XII - CHEMISTRY (EM) - UNIT 1 To 8

chemistry is basic for our life
+2 - CHEMISTRY
NAME :
CLASS :
SCHOOL :
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P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

UNIT TOPIC PAGE
1 METALLURGY 1
2 p -BLOCK ELEMENTS - I 9
3 p -BLOCK ELEMENTS - II 18
TRANSITION AND INNER TRANSITION
4 ELEMENTS
27
5 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 35
6 SOLID STATE 47
7 CHEMICAL KINETICS 56
8 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM 63
9 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
10 SURFACE CHEMISTRY
11 HYDROXY COMPOUNDS AND ETHERS
12 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
13 ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
14 BIOMOLECULES
15 CHEMISTRY IN EVERDAY LIFE

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12-STD CHEMISTRY
1. METALLURGY
1. What is the difference between minerals and ores?
Minerals Ores
Naturally occuring substances obtained
Minerals that contain high percentage of
1. by mining which contain the metals in
metal
free state or in the form of compounds
Metal can not be extracted easily from
2. Metal can be extracted easily from ores
minerals
3. All the minerals are not ores All the ores are minerals
4. Mineral of Al is Bauxite and Clay Ore of Al is Bauxite
2. What are the various steps involved in extraction of pure metals from their ores?
 Concentration of the ore
 Extraction of crude metal
 Refining of crude metal
3. What is Flux? What is the role of quick lime in the extraction of Iron from Fe2O3?
 A chemical substance that forms an easily fusible slag with gangue
 Quick lime is used as a basic flux
 Quick lime combines with silica to form calcium silicate (slag).
 CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
4. Which type of ores can be concentrated by Gravity separation and froth flotation
methods ? Give two examples for such ores.
 Gravity separation - Oxide ores - Haematite (Fe2O3), Tin stone (SnO2)
 Froth flotation - Sulphide ores - Galena [PbS], Zinc blende [ZnS]
5. Describe a method for refining nickel.
Mond process
 Impure nickel + Carbon monoxide 350K Nickel tetra carbonyl
Ni + 4CO 350K [Ni(CO)4](g)
 Nickel tetra carbonyl 460K Pure nickel + Carbon monoxide
[Ni(CO)4](g) 460K Ni + 4CO
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6. Explain zone refining process with an example

 Prninciple - Fractional crystallisation
 The impure metal is taken in the form of a rod
 When the metal rod is heated with mobile induction heater, the metal melts.
 The heater is slowly moved from one end to the other end, the pure metal crystallises.
 The impurity dissolves in the molten zone.
 When the heater moves the molten zone also moves.
 This process is repeated again and again to get the pure metal.
 This process is carried out in an inert gas atmosphere to prevent the oxidation of metals.
 Eg. Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and Gallium (Ga)
7. Using the Ellingham diagram given below. Predict the conditions under which
i) Aluminium might be expected to reduce magnesia.
At above 1600K aluminium can reduce magnesia
ii) Magnesium could alumina.
At below 1600K Magnesium can reduce alumina.
8. Give the uses of zinc.
 Galvanizing iron to protect from rusting
 It produce die-castings in the automobile and electrical industries
 Zinc sulphide - to produce luminous paints, fluorescent lights and x-ray screens
 Zinc oxide - to Prepare Paints, rubber, Plastics, and Ink
9. Explain the electro metallurgy of Aluminium
Electro metallurgy of Aluminium : Hall - Herould process
 Cathode - Iron tank coated with Carbon
 Anode - Carbon rod
 Electrolyte - 20% Alumina + Cryolite + 10% Calcium Chloride
(lower the melting point of the mixture)
 Temperature - Above 1270K
 Anodes are slowly consumed during the electrolysis.
 Pure Aluminium is deposited at the cathode and settles at the bottom.
4Al3+(melt) + 6O2- (melt) + 3C 4Al (l) + 3CO2
10.Explain the following terms with suitable examples. (i) Gangue (ii) slag
(i) Gangue : The nonmetallic impurities and rocky materials associated with ore - SiO2
(ii) Slag : The flux combines with gangue to form calcium slag - CaSiO3
11.Give the basic requirements for vapour phase refining. Give examples.
 The metal should form a volatile compound with the reagent.
 The volatile compound decomposes to give the pure metal
 Mond process - Nickel
Van-Arkel process - zirconium / titanium
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12. Describe the role of the following in the process mentioned.

(i) Silica in the extraction of copper
Silica (flux) combines with ferrous oxide to give ferrous silicate (slag).
(ii) Cryolite inthe extraction of aluminium

Cryolite - lower the melting point of the mixture
(iii) Iodine in the refining of zirconium
To form of volatile compound so as to give pure metal on decomposition
(iv) Sodium cyanide in froth flotation.
Sodium cyanide act as depressing agents.
It is used to selectively prevent other metal sulphides from coming to the froth.
13. Explain the principle of electrolytic refining with an example.
 Anode - Impure metal
 Cathode - Pure metal
 Electrolyte - Acidified aqueous solution of metal salts
During electrolysis pure metal is deposited at the cathode
Electrolytic refining of Silver
 Anode - Impure Silver
 Cathode - Pure Silver
 Electrolyte - Acidified aqueous solution of silver nitrate.
During electrolysis pure Silver is deposited at the cathode
Ag Ag+ + 1e- (Anode)
Ag+ + 1e- Ag (Cathode)
14. What is blistered copper?
The metallic copper is solidified and it has blistered appearance due to evolution of
SO2 gas formed in this process. This copper is called blistered copper.
15. Write short note on electrochemical principles of metallurgy.
 When a more reactive metal is added to the solution containing the relatively
less reactive metal ions, the more reactive metal will go into the solution.
 Gibbs free energy change for the electrolysis process is
∆G0 = - nF E0
n = number of electrons, F = Faraday,
E0 is the electrode potential of the redox couple.
 In Spontaneous reaction : Eo is positive and ∆Go is negative.
16. Give the limitations of ellingham diagram.
 It does not explain rate of reaction.
 It does not give any idea about the possibility of other reactions taking place.
 ΔG is assume at equilibrium condition, but it is not always true.

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17. What is Concentration? Give the methods of Concentration.

The process of removal nonmetallic impurities and rocky materials from the ore
is called as concentration.
Types of Concentration
1. Gravity separation 2. Froth flotation
3. Leaching 4. Magnetic separation
18. Explain the Gravity separation
 High specific gravity of ore is separated from low specific gravity the gangue.
 The powdered ore is washed with a flowing current of water.
 The lighter gangue particles are washed away by water.
 Ex - Oxides ores like Tin Stone, Haematite.
19. Explain the Froth Floatation process.
 Galena, Zinc blende ore is concentrated by this method

 The metallic ore particles preferentially wetted by oil can be separated from gangue.
 Frothing agent - Pine oil
 Collector - Sodium Ethyl Xanthate
 Depressing agent - Sodium cyanide
 The powdered ore is mixed with water and pine oil.
 When air is passed, it produces froth.
 The ore particles rise to the surface and collected separately.
 The Impurities settles at the bottom of the container
20. What is Leaching? Give the methods of Leaching.
 The ore is crushed and dissolved in the suitable solvent.
 The metal is converted into a soluble salt.
 Insoluble Gangue particles are removed.
 Methods of Leaching
1.Acid leaching 2.Alkali leaching
3.Cyanide leaching 4. Ammonia leaching

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21. Explain any three methods of Leaching.

1. Acid leaching
Sulphide ores like ZnS, PbS etc., can be done by treating them with hot aqueous H2SO4
The insoluble sulphide is converted into soluble sulphate and elemental sulphur.
2. Ammonia leaching
When a crushed ore containing nickel, copper is treated with aqueous ammonia.
Ammonia selectively leaches these metals by forming their soluble complexes.
From the ore leaving behind the gangue like alumina silicate.
3.Cyanide leaching
Gold is leached with dilute sodium cyanide solution. It is converted into soluble
cyanide complex.
Gold can be recovered by reacting the deoxygenated leached solution with zinc.
22. Explain the Magnetic separation process.

 It is based on the difference in the magnetic properties of the ore and the impurities.
 It is used to concentrate ferromagnetic ores
 Tin stone can be separated from the wolframite impurities
 The powdered ore is added on an electro magnet containing a moving belt
on a magnetic rollers.
 The magnetic ore falls near the magnet.
 The non magnet patrs fall away from the magnet.
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23. Define Roasting

The Ore is oxidised by heated in the presence of Oxygen in a furnace below
the melting point of the metal
24. Define Calcination

The concentrated ore is strongly heated in the absence of air is called Calcination.
25. Define Smelting

The ore is heating above the melting point in the presence of Flux and reducing agents
like Carbon in a smelting furnace. The water molecules are removed as moisture.
26. Explain Reduction by carbon

In this method the oxide ore of the metal is mixed with coal and heated in a blas furnace.
27. Explain Auto reduction reaction

Roasting of some ores give the metal even in the absence of a reducing agent..
28. How Titanium is refined by the Van-Arkel method?

 Impure Titanium + Iodine 550K Titanium tetra-iodide
Ti + 2I2 550K TiI4 (g)
 Titanium tetra-iodide 1800K Pure Titanium
Tungsten filament
TiI4 (g) 1800K / W Ti + 2I2
29. What is Distillation?
 The impure metal is heated to evaporated
 The vapours are condensed to get pure metal.
 This method is employed for low boiling volatile metals like zinc.
30. Explain Liquation
 This method is used to remove high melting point impurities from low melting point
metals
 The impure metal is heated in the absence of air in a sloping furnace
 Pure metal melts and flows down and collected separately
 The impurities remain on the slope.
 Eg. Tin, Lead
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31. What is mean by Ellingham diagram?

