016.
of accessories and there will be many indirect
cost components with the introduction of HTLS 3. Colin, B. "Transmission and Distribution
conductors. Therefore, the use of HTLS Electrical Engineering." Newnes , 1996.
conductors in new transmission lines still
remains as grey for most of the utilities in the 4. CTC Global, Engineering Transmission Lines with
world including the CEB [13]. High Capacity Low Sag ACCC Conductors, 2026
McGaw Avenue, Irvine, CA 92614 USA: CTC
7. Conclusion Global, 2011.
Based on the above analysis, it is clear that
5. Civili, G. & Handel, M., "New Types of
HTLS conductors are the most suitable for the
Conductors for Overhead Lines with High
capacity improvement of existing transmission Thermal Resistance, which Increase the
lines. The selection of the most appropriate Current Transmission Capacity and Limit
HTLS conductor will depend on many factors Thermal Expansion at High Current
such as current rating, stringing method, cost Intensity", Bulk Power System Dynamics and
etc. Also in the clearance improvements of Control VI, Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy ,August,
older lines, HTLS conductors can provide a 2004.
decent solution mainly due to their low sags.
6. www.jpower.co.jp/english, Visited, 20th June
HTLS conductors can provide cost effective
2016.
solutions in terms of loss reduction when
constructing new transmission lines. However,
7. Alawar, A., Bosze, E. & Nutt, S.,"A Composite
their selection has to be done after a proper
Core Conductor for Low Sag at High
techno economic analysis, as most of the factors Temperatures," IEEE Transactions on Power
used for the calculation could vary with time. Delivery, Vol. 20, No.3, pp. 2193 - 2199, 2005.
Moreover, some of the indirect cost
components which may get involved with the

51 ENGINEER
8. Nishikawa, T., Takaki, Y., Sanai, M., 12. International Commission on Non-Ionizing
Kitamura, S., Nakama, K., & Kariya, T., Radiation Protection, "ICNIRP," [Online].
"Development of High Strength Invar Alloy Available: www.icnirp.org, Visited, 11th May
Wire for High Voltage Overhead Power 2016.
Transmission Line", SEI Technical Review, Vol.
71, 2010. 13. Oscar, A., "New Trend in Transmission Power
Lines and Related Stringing Equipment
9. http://www.southwire.com/products/ACSS Development." In 2013 IEEE Power & Energy
.htm, Visited, 20th August 2016. Society General Meeting, pp. 1-5, 2013.

10. http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/e
n_US/EMD_ACCR/ACCR_Home/, Visited,
10th May 2016.

11. Havard, D. G., & Perry, O. C., "Lattice Tower

Member Fatigue and its Control using a
Novel Damping Scheme." In Power
Engineering Society Summer Meeting, IEEE,
Vol. 4, pp. 2560-2565, 2000.

ENGINEER 52