The graphical representation of variation of the std.Gibbs free energy (∆G0) of reaction
for the formation of various metal oxides with temperature is called Ellingham diagram
32. What are the Observations of Ellingham diagram?
 The formation metal oxides gives a positive slope. The value of ∆S is negative.
 The formation of Carbon monoxide gives a negative slope. The value of ∆S is positive.
So Carbon monoxide is more stable at high temperature
 For MgO, due to phase transition, there is a sudden change in the slope at a particular
temperature.
33. What are the applications of Ellingham diagram
 The Ellingham diagram for the formation of Ag2O and HgO is at the upper part of the
diagram. So, these oxides are unstable and decompose on heating even in the absence
of a reducing agent.
 Ellingham diagram is used to predict the thermodynamic feasibility of reduction of
metal oxides by another metal.
Ex. Aluminium can be reduce Chromic oxide.
 Carbon line cuts the line of many metal oxides. Hence it can reduce all metal oxides
at high temperature
34. What is cementation?
When Gold-cyanide complex reacting with zinc, Gold is reduced to its elemental
state (zero oxidation sate). The process is called cementation.
35. What is Anode mud?
During electrolysis the less electropositive impurities settles at the bottom of the Anode.
These are called as Anode mud.
36. Explain the Alumino thermic process
 Chromic oxide is mixed with Aluminium powder and heated in a fire clay crucible.
 A mixture of barium peroxide and Mg powder is placed over it
 When ignited large amount of heat is produed, Aluminium reduces Chromic oxide.
37. Give the uses of Aluminium

 Make cooking vessles
 Aluminium foil- packing materials for food
 Make medical equipments
 It is used in design of aeroplanes
38. Give the uses of Iron (Fe)
 Make cutting tools
 Make magnets,
 Make Bridges
 Make automobiles parts

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39. Give the uses of Copper (Cu)

 Make wires
 Make coins & and water pipes
 Gold -Copper alloys - Make ornaments
40. Give the uses of Gold (Au)
 Make coins
 Gold -Copper alloys - Make ornaments
 Electro plating of watches
 Gold nanoparticles - Increasing the efficiency of solar cells
41. Explain the Extraction of Copper from its ore
1. Ore - Copper pyrites
2. Concentration - Froth Flotation process
3. Roasting
4. Smelting
5. Electrolytic refining
 Anode - Impure Copper
 Cathode - Pure Copper
 Electrolyte - CuSO4 + dil. H2SO4
During electrolysis pure Copper is deposited at the cathode

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2. P - BLOCK ELEMENTS - I
1. Give examples for each of the following
 Icosogens - Boron, Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, Thallium
 Tetragens - Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead
 Pnictogens - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth
 Chalcogen - Oxugen, Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium
2. Write a short note on anamolous properties of the first element of p-block.
 Small size
 High ionisation enthalpy and high electronegativity
 Absence of d-orbitals.
3. Write a note on metallic nature of p-block elements.
 The tendency of an element to form a cation by loosing electrons is known as
metallic character.
 This character depends on the ionisation energy.
 Generally on descending a group the ionisation energy decreases and
hence the metallic character increases.
 In p-block, the elements present in lower left part are metals while the elements
in the upper right part are non metals.
4. Describe briefly allotropism in p-block elements with specific reference to carbon.
 Some elements exist in more than one crystalline form in the same physical state.
This is called allotropism.
 Allotropes of carbon - Diamond, Graphite, Graphene, Fullerenes, Carbon nanotubes
5. What is catenation ? Describe briefly the catenation property of carbon.
Catenation is an ability of an element to form chain of atoms.
Carbon forms a wide range of compounds with C, H, N, S
Conditions
 Valency of element is greater than or equal to two
 Element should have an ability to bond with itself
 Self bond must be strong
 Kinetic inertness of catenated compound towards other molecules
6. How will you identify borate radical ? (or) Give Ethyl borate test
Boric acid + Ethanol Con. Sulpuric acid Tri Ethyl borate (greeen flame)
B(OH)3 + 3C2H5OH con. H2SO4 B(OC2H5)3 + 3H2O
7. How will you convert boric acid to boron nitride?
Boric acid + Ammonia ∆ Boron nitride
8. Write a short note on hydroboration?

Diborane + Alkene Ether Trialkylborane

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9. Give the uses of Borax

 To identify coloured metal ions.
 To manufacture optical
 As flux in metallurgy
 Acts as preservative
10. Give the uses of silicones.
 Lubricants
 Water proof cloths
 Insulating material in electrical motor
 Low temperature vaccuum pumbs and High temperature oil baths
 Mixed with paints to make them resistance towards sun light
11. Describe the structure of Diborane
 Two BH2 units are linked by two bridged hydrogens.

 It has eight B-H bonds and 12 valance electrons
 The four terminal B-H bonds are 2c-2e bond
 The remaining four electrons have to be used for the two bridged B-H-B bonds (3C – 2e)
 In diborane, the boron is SP3 hybridised
 The bridging hydrogen atoms are in a plane
 B–H–B bond formed by overlapping the half filled hybridised orbital of one boron, the
empty hybridised orbital of the other boron and the half filled s orbital of hydrogen.
 It is also called as banana bond.
12. Hydride of 2nd period alkali metal (A) on reaction with compound of Boron (B)
to give a reducing agent (C). Identify A, B and C.
 Second period alkali metal A - Li
Hydride of A + Boron compound (B) Reducing agent (C)
2LiH + B2H6 2LiBH4
 A - Li,
 B - B2H6 ,
 C - LiBH4 .
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13. Write a note on Fischer Tropsch synthesis

Carbon monoxide + H2 Cu / 50atm Hydrocarbon
500 K - 700 K
nCO + 2nH2 Cu / 50atm CnH2n + nH2O
500 K - 700 K
14. CO is a reducing agent. Justify with an example.
Carbon monoxide reduce iron oxide to iron
15. Give the structure of CO and CO2

CO - Linear structure
CO2 - Linear structure
16. Write a note on Zeolites?

 Zeolites are three-dimensional crystalline solids containing aluminium, silicon, and
oxygen.
 Si and Al atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated with oxygen atoms.
 They are Hydrated sodium alumino silicate (NaO. Al2O3. x SiO2. y H2O)
 They have porous structure in which the monovalent sodium ions and water molecules
are loosely held.
 Water molecules move freely in and out of these pores
 They have crystalline structure looks like a honeycomb consisting of a network of
interconnected tunnels and cages
 The crystal to act as a molecular sieve
17. From Aluminium to Thalium only a marginal difference in ionization enthalpy why?
 Poor shielding effect.
 Highly Effective nuclear charge
 Presence of inner d and f electrons
18. Boron form co-valent compounds why?
 Small size
 High ionization energy
 Similarty in electronegativity with carbon

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19. How to prepare Borax?

Colemanite + Sodium carbonate Δ Borax
20. Write a note on Borax bead test.
21. What is the action of heat on Boric acid

 Boric acid 373K Metaboric acid
 Metaboric acid 413K Tetraboric acid ;
 Tetraboric acid red hot Boric anhydride
22. Explain H3BO3 is a mono basic acid.

 Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid
 It accepts hydroxyl ion rather than donating proton
23. Write the action of diborane on ammonia (or)

What is inorganic benzene? How to prepare it?
Diborane + Ammonia High T Borazole (or) Borazine (Inorganic benzene)
24. Write the equation for diborane react with metalhydride
25. Write the Laboratory preparation of Boron tri-fluoride.

C6H5N2BF4 Δ BF3 + C6H5F + N2
26. Give the uses of Boron
 Boron is used as a rocket fuel igniter
 Moderator in nuclear reactors.
 Essential for the cell walls of plants.
27. How will you prepare Aluminium chloride by McAfee Process?
Aluminium chloride is obtained by heating a mixture of alumina and coke with chlorine.
2Al2O3 + 3C + 6Cl2 4AlCl3 + 3CO2

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28. Give the uses of Boric acid

 Boric acid is used to food preservative
 Manufacture of pottery glases
 Antiseptic and Eye lotion.
 Food preservative
29. Give the uses of Diborane
 Diborane is used as a high energy fuel for propellant
 Reducing agent in organic chemistry
 Welding torches
30. Give the uses of Aluminium chloride
 Aluminium chloride is used to manufacture on dyes, drugs and perfumes
 It is used for the manufacture of petrol by cracking the mineral oils.
 Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in Friedel Crafts reaction
31. How will you prepare potash alum?
 When alum stone is treated with excess of sulphuric acid
 Then calculated quantity of potassium sulphate is added
 The solution is crystallised to generate potash alum
32. What is burnt alum?

 At 475 K - 500K potash alum loses water of hydration and swells up
 The swollen mass is known as burnt alum.
33. Write the action of heat on potash alum.
34. Give the uses of potash alum.

 Potash alum is used for purification of water
 It is used for water proofing and textiles
 It is used in dyeing and paper industries
 It is used as a styptic agent to arrest bleeding.
35. Write a short note on graphene.
 Graphene has a single planar sheet
 Honeycomb crystal lattice.
 Each carbon atom is sp2 hybridised

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36. Write a short note on fullerences.

 Fullerences are discrete molecules such as C32, C50, C60, C70
 Cage like structures
 C60 molecules have a soccer ball like structure. It is called as buckyballs
 It has a fused ring structure consists of 20 six membered rings and 12 five
membered rings
 Each carbon atom is sp2 hybridised and aromatic character
 C-C bond distance is 1.44Ao and C=C bond distance is 1.38Ao
37. Write a short note on Carbon nano tubes
 Carbon nano tubes are stronger than steel
 Conduct electricity
 It is used for Nanoscale electronics
 Catalysis
 Polymers and medicine.
38. Differentiate Graphite and Diamond
Graphite Diamond
1. Soft Hard
2. Conducts electricity Do not conduct electricity
3. It has free electrons There is no free electrons
4. SP2 hybridised SP3 hybridised
5. Hexagonal net arrangement Tetrahedral arrangement

6. Used as a lubricant. Used for cutting Glasses and rock drilling
39. Write oxo process

Carbon monoxide is mixed with ethene and hydrogen gas to produce propanal.
40. What is Producers Gas?

The mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen is called producer gas.
41. Write notes on laboratory preparation of carbon-di-oxide.
42. Describe Industrial preparation of carbon-di-oxide.

Carbon-di-oxide is produced by burning coke in excess of air.

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43. Write water gas equilibrium reaction.
44. Write Oxidising behaviour of carbon-di-oxide.
45. Write Acidic behaviour of carbon-di-oxide.

The aqueous solution of carbon dioxide is acidic as it forms carbonic acid.
46. Give the uses of carbon-di-oxide.

 Carbon-di-oxide is used as fire extinguisher
 It is used in the production of Cool drinks
 It is important for photosynthesis.
47. Give the uses of carbon monoxide
 Carbon monoxide is a good reducing agent
 It is an important ligand and forms carbonyl compound
 Water gas and producer gas are industrial fuels
48. What is Silicones? Explain its preparation and uses?
 Silicones are organo silicon polymers
 General empirical formula R2SiO.
 Preparation
Types of silicones
1. Linear Silicones - obtained by the hydrolysis of dialkyl silicon chlorides.
 Silicone Rubbers - Bridged together by methylene groups
 Silicone Resins - Obtained by blending Silicones with organic resins
2. Cyclic Silicones - Obtained by the hydrolysis of R2SiCl2
3. Cross linked Silicones - Obtained by the hydrolysis of RSiCl3

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49. Give the Properties of silicones

 Silicones are water repellent
 Thermal and electrical insulators
 Chemically they are inert.
50. Explain the types of Silicates with example
The mineral which contains silicon and oxygen in tetrahedral units[SiO4] 4-
linked together in different patterns are called silicates
Molecular Sharing of
Name of the Silicate Examples
formula Oxygen atoms
-
1 Ortho (or) Neso Silicates [SiO4] 4 No Phenacite
-
2 Pyro (or) Soro Silicates [Si2O7] 6 1 Thortveitite
-
3 Cyclic (or) Ring Silicates [SiO3]n2n 2 Beryl
-
4 Chain Silicates [SiO3]n2n 2 Spodumene
-
5 Double chain Silicates [Si4O11]n6n 2 Asbestos
-
6 Sheet Silicates [Si2O5]n2n 3 Mica
7 Three dimensional Silicates [SiO2]n 4 Quartz

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51. Complete the following reactions

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3. P - BLOCK ELEMENTS - II
1. What is inert pair effect?
As we move down the group in p–block elements,
 The outer ns electrons become inert and do not involve in chemical reactions.
 Only np electrons take part in chemical reaction.
 This is known as inert pair effect.
2. Chalcogens belongs to p–block. Give reason.
 In these elements the last electron enters np orbital.
 Their general electronic configuration is ns2np4.
3. Explain why fluorine always exhibit an oxidation state of -1?
 Small size
 High electronegativity
4. Why fluorine is more reactive than other halogens?
 Small size
 High electronegativity
 The low value of F–F Bond dissociation energy.
5. What are interhalogen compounds? Give the preparation and examples.
Each halogen combines with other halogens to form a series of compounds called
inter halogen compounds.
E.g : BrF, IF5, IF7
6. Give the Properties of inter halogen compounds
 The central atom will be the larger one
 It can be formed only between two halogen and not more than two halogens.
 They can the hybridisation undergo the auto ionization.
7. Give the hybridisation and structure of the following compounds.
Compounds Hybridisation Structure bond pairs / lone pairs
BrF, ClF sp3 Linear 1/3
BrF3, ClF3 sp3d T shaped 3/2
BrF5, IF5 sp3d2 Square pyramidal 5/1
IF7 sp3d3 Pentagonal bipyramidal 7/0
8. Write the valence shell electronic configuration of group-15 elements.

General electronic configuration - ns2np3
N P As Sb Bi
2s22p3 3s23p3 4s24p3 5s25p3 6s26p3

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9. Noble gases have the largest ionisation energy. Why?

 Noble gases have completely filled orbital (ns2np6)in their outer most shell.
 They are extremely stable and have a small tendency to gain or lose electrons.
10. Give the uses of helium.
 Helium is used for filling air balloons.
 He - O2 mixture is used by divers
 It is used in cryogenics
 It is used in electric arc welding of metals
11. Give the uses of Neon
 Neon is used in advertisement as neon sign
 The brilliant red glow is caused by passing electric current through neon gas
under low pressure.
12. Give the uses of argon.
 Argon prevents the oxidation of hot filament
 Prolongs the life in filament bulbs
13. Give the uses of Krypton.
 Krypton is used in fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs etc...
 It is used in airports as approaching lights as they can penetrate through dense fog.
14. Give the uses of Xenon and Radon.
Xenon
 Xenon is used in fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs and lasers.
 It is used in high speed electronic flash bulbs used by photographers
Radon
Radon gas is sealed as small capsules and implanted in the body to destroy cancer growth
15. How will you prepare chlorine in the laboratory?
16. Give the equation for the reaction between chlorine with cold NaOH and hot NaOH.
 Chlorine + cold NaOH Sodium hypochlorite
 Chlorine + hot NaOH Sodium chlorates
17. Give the uses of sulphuric acid.

 As a drying agent.
 In the preparation of explosives
 In the manufacture of fertilizers
 In the manufacture of HCl, HNO3
cd; kjpg;ngz;…. cd; ifapy;….

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18. Give a reason to support that sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent.
19. Sulphuric acid is dibasic acid Explain

Sulpuric acid react with base to give two types of salts namely sulphates and bisulphates.
H2SO4 + NaOH NaHSO4 + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
20. Write the reason for the anomalous behaviour of Nitrogen.
 Small size
 High electro negativity
 High ionization energy
 Form multiple bonds
21. What happens when PCl5 is heated?
PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
22. Give two equations to illustrate the chemical behaviour of phosphine.
1. Combustion
2. Reducing property
23. Explain the preparation of Ammonia by Haber's process

Nitrogen + Hydrogen Fe Ammonia
High T, Low P
24. How is Ammonia prepared from Urea?

Ammonia is formed by the hydrolysis of urea
25. Write about the reducing property of Ammonia.

Ammonia reduces the metal oxides to metal
26. Explain the structure of Ammonia molecule

 Molecular formula of Ammonia is NH3
 Hybridisation sp3
 Pyramidal shape
 N-H bond length is 1.016 Å and H-H bond length is 1.645 Å
 Bond Angle 1070
 Tetrahedral with one lone pair of electrons
21
27. Explain the preparation of Nitric acid by Ostwald's process
28. Nitric acid solution becomes yellow on standing. Why?

Nitric acid decomposes on exposure to sunlight into nitrogen dioxide, water and oxygen.
So becomes yellow colour.
29. Give a reaction between nitric acid and a basic oxide.

Nitric acid reacts with a basic oxide to form salt and water.
3FeO + 10HNO3 ⟶ 3Fe(NO3)3 + NO + 5H2O
30. Write about the oxidising property of Nitric acid (HNO3)
31. Prove that nitric acid is an nitrating agent
32. Write the uses of nitric acid

 Nitric acid is used as an oxidising agent.
 It is used in the preparation of aquaregia.
 Salts of nitric acid are used in photography (AgNO3) and
gunpowder for firearms (NaNO3)
33. Write about the Allotropic forms of Sulphur?
1.White phosphorus 2. Red phosphorus 3. Black phosphorus 4. Scarlet phosphorus
5. Violet phosphorus
White phosphorus Red phosphorus
1 Poisonous in nature It is not poisonous
2 Garlic smell Odourless
3 It shows Phosphorescence Does not show Phosphorescence.
4 Its ignition temperature is very low It does not ignite at low temperatures
It undergoes spontaneous combustion It does not undergo spontaneous
5
in air at room temperature combustion
34. What is phosphorescence?

White phosphorus glows in the dark due to oxidation which is called phosphorescence.
35. How will you prepare phosphine in the laboratory?

22
36. How will you prepare phosphine from Phosphorous acid?
37. Write a short notes on Holmes signal

 In a ship, a pierced container with a mixture of calcium carbide and calcium phosphide.
 When it thrown into sea, liberates phosphine and acetylene
 The liberated phosphine catches fire and ignites acetylene.
 These burning gases serve as a signal to the approaching ships.
38. How will you prepare ozone in the laboratory?
 At 20,000 V about 10% of oxygen is converted into ozonised oxygen.
 Pure ozone is obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied ozonised oxygen.
39. Write about estimation of ozone. (or) Write about the oxidising property of ozone
Ozone oxidises potassium iodide to iodine.
40. Explain the structure of ozone

 The ozone molecule has a bent shape and
 Symmetrical with delocalised bonding between the oxygen atoms
41. Write the uses of oxygen

 Oxygen is essential component of living organisms.
 Oxy-acetylene is used in welding
 Liquid oxygen is used as fuel in rockets
42. How will you prepare SO3 in contact process?
43. Write about the oxidising property of Sulphur dioxide.
44. Write about the reducing property of Sulphur dioxide.

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45. Write about the bleaching action of sulphur dioxide.
This is due to its reduction and temporary effect.

46. Give the uses of sulphur dioxide.
 Sulphur dioxide is used in bleaching hair, silk, wool etc..
 It can be used for disinfecting crops and plants in agriculture.
47. Explain the manufacture of chlorine by Deacon’s process
A mixture of air and HCl is passed through cuprous chloride chamber to form chlorine.
48. Write the preparation of Bleaching powder

Calcium hydroxide + Chlorine Bleaching powder
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
49. Write about the oxidising property of chlorine
50. Write about the bleaching action of chlorine

H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl
HOCl HCl + (O)
Colouring matter + Nascent oxygen Colourless oxidation product
This is due to its oxidation and permanent effect.
51. Give the uses of chlorine
 Chlorine is used in Purification of drinking water
 Bleaching of cotton textiles, paper and rayon
 Extraction of gold and platinum
52. HF is a weak acid, whereas all other halogen acids are strong acid. why?
 HF is slightly ionised
 In HF, due to the presence of strong hydrogen bond
 The electro negativity difference is maximum in HF
53. Why HF cannot be stored in glass bottles?
Moist hydrofluoric acid HF (not dry) rapidly react with sodium silicate in glass.
54. What is Aquaregia?.Write its uses.

 Aquaregia - 3 parts of con. HCl + 1 part of con HNO3
 It is used for dissolving gold, platinum.

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55. Give the uses of hydrofluoric acid

 Hydrochloric acid is used for the manufacture of chlorine
 It is used in the extraction of glue from bone
 It is used purification of bone black
56. Give the oxidation state of halogen in the following.
a) OF2 b) O2F2
Oxidation state of F Oxidation state of F
(+2) + 2F = 0 (+1 x 2) + 2F = 0
F = -2/2 = -1 F = -2/2 = -1
c) Cl2O3 c) I2O4
Oxidation state of Cl Oxidation state of I
2Cl + (-2 x 3) = 0 2I + (-2 x 4) = 0
2Cl - 6 = 0 2I - 8 = 0
Cl = 6/2 = +3 I = 8/2 = +4
57. Write about the preparation of XeF2, XeF4, XeF6
58. Give the hybridisation and structure of the following compounds.

Compounds Hybridisation Structure
XeF2 sp3d Linear
XeF4 sp3d2 Square planar
XeF6 sp3d3 Distorted octahedron
XeOF2 sp3d T Shaped
XeOF4 sp3d2 Square pyramidal
XeO3 sp3d Pyramidal

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59. Write the molecular formula and structural formula for the following molecules.
Nitric acid - HNO3 Phosphine - PH3
sp3 - Pyramidal
Dinitrogen pentoxide - N2O5 Orthophosphrous acid - H3PO3
Sulpuric acid - H2SO4 Phosphoric acid - H3PO4
Marshall’s acid - H2S2O8 Hypophosphrous acid - H3PO2
Caro’s acid - H2SO5 Hypophosphoric acid - H4P2O6
Phosphorus trichloride - PCl3 Pyrophosphoric acid - H4P2O7

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60. Complete the following reactions.
NaNO2 + HCl HNO2 + NaCl
Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2

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4. TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1. What are transition metals? Give examples.
 Transition metals occupy from group 3 to group 12.
 Metals with incomplete filled d-orbital
 Elements placed between s and p-block
 Positive ions formed by these elements have unfilled d-orbitals
 3d series - 4th period - Sc to Zn
4d series - 5th period - Y to Cd
5d series - 6th period - La, Hf to Hg
6d series - 7th period - Ac, Rf to Cn (radioactive elements)
2. Compare the ionization enthalpies of first series of the transition elements.
As we move from left to right in a transition metal series, the ioniz ation enthalpy increases.
This is due to increase in nuclear charge corresponding to the filling of d electrons.
 From Sc to Ti - increases
 From Ti to Cr - no change.
 From Cr to Fe - increases
 From Fe to Cu - slightly changes
 From Cu to Zn - increases
3. Explain the oxidation states of 4d series elements.
 The energies of ns and (n – 1)d orbitals are fairly close to each other
 The number of oxidation states increases with the number of electrons available
 It decreases as the number of paired electrons increases.
 The first and last elements show less number of oxidation states and
the middle elements with more number of oxidation states.
 The oxidation states of 4d metals vary from +3 for Y and + 2 to +8 for Ru, Cd for +2.
4. Explain variable oxidation states of 3d series elements?
 The energies of (n-1)d and ns orbital are fairly close to each other
 The number of oxidation states increases with the number of electrons available
 It decreases as the number of paired electrons increases
 The first and last elements show less number of oxidation states and
the middle elements with more number of oxidation states.
 The oxidation states of 3d metals vary from +3 for Sc and + 2 to +7 for Mn,
Cu shows +1 and +2
5. Which metal in the 3d series exhibits +1 oxidation state most frequently and why?
 Cu is only exhibits +1 oxidation state
 Cu has electronic configuration [Ar] 3d104s1 and after losing one electron it acquires a
stable 3d10 configuration which is more stable.

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6. Transition metals show high melting points. Why?

 High attractive forces between the atoms
 Strong metallic bond.
7. What is the reason for d-block elements to form alloys?
 Similar atomic sizes and crystal structure
 One metal atom can be easily replaced by another metal atom to form an alloy.
 Ex: Gold-Copper alloy.
8. Why do transition elements form more number of complexes?
 Small size
 High positive charge density.
 Availability of low energy vacant (n-1)d orbitals to accept an electron pairs.
9. What are interstitial compounds?
An interstitial compound is formed when small atoms like carbon, hydrogen, boron,
nitrogen are trapped in the interstitial holes in a metal lattice.
Ex : TiC
10. What are properties interstitial compounds?
 They are hard
 Electrical and thermal conductivity.
 High melting points
 Transition metal hydrides are powerful reducing agents
 Metallic carbides are chemically inert.
11. Write the electronic configuration of Ce4+ and Co2+
 Electronic configuration of Ce4+ is [Xe] 4f0 5d0 6s0
 Electronic configuration of Co2+ is [Ar] 3d7 4s0
12. Which is more stable? Fe3+ or Fe2+ explain.
 Electronic configuration of Fe 3+ is [Ar] 3d5
 Electronic configuration of Fe 2+ is [Ar] 3d6
 Fe3+ is more stable, since it has half filled orbitals
13. Explain why Cr2+ is strongly reducing while Mn3+ is strongly oxidizing.
 E0 value for Cr2+ is -0.91, E0 Value for Mn3+ is +1.51V
 If E0 of a metal is large and negative, the metal is a powerful reducing agent.
 Hence Cr2+ is strongly reducing
14. Which is stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+?
 E0 value for Cr2+ is -0.91, E0 Value for Fe2+ is -0.44V
 If E0 of a metal is large and negative, the metal is a powerful reducing agent.
 Hence Cr2+ is strongly reducing

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15. The E0 M2+ / M+ value for copper is positive. Suggest a possible reason for this.
 The elemental copper is more stable than Cu2+.
 Copper has a high energy of atomization and low hydration energy
 Hence Cu2+ is easily reduce to elemental copper.
16. Why first ionization enthalpy of chromium is lower than that of zinc?
 Electronic configuration of Zn - [Ar] 4s23d10
 Electronic configuration of Cr - [Ar] 4s13d5
 While in case of Chromium electron is easily removed from half filled 3d5 orbital
with less amount of energy.
 Hence first ionization enthalpy of chromium is lower.
17. Explain the variation in EO M3+ / M2+, 3d series.
 The standard electrode potential for the M3+ / M2+ half-cell gives the relative stability
between M3+ and M2+.
 The negative values for Ti, V, and Cr indicate that the higher oxidation state is
preferred.
 If we want to reduce such a stable Cr3+ ion, which has high negative value for
reduction potential like zinc (E0= -0.76 V ) is required.
 The high reduction potential of M3+ / M2+ indicates Mn2+ is more stable than Mn3+.
18. Why do Zirconium and Hafnium exhibit similar properties?
 3d and 4d elements exhibit similar ionic radius due to lanthanoid contraction.
 Hence Zirconium and Hafnium exhibit similar properties
19. Describe the preparation of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
 Ore - Chromite
 Concentration - Gravity separation
 Chromite + Sodium carbonate O2 Sodium chromate
 Sodium chromate + con. H2SO4 Sodium-di-chromate
 Sodium-di-chromate KCl Potassium-di-chromate
20. Write chromyl chloride test.

Potassium-di-chromate + Potassium con.H2SO4 Chromyl chloride
chloride (orange red vapours)
This reaction is used to confirm the presence of chloride ion in qualitative analysis.

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21. Explain Hume-Rothery rule for alloy formation

 Both the solvent and the solute must have the same crystal structure and valence
 The difference between the atomic radii of solvent and solute is less than 15%
 Their electronegativity difference must be close to zero.
22. What is Zeigler-Natta catalyst? Mention its use.
 Mixture of TiCl4 and Trialkyl aluminium is called a Zeigler-Natta catalyst
 It is used for polymerization
23. Give the difference between paramagnetism and diamagnetism

Diamagnetism Paramagnetism
1 Having paired electrons Having unpaired electrons
2 Repelled by the magnetic field Attracted by the magnetic field
3 Cu +, Zn2+ Ni2+, Fe2+
24. Which of the following is coloured?

Colourless
Colourless
Colourless
Coloured
Coloured
Coloured
Coloured
Coloured
Coloured
Coloured
25. Write the Electronic configuration of Cr and Cu

 Expected electronic configuration Chromium (Z = 24)
Actual electronic configuration of Chromium
 Expected electronic configuration Copper (Z = 29)
Actual electronic configuration of Copper

31
26. Mn 2+ is more stable than Mn 4+ Why?

 Electronic configuration of Mn 4+ - [Ar] 3d3
 Electronic configuration of Mn 2+ - [Ar] 3d5
 Mn 2+ is more stable, since it has half filled orbitals
27. Explain why compounds of Cu 2+ are coloured but those of Zn2+ are colourless.
 Electronic configuration of Cu 2+ is [Ar] 3d9
One unpaired electron, hence it is coloured
 Electronic configuration of Zn2+ is [Ar] 3d10
No unpaired electrons. So colourless.
28. Sc and Ti4+ions are colourless why?
3+
 Vacant 3d0 orbital

 No unpaired electrons
 Do not have d-d transaction.
29. Why are Cu+ and Zn2+ are colourless.
 Completely filled d10 orbital
 No unpaired electrons
 Do not have d-d transaction.
30. Derive Standard electrode potential
Standard electrode potential is the value of the standard emf of a cell in which
molecular hydrogen under 1atm pressure and 273K temperature is oxidised to
solvated protons at the electrode.
31. Give the action of heat in Potassium dichromate
32. Write the action of heat in Potassium permanganate
33. Write the oxidising nature of Potassium dichromate

 It oxidises iodide ions to iodine
 It oxidises sulphide ion to sulphur
34. Write the oxidation of Potassium permanganate

In acid medium
In alkaline medium
In neutral medium

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35. Give the uses of Potassium dichromate

 It used in leather tanneries
 It is used in dyeing and printing
 It is used as a strong oxidizing agent.
36. Give the uses of Potassium permanganate
 It is used for the treatment of various skin infections
 It is used as a strong oxidizing agent.
 It used in water treatment industries to remove iron and hydrogen sulphide
37. Calculate the Equivalent weight of KMnO4 in Acid, alkaline, neutral medium.
38. Calculate the number of unpaired electrons and magnetic moment.

33
INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1. What are inner transition elements? Give an examples.
 Electrons are filled in (n-2)f orbitals
 4f series – Lanthanoids – Ce to Lu (14 elements)
 5f series – Actinoids – Th to Lr (14 elements).
2. Justify the position of Lanthanoids and Actinoids in the periodic table.
 Lanthanoids and Actinoids are grouped together and placed at the bottom of
the periodic table.
 Lanthanoids – 4f series elements - group 3 and period 6 - from Ce to Lu - 14 elements
 Actinoids – 5f series elements - group 3 and period 7 - from Th to Lr - 14 elements
 All these elements have similar physical and chemical properties
 General electronic configuration of
Lanthanoids - [Xe] 4f0-14 5d0-1 6s2
Actinoids - [Rn] 5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2
3. What are actinides? Give three examples.
 Actinoids – 5f series elements
 Group 3 and period 7
 From Th to Lr - 14 elements
 All the actinoids are radioactive
 General electronic configuration of Actinoids - [Rn] 5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2
 Ex. - Th, U, Lr.
4. Write the electronic configuration of of lanthanoids and actinoids.
 Lanthanoids - [Xe] 4f0-14 5d0-1 6s2
 Actinoids - [Rn] 5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2
5. Write the oxidation state of of lanthanoids and actinoids.
Lanthanoids Actinoids
Common Oxidation state +3 +3
Other Oxidation states +2, +4 +2, +4, +5, +6, +7
6. Why Europium (II) is more stable than Cerium (II)?

 Electronic configuration of Cerium (II) - [Xe]4f1 5d1 6s0
 Electronic configuration of Europium (II) -[Xe]4f7 5d0 6s0
 Europium (II) is more stable, since it has half filled orbitals
7. Why are Gd3+ and Lu3+ are colourless?
 Gd 3+ has half filled 4f7 orbitals
 Lu3+ has completely filled 4f14 orbitals
 Hence there is no f-f transaction.
 So they are colourless.
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8. Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than the lanthanoid

contraction, why?
 These 5f orbital have poor shielding effect than 4f orbital which leads to
decrease in atomic or ionic radii.
 So Actinoid shows greater contraction.
9. Out of Lu(OH)3 and La(OH)3 which is more basic and why?
 La(OH)3 is more basic.
 As we move from Ce3+ to Lu3+, the basic character of Ln3+ decrease .
 Due to lanthanoid contraction, the decrease in the size of Ln3+ ions,
the covalent character increases
10. What is lanthanoid contraction and what are the effects of lanthanoid contraction?
As we move across 4f series, the atomic and ionic radii of Lanthanoids show gradual
decrease with increase in atomic number.
This decrease in ionic size is called Lanthanoid contraction.
Cause of lanthanoid contraction - The shielding effect of 4f elelctrons are poor
Effects of lanthanoid contraction
 Size and radius of ions decreses
 Basicity decreases
 Covalent character increases
 The elements of second and third transition series resemble each other more closely.
11. Compare lanthanoids and actinoids.
Lanthanoids Actinoids
1. Colourless Coloured
They show less tendency to form They show greater tendency to form
2.
complexes. complexes
3. They do not form oxocations They do form oxocations
Differentiating electrons enters in Differentiating electrons enters in
4.
4f orbital. 5forbital.
5. Binding energy of 4f orbitals are higher Binding energy of 5f orbitals are lower
6. Oxidation state +2, +3, +4 Oxidation state +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7

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5. COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
1. Give the difference between double salts and coordination compounds
Double salt Co-ordination compound
Dissociates to give simple ions in
1 Never dissociates to give simple ions.
solutions.
2 Loose its identity Does not loose its identity
3 Positive and negative ions are present Simple and complex ions are present
Potash alum;
4 K4[Fe(CN)6]
K2SO4.Al2 (SO4)3. 24H2O
2. Define central atom / ion

 The central atom / ion is the one that occupies the central position in a coordination
entity.
 Binds the ligands to itself by coordinate bonds.
 Act as a Lewis acid
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] the central metal ion is Fe2+
3. Define Ligands.
 Atoms or group of atoms bound to the central atom / ion
 Act a Lewis base
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] the ligand is CN -
4. Define coordination number.
 The number of ligand donor atom bonded to a central metal in a complex
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] the coordination number of Fe2+ is 6.
5. Define coordination sphere (or) complex ion.
 The central metal atom and the ligands are enclosed in the square bracket with its net
charge.
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] the coordination sphere is [Fe(CN)6]4-
6. Define coordination polyhedron.
 The three dimensional special arrangement of ligands that are directly bonded to the
central metal
atom is called Coordination polyhedron.
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] the coordination polyhedron is octahedral
7. Define oxidation state (number)
 Net charge
= oxidation state of the central metal + [(no of ligands) x (charge on the ligand)]
 In K4[Fe(CN)6] oxidation state Fe is +2
eP Vioahf gpwg;gJ cd; jtwpy;iy....

VioahfNt ,wg;gJ jhd; cd; jtW....
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8. Explain the classification of complexes based on kind of ligands

1. Homoleptic complex :
 The central metal ion / atom is coordinated to only one kind of ligand
 K4[Fe(CN)6]
2. Heteroleptic complex :
 The central metal ion / atom is coordinated to more than one kind of ligand.
 K4[Fe(CN)3 Br3]
9. Write the postulates of Werner’s theory
The central metal atom exhibit two type of valence
1. Primary valency 2. Secondary valency
PRIMARY VALENCY SECONDARY VALENCY
Oxidation number of the central metal ion Coordination number of the central metal ion
It is non directional It is directional
Ionisable valency Non ionisable valency
Satisfied by negative ions (or) neutral
Always satisfied by negative ions
molecules (or) positive ions.
There are two spheres of attraction around a metal atom/ion in a complex.

1. The inner sphere (coordination sphere)
The groups present in this sphere are firmly attached to the central metal ion.
2. The outer sphere (Ionsation sphere)
The groups present in this sphere are loosely attached to the central metal ion.
Structure of compound [Co(NH3)6]Cl3
Limitation of Werner‟s theory :-

It does not explain the colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds.
10. Write the oxidation state, coordination number , nature of ligand, magnetic property
and electronic configuration in octahedral crystal field for K4[Mn(CN)6]
Complex K4[Mn(CN)6]
Oxidation state +2
Coordination number 6
Nature of ligand CN- strong ligand
Magnetic property Paramaganetic
electronic configuration in octahedral crystal field t2g5 ego
37
11. Classify the following ligand based on the number of donor atoms
a) NH3 b) en c) OX2- d) pyridine
Ligand Number of donor atoms Type of ligand
NH3 1 (1N) Monodentate

en 2 (2N) Bidentate
OX2- 2 (2O) Bidentate
pyridine 1 (1N) Monodentate
12. Explain Valence bond theory (VBT)

 The ligand metal bond is covalent bond and formed by sharing of electrons between the
central metal atom and the ligands.
 The ligand should contain atleast one filled orbital with a lone pair of electrons.
 To accept the electron pair donated by the ligands the central metal atom should contain
vacant orbitals.
 The vacant orbital of the metal atom undergoes hybridization. Hybridization is the
intermixing of atomic orbitals of same energy to give equal number of new orbitals of
same energy.
 The vacant metal orbitals linearly overlap with the filled ligand orbitals to form metal
ligand coordinate sigma bonds.
 The hybridized orbitals are directionsl in space and give geometry to the complex.
Coordination Number Hybridisation Geometry
2 sp Linear
4 sp3 Tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
13. What are the limitations of VB theory ?

 It does not explain the colour of the complex
 It considers only the spin only magnetic moments and does not consider the other
components of magnetic moments.
 It does not provide a quantitative explanation as to why certain complexes are inner
Orbital complexes and the others are outer orbital complexes for the same metal.
14. [Ti (H2O)6]3+ is coloured, while [Sc (H2O)6] 3+ is colourless - Explain.
 Sc 3+ have vacant do orbitals, No unpaired electrons.
No d-d transaction. Therefore colourless
 Ti 3+ ion has one unpaired electron for d-d transition, hence it is coloured
15. Arrange the following in order of increasing molar conductivity
i) Mg[Cr(NH3) Cl5] ii) [Cr(NH3)5 Cl]3 [CoF6]2 iii) [Cr(NH3)3 Cl3]
[Cr(NH3)3 Cl3]  Mg[Cr(NH3) Cl5]  [Cr(NH3)5 Cl]3 [CoF6]2
38
16. What is the coordination entity formed when excess of liquid ammonia is added to
an aqueous solution of copper sulphate?
CuSO4 + 4NH3 [Cu (NH3)4] SO4
Tetraamminecopper (II) sulphate
So, the coordination entity is [Cu (NH3)4]2+
17. A solution of [Ni (H2O)6]2+ is green whereas a solution of [Ni (CN)4] 2- is colourless.
Explain.
 [Ni (H2O)6]2+ - H2O is a weaker ligand. Don’t pair d electrons.
Presence of unpaired electron, d-d transaction.Therefore green in colour.
 [Ni (CN)4] 2- - CN- is a strong ligand, d electrons are paried.
Absence of unpaired electron. No d-d transaction. Therefore colourless.
18. Discuss the types of structural isomerism.
Coordination isomerism
The interchange of ligands between the cationic and the anionic coordination entities
[Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6]  [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6]
Ionisation Isomerism
The exchange of counter ions with one or more ligands in the coordination entity.
These isomers will give different ions in solution
[Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4  [Co(NH3)5 SO4]Br
Linkage isomerism
When an ambidentate ligand is bonded to two different donor atoms by the central metal
ion are called linkage isomers
[Cr(H2O)5 NO2]Br  [Cr(H2O)5 (ONO)]Br
Solvate (or) Hydrate isomers
When solvent molecules like water are exchange by the ligands in the crystal lattice of the
coordination compounds is called solvate isomerism
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3  [Cr(H2O)5 Cl] Cl2 .H2O  [Cr(H2O)4 Cl2] Cl 2H2O
Violet colour Pale green colour Dark green colour
19. Why tetrahedral complexes do not exhibit geometrical isomerism.
 All the four ligands are adjacent to one another in tetrahedral complex.
 As the relative positions of donor atoms of ligands attached to the central atom are
same with respect to each other
ntw;wpf;Fk; Njhy;tpf;Fk; rpW tpj;jpahrk; jhd;...

flikiar; nra;jhy; ntw;wp, flikf;F nra;jhy; Njhy;tp..

39
20. Explain Optical isomerism with an example.

Conditions for Optically activity
Compounds with chiral atoms and Enantiomers
Types of Optical isomerism
1. Dextro Isomer - It rotate the plane of polarized light towards the right direction.
2. Laevo Isomer - It rotate the plane of polarized light towards the left direction.
Ex : cis[Co(en)3]3+
+
21. Give the structures of isomers of [CoCl2(en)2]
+
 cis [Co (en)2 Cl2 ] - Optically active.
+
 trans [Co (en)2 Cl2 ] - Optically inactive.
22. List the features of crystal field theory.

 The bonding between the ligand and the central metal atom is an ionic bond.
 In the coordination compounds, the central metal atom and the ligands are considered as
point charges for charged metal atoms and electric dipoles for neutral metal atom.
 In the isolated state,all the five d-orbitals are degenerate.
 The ligands form a spherical field of negative charge around the metal atom. Due to
repulsion between the electrons, the energy of the five d-orbitals will increase.
 The ligands approach the metal atom in the bonding direction. Due to repulsion, the
energies of eg orbitals dx2-y2 and dz2 lying along the axis will increase .
the five d-orbitals will split into two sets. This is called crystal field splitting.
 When the ligand approaches further there will be an attraction between the negative
charged ligand and the positive charged metal ion.
 The net energy decreases and leads to complex formation.
23. Define crystal field splitting energy?
Crystal field splitting energy Δ=hcῡ
h = Plank’s constant c = velocity of light ῡ = wavelength

40
24. Define crystal field stabilizing energy (CFSE)

It is the energy difference between the electronic configuration of the ligand field and
the isotropic field
CFSE (ΔEO) = ( ELF) - ( EISO)
25. Give the IUPAC names for the following coordination compounds.
Sodium 2,2’,2’’,2’’’- (ethane-1,2 diyldinitrilo)
Na2 [ Ni (EDTA)]
Tetraacetato nickelate(II)
[Ag (CN)2]- dicyanidoargentate(I) ion
[Ag (NH3)2]+ diammine silver(I) ion
[Ag (NH3)2] Cl diammine silver(I) chloride
[Co (en)3] 2 (SO4)3 tris (ethane1,2-diamine) cobalt (III) sulphate
[Co (ONO) (NH3)5]2+ penta ammine nitrito- κ -O-cobalt(III)ion
[Co (NH3)5Cl] 2+ Penta ammine chloride cobalt (III) ion
[Fe (CN)6]4- Hexacyanido ferrate (II) ion
[Fe F6]4- Hexa fluorido ferrate (II) ion
[Cu (NH3)4] SO4 Tetra ammine copper(II) sulphate
[Cu (NH3)3 (H2O)3] Cl3 Triammine triaqua chromium(III) chloride
[Cu (NH3)2 Cl2] Diammine dichlorido copper(II)
[Pt (NH3)2Cl (NO2) ] Diammine chlorido nitrito- κ -N-platinum(II)
26. Write the formula for the following coordination compounds.
Potassium hexacyanido ferrate (II)
Penta carbonyl iron(0)
Penta ammine nitrito- κ-N-cobalt(III)ion [ Co (NH3)5 (NO2) ]2+
Hexa ammine cobalt (III) sulphate
Sodium tetrafluorido dihydroxido chromate(III) Na3 [ Cr F4 (OH)2]
Potassium trioxalato aluminate(III) K3 [ Al (C2O4)3]

41
27. In an tetrahedral crystal field, draw the figure to show splitting of d orbitals.
 When the ligand approaches the metal diagonally, the t2g orbitals are closer to
the ligands then the eg orbitals.
 To maintain the average energy, the energy of dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals will decrease
by 3/5∆t.
 The energy of dxy, dyz and dxz will increase by 2/5∆t
 ∆t is the crystal field splitting energy for tetrahedral complexes.
28. In an octahedral crystal field, draw the figure to show splitting of d orbitals.
 When the ligand approaches the metal along the axis. eg orbitals are closer to
the ligands than the t2g orbitals.
 To maintain the average energy, the energy of dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals will increased
by 3/5∆0.
 The energy of dxy, dyz and dxz will decreased by 2/5∆0.
 ∆0 is the crystal field splitting energy for octahedral complexes.
42
29. Based on VB theory explain why [Cr(NH3)6]3+ is paramagnetic, while [Ni(CN)4]2– is

diamagnetic
Complex [Cr(NH3)6]3+
Outer electronic configuration of 24Cr 3d4 4s2
3d3 4 s0 4p
3+
Outer electronic configuration of Cr
Nature of ligand NH3 weak field ligand - no pairing of 3d electrons

3d 4s 4p
Outer orbital of metal atom in presence

of ligands
Hybridisation d2sp3
Co ordination number 6
Geometry Octahedral (Inner orbital complex)
Number of unpaired electon 3
Magnetic property paraamagnetic
Magnetic moment
Complex [Ni(CN)4]2–
Outer electronic configuration of 28Ni 3d8 4s2
3d8 4 s0 4p
2+
Outer electronic configuration of Ni
Nature of ligand CN- strong field ligand - pairing of 3d electrons

3d 4s 4p
Outer orbital of metal atom in

presence of ligands
Hybridisation dsp2
Geometry Square planer
Magnetic property diamagnetic
Magnetic moment
43
30. On the basis of VB theory explain the nature of bonding in [Co (C2O4)3]3–
Complex [Co(C2O4)3]3–
Outer electronic configuration of 27Co 3d7 4s2
3d6 4 s0 4p
Outer electronic configuration of Co3+
Nature of ligand C2O42- strong field ligand - pairing of 3d electrons

3d 4s 4p
presence of ligands
Hybridisation d2sp3
Geometry Octahedral (Inner orbital complex)
Magnetic moment
31. Show that [CoF6]3– is octahedral and paramagnetic using VB theory

Complex [CoF6]3–
Outer electronic configuration of
3d7 4s2
27Co
3d6 4 s0 4p
Outer electronic configuration of
Co3+
Nature of ligand -
F weak field ligand - no pairing of 3d electrons
3d 4s 4p

presence of ligands 3d 4s 4p 4d
Hybridisation sp3d2
Geometry Octahedral (outer orbital complex)
Magnetic moment

44
32. On the basis of VB theory explain the nature of bonding in [Ni(CO)4]

Complex [Ni(CO)4]
8 2
Outer electronic configuration of 28Ni 3d 4s
0
3d8 4 s2 4p
Outer electronic configuration of Ni
Nature of ligand CO strong field ligand - pairing of 3d electrons

3d 4s 4p
presence of ligands
Hybridisation sp3
Geometry Tetrahedral
Magnetic moment
33. Show that [Fe(CN)6]3– is octahedral and paramagnet using VB theory

Complex [Fe(CN)6]3–
Outer electronic configuration of 26Fe 3d6 4s2
3d5 4 s0 4p
3+
Outer electronic configuration of Fe
Nature of ligand CN- strong field ligand - pairing of 3d electrons

3d 4s 4p

presence of ligands
Hybridisation d2sp3
Geometry Octahedral
Magnetic property paramagnetic
Magnetic moment

45
34. Give the uses of coordination compound.

Medicine
 Ca - EDTA - treatment of lead and radioactivity poisoning.
 Cis - platin - antitumor drug in cancer treatment.
Biologically
 Red blood corpuscles (RBC) : Fe2+- Porphyrin complex
Carrying oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs
 Chlorophyll : Mg2+- Porphyrin complex - Photosynthesis
 Carboxypeptidase : Zn2+ complex – digestion
Industry
 Phthalo blue : Cu2+ complex - printing ink and in the packaging industry
 EDTA : 1. Separation of lanthanides,
2. Softening of hard water
3. Removing of lead poisoning.
Catalysts
 [Rh(PPh3)3Cl] - Wilkinson’s catalyst is used for hydrogenation of alkenes.
 [TiCl4] + Al (C2H5)3 - Ziegler-Natta catalyst is used in the polymerization of ethene.
35. Describe the nature of bonding in metallic carbonyls.
 In metal carbonyls, the bond between metal atom and the carbonyl ligand consists of
two components.
 An electron pair donation from the carbon atom of carbonyl ligand into a vacant d-
orbital of central metal atom.
 This electron pair donation forms M  CO sigma bond.
 This sigma bond formation increases the electron density in metal d orbitals and makes
the metal electron rich.
 In order to compensate for this increased electron density, a filled metal d-orbital
interacts with the empty π* orbital on the carbonyl ligand and transfers the added
electron density back to the ligand.
 This second component is called π-back bonding
 Thus in metal carbonyls, electron density moves from ligand to metal through sigma
bonding and from metal to ligand through pi bonding, this synergic effect accounts for
strong M ← CO bond in metal carbonyls.

46
36. Define stability constant

The stability constant () of a complex is the measure of its resistance to replaces one
ligand by another
37. What is metal carbonyls? describe the Classification of metal carbonyls.

Metal carbonyls
The transition metal complexes of carbon monoxide, containing Metal- Carbon bond.
Ex. [Ni(CO)4]
Classification
Based on the number of metal atoms present
1. Mono nuclear Carbonyls
These compounds contain only one metal atom - [Ni(CO)4]
2. Poly nuclear carbonyls
These compounds contain more than one metal atom - [Mn2(CO)10]
Based on the structure
1. Non – bridged Carbonyls
a. These compounds contain contain only terminal carbonyls -[Ni(CO)4]
b. These compounds contain terminal carbonyls as well as Metal-Metal bonds.
Ex. [Mn2 (CO)10]
2. Bridged carbonyls
These will contain bridging carbonyl ligands along with terminalcarbonyl ligands and
Metal-Metal bonds
Ex. - [Fe2 (CO)9]

47
6. SOLID STATE
1. What are the general characteristics of solids?
 Solids have definite volume and shape
 Solids are rigid and incompressible
 Solids have strong cohesive forces
 Solids have short inter atomic distances.
2. Describe classification of solids
I. Crystalline solids
1. Ionic crystals - NaCl
2. Covalent crystals - Diamond
3. Molecular crystals - Glucose
4. Metallic crystals - Au
5. Atomic solids - frozen elements of Group 18
II. Amorphous solids - Glass, rubber.
3. Differentiate crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
Crystalline Solid Amorphous Solid
1 Definite Shape Irregular Shape
2 True Solids Pseudo Solids
3 Anisotropic Nature Isotropic Nature
4 Have Sharp Melting Point. No Sharp Melting Point.
5 Orderly arrangement of constituents. Random arrangement of Constituents.
6 Ex. - NaCl Ex. - Glass
4. What is meant by Isotropy and Anisotropy?

Isotropy Anisotropy
Uniformity in all direction. Not Uniformity in all the direction
Same physical properties in all direction Different physical properties in different
direction.
Ex. - Glass Ex. - NaCl
5. Why ionic crystals are hard and brittle?

 The structural units of an ionic crystal are cations and anions.
 They are bound together by strong electrostatic attractive forces.
 Hence ionic crystals are hard and battle.
6. What are the characteristics of ionic crystal?
 Hard
 Dissolved in water.
 High Melting Point.
 Do not conduct electricity in solid state
 Conduct electricity in molten state
48
7. Ionic crystals do conduct electricity in molten state or solution but

do not conduct electricity in solid state. Why?
Ionic crystals do conduct electricity in molten state because, the ions are free to move
in the molten state or solution.
8. What is Covalent solids? What are the characteristics of Covalent crystal?
In covalent solids, the atoms are bound together in a three dimensional network
entirely by covalent bonds. Ex- Diamond
 Hard .
 High Melting Point.
 Poor thermal and electrical conductors
9. What are molecular crystals?
 The constituents are neutral molecules
 They are held together by weak van der Waals forces
 Ex.- Glucose
10. Explain types of molecular crystals.
1. Non-polar molecular crystals
 Constituent molecules are held together by weak London forces.
 Have low Melting Point.
 Ex. naphthalene, anthracene
2. Polar molecular crystals
 They are held together by relatively strong dipole-dipole interactions.
 Have high Melting Point.
 Solid CO2, Solid NH3
3. Hydrogen bonded molecular crystals
 Constituent molecules areheld together by hydrogen bonds.
 Soft solids
 Solid ice, Glucose
11. What is Metallic crystals? What are the characteristics of Metallic crystals?
The lattice points are occupied by positive metal ions and a cloud of electrons
pervades the space. Ex : Cu, Fe, Au
Characteristics of Metallic solids
 Hard and bright lustre
 Have high melting point.
 Electrical and thermal conductivity.
12. Classify the following solids a. P4 b. Brass c. Diamond d. NaCl e. Iodine
a P4 Molecular solids
b Brass Metallic solids
c Diamond Covalent solids
d NaCl Ionic solids
e Iodine Molecular solids
49
13. Define unit cell

A basic repeating structural unit of crystalline solid is called unit cell.
14. Define crystal lattice.
The regular arrangement of atoms throughout the crystal is called a crystal lattice.
15. What is meant by the term coordination number? What is the coordination
number of atoms in sc, bcc, fcc structure?
 The number of nearest neighbours that surrounding a particle in a crystal is called
the coordination number of that particle.
 sc - 6, bcc - 8, fcc - 12
16. What are primitive and non-primitive unit cell?
Primitive unit cell - A unit cell contain only one lattice point
Made up from the lattice points at each of the corners.
Non –primitive cell - There are additional lattice point with in the unit cell .
17. Explain briefly seven types of unit cell.
S.No. Unit cell Edge length; Edge angles
1 Cubic a=b=c α = β =  = 900
2 Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β =  ≠ 900
3 Tetragonal a=b≠ c α = β =  = 900
4 Hexagonal a=b≠ c α = β = 900,  = 1200
5 Orthorhombic a≠ b≠ c α = β =  = 900
6 Monoclinic a≠ b≠ c α =  = 900, β ≠ 900
7 Triclinic a≠ b≠ c α ≠ β ≠  ≠ 900
18. What is the two dimensional coordination number of a molecule in square close
packed layer?
In this arrangement each sphere is in contact with four of its neighbors.
Hence its coordination number is 4.
19. What is Bragg’s equation?
 n - order of diffraction
 λ - wavelength of X-ray
 d - inter planar distance between two successive planes
 - angle of diffraction
20. Define Packing efficiency.
Total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell
Packing efficiency = ------------------------------------------------------------ X 100
Volume of the unit cell
sc - 52.38 %, bcc - 68 %, fcc - 74 %

50
21. Draw the Cubic unit cell and Calculate the number of atoms in sc, bcc, fcc unit cell.
Cubic unit cell Number of atoms
Simple Cubic (sc)
Body centred cubic (bcc)
=1+1=2
Face centred cubic (fcc)
=1+3=4
22. Define Imperfection in solids and give its types and advantages.
The defects in the arrangement of the particles in a crystal, affects the physical and
chemical properties. They are called as Imperfection in solids.
They are Four types.
1, Point defect, 2, Line defect 3, Interfacial defect 4, Volume defect
Advantages of Imperfection in solids
 Increases the electrical conductivity of semi conductor like Silicon
 Ferromagnetic substance can be magnetized and demagnetized by imperfection.
23. Atoms X and Y form bcc crystalline structure. Atom X is present at the corners of
the cube and Y is at the centre of the cube. What is the formula of the compound?
Number of corner atoms (X) = Nc/8 = 8/8 = 1
Number of body centre atoms (Y) = Nb/1 = 1/1 = 1
Formula of the compound = XY
24. Sodium metal crystallizes in bcc structure with the edge length of the unit cell is
4.3x10-8cm. Calculate the radius of sodium atom.
Edge length a = 4.3 x 10-8 cm
Radius of sodium atom
r = 1.86 x 10-8 cm

51
25. What are point defects and give the classifications of point defects
Point defects are the deviations from ideal arrangement that occurs at some atoms
in a crystalline substance.
26. Explain Schottky defect and Frenkel defect. (or) Explain Stiochiometric defect.
Schottky defect
 Arises due to the missing of equal number of cations and anions from the crystal lattice
 Ex: NaCl
 Size of anion and cation similar
 Lowers its density
 Does not change the stoichiometry of the crystal.
Frenkel defect
 Arises due to dislocation of ions from its crystal lattice
 The ion which is missing from the lattice point occupies an interstitial position.
 Ex : AgBr
 Size of anion and cation differ
 Does not affect the density of crystal

52
27. Write short notes on metal excess and metal deficiency defect with an example. (or)
Explain Non-stiochiometric defect.
Metal excess defect
Arises due to presence of more number of metal ions as compared to anions
Ex : NaCl, ZnO
Metal deficiency defect

Arises due to the presence of less number of cations than the anions
Ex : FeO
28. Write a short note on impurity defect?

 A general method of introducing defects in ionic solids by adding impurity ions.
 Addition of CdI2 to silver chloride yields solid solutions where the divalent cation
Cd+2 occupies the position of Ag+.
 In order to maintain the electrical neutrality of the crystal, proportional number of
Ag+ ions leaves the lattice.
29. Why ZnO turns yellow on heating ?
 On heating ZnO loses oxygen atom and forms a free Zn2+ ion.
 This Zn2+ ion and electrons occupy the interstitial position.
 This is due to formation of Metal excess defect.
30. Explain the calculation of density of unit cell.

53
31. Explain a) AAAA b) ABABAB c) ABCABC type of three dimensional packing

with the help of neat diagram.
a) AAAA three dimensional packing (sc-Arrangement)
 This type can be obtained by repeating the AAAA type
two dimensional arrangements in three dimensions
 Spheres in one layer sitting directly on top of those in the
previous layer, so that all layers are identical.
 All spheres of different layers of crystal are perfectly aligned
horizontally and also vertically
 Each sphere is in contact with 6 neighbouring spheres –
4 in its own layer, one above and one below.
 So the coordination number is 6.
b) ABABAB three dimensional packing (bcc-Arrangement)
 The spheres in the first layer (A type) are slightly separated
 The second layer is formed by arranging the spheres in the
depressions between the spheres in layer A.
 The third layer is the repeat of the first.
 This pattern ABABAB is repeated throughtout the crystal
 Each sphere is in contact with 8 neighbouring spheres –
4 above and 4 below.
 So the coordination number is 8.
c. ABC ABC three dimensional packing (fcc- Arrangement)
 The first layer is formed by arranging the spheres as in the
case of two dimensional ABAB arrangements.
 The second row fit into the depression of first row.
 A tetrahedral voids and octahedral voids are formed
in the first layer
 The third layer fit in octahedral voids of second layer.
 The third layer is different from other two layers
 Each sphere is in contact 12 neighbouring spheres-
6 in its own layer, 3 above and 3 below.
 So the coordination number is 12
32. Distinguish between hexagonal close packing and cubic close packing.
Hexagonal close packing Cubic close packing.
aba - arrangement abc - arrangement
The unit cell has 6 spheres The unit cell has 4 spheres
Tetrahedral voids of the second layer are Octahedral voids of he third layer may be
covered by the spheres of the third layer. placed over the second layer
The third layer is directly over a first layer The third layer placed over the II-nd layer.
54
33. Distinguish tetrahedral and octahedral voids.

Tetrahedral voids Octahedral voids.
When the spheres of the second layer is When the spheres of the second layer
1
above the voids of the first layer partially covers the voids of the first layer
The number of Tetrahedral voids is The number of Tetrahedral voids is given
2
given by ‘2n’. by ‘2n’.
3 spheres in the lower layer and one in 3 spheres in the lower layer and 3 in the
3
the upper layer. Total 4 spheres upper layer. Total 6 spheres.
When the 6 spheres are joined the When the 4 spheres are joined the
4
center gives a Octahedron. centergives a Tetrahedron
34. Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of body centered cubic crystal.
Total number of spheres belong to a unit cell in bcc arrangement = 2
Packing Efficiency of body centered cubic crystal (bcc) = 68 %

55
35 Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of a simple cubic crystal (sc).
Total number of spheres belong to a unit cell in sc arrangement = 1
Packing Efficiencyof simple cubic crystal (sc) = 52.38 %

36. Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of a face centred cubic crystal
Total number of spheres belong to a unit cell in fcc arrangement = 4
Packing Efficiencyof face centred cubic crystal (fcc) = 74 %

56
7. CHEMICAL KINETICS
1. Define Rate of a chemical reaction.
The change in concentration of the species involved in a chemical reaction per unit time
is called the rate of a reaction.
Unit: mol L-1 s-1
2. Define average rate and instantaneous rate.
Average rate - The rate of the reaction, at a given interval of time during the reaction
Instantaneous rate - The rate of the reaction, at a particular instant during the reaction.
3. Define rate law
Rate law is the expression which relates the rate, the rate constant and the concentration
of the reactants.
A+B Products
Rate = k [A] [B]
4. Define rate constant.
Rate constant is equal to the rate of reaction, when the concentration of each of
the reactants in unity.
A+B Products
Rate = k [A] [B]
k = rate constant
If [A] = [B] = 1 mole
Rate = k
5. Differentiate between rate and rate constant of a reaction.
Rate of a reaction Rate constant of a reaction
It is measured as decrease in the conc.
1 of the reactants or increase in the conc. It is equal to the rate of reaction, when the
conc. of each of the reactants in unity.
of products.
2 It depends on the initial concentration It does not depend on the initial
of reactants concentration of reactants
It represents the speed at which the
3 reactants are converted into products at It is a proportional constant
any instant
6. What is an elementary reaction?

Each and every single step in a reaction mechanism is called as Elementary reaction.
7. Give the differences between order and molecularity of a reaction.
Order of a reaction Molecularity of a reaction
It is the sum of the powers of
It is the total number of reactant species that
1 concentration terms involved in the
are involved in an elementary step.
experimentally determined rate law.
2 zero (or) fractional (or) integer Whole number
It is assigned for each elementary step of
3 It is assigned for an overall reaction.
mechanism
57
8. What is first order reaction?

Give examples for the first order reaction.
A reaction whose rate depends on the reactant concentration raised to the first power
is called a first order reaction
 Decomposition of N2O5
 Decomposition of SO2Cl2
 Decomposition of H2O2 aqueous solution
 Isomerisation of cyclopropane to propene
9. Explain pseudo first order reaction with an example.
In a second order reaction, when one of the reactants concentration is in excess of
the other then the reaction follows a first order kinetics, such reactions are called
Pseudo first order reactions.
Ex- Acid hydrolysis of an ester.
CH3COO CH3 + H2O H+ CH3COOH + CH3OH
10. What is zero order reaction?
A reaction in which the rate is independent of the concentration of the reactant over a
wide range of concentrations is called as zero order reaction.
Ex.- Photochemical reaction between H2 and I2
11. Give exapmles for zero order reaction
 Photochemical reaction between H2 and I2
 Decomposition of N2O on hot platinumsurface
 Iodination of acetone in acid medium
12. Define half life of a reaction.
The half-life of a reaction is defined as the time required for the reactant concentration
to reach one half its initial value.
13. The rate constant for a first order reaction is 1.54 X 10-3 s-1 Calculate its half life time.
-3
= 0.6932 / 1.54 X 10
= 450 s
14. Define Activation energy
The minimum energy required by the molecules to react, and form the products is called
Activation energy.
15. Write Arrhenius equation and explains the terms involved.
k = Rate constant A = Frequency factor

Ea = Activation Energy R = Gas constant
T = Temperature (K)
58
16. List the factors affecting the reaction rate.

1. Nature and state of the reactant 2. Concentration of the reactant
3. Surface area of the reactant 4. Temperature of the system
5. Catalyst
17. How do nature of the reactant influence rate of reaction.
 The net energy involved in a reaction dependent on the nature of the reactant and
hence the rates are different for different reactants.
 Gas phase reactions are faster as compared to the reactions involving solid or liquid
reactants.
 Ex.- Reaction of sodium metal with iodine vapours is faster than the reaction between
solid sodium and solid iodine.
18. How do concentrations of the reactant influence the rate of reaction?
 The rate of a reaction increases with the increase in the concentration of the reactants.
 According to collision theory, the rate of a reaction depends upon the number of
collisions between the reacting molecules.
 Higher the concentration, greater is the possibility for collision and hence the rate.
19. Explain the effect of catalyst on reaction rate with an example.
 A catalyst is substance which alters the rate of a reaction
 In the presence of a catalyst, the energy of activation is lowered
 Hence greater number of molecules can cross the energy barrier and change over to
products.
 There by increasing the rate of the reaction.
20. Derive integrated rate law for a first order reaction.
A Products
Rate = K[ A]1 (K - rate constant)
At, t = 0 [A] = [A0]

t=t [A] = [A]

59
21. Describe the graphical representation of first order reaction.
Rate constant of first order reaction is
------- (1)
------- (2)
 Equation (2) can be written in the form
y = mx + c as below
 If we follow the reaction by measuring the conc.

of the reactants at regular time interval ‘t’,
 A plot of ln[A] Vs t yields a straight line with a
negative slope.
 From this, the rate constant is calculated.
22. Show that for a first order reaction half life is independent of initial concentration

60
23. Derive integrated rate law for a zero order reaction A product
A Products
(k -Rate constant)
At, t = 0 [A] = [A0] & t = t [A] = [A]
24. Derive the half life period of zero order reaction
ek;gpf;if vd;gJ xU ehspy; cjph;e;J tpLk; g+thf ,Ue;J tplf;$lhJ,

NkYk; NkYk; kyiu cUthf;Fk; nrbahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;…

61
25. Identify the order for the following reactions

(i) Rusting of Iron – First order reaction
(ii) Radioactive disintegration of 92U238 - First order reaction
(iii) 2A + 3B products ; rate = k[A]1/2[B]2
Order of overall reaction = ½ +2 = 2 ½ = 5/2
26. Write the rate law for the following reactions.
(a) A reaction that is 3/2 order in x and zero order in y
Rate = k [x] 3/2 [y]0
Rate = k [x] 3/2
(b) A reaction that is second order in NO and first order in Br2
Rate = k [NO]2 [Br2]1
27. Explain the rate determining step with an example.
 The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide catalysed by I−
 It is experimentally found that the reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I−,
which indicates that I− is also involved in the reaction.
 The mechanism involves the following steps.
Step -1
Step -2
Overall reaction
 Step 1 is the rate determining step, since it involves both H2O2 and I−
 Hence the overall reaction is bimolecular.
28. The decomposition of Cl2O7 at 500K in the gas phase to Cl2 and O2 is a first order
reaction. After 1 minute at 500K, the pressure of Cl2O7 falls from 0.08 to 0.04 atm.
Calculate the rate constant in s-1.

62
29. Define Fraction of effective collisions (f )
f - Fraction of effective collision Ea - Activation Energy

R - Gas constant T- Temperature (K)
30. Explain briefly the collision theory of bimolecular reactions.
 Collision theory is based on the kinetic theory of gases.
 According to this theory, chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between
the reacting molecules.
 A2 + B2 2AB
 If consider the reaction, the rate would be proportional to the number of collisions
per second.
 Rate α number of molecules colliding per litre per second (collision rate)
 Number of collisions α Concentration of reactants
 Collision rate α [A2] [B2]
 Collision rate = Z [A2] [B2] (Z – constant)
 In order to react, the colliding molecules must possess a minimum energy called
activation energy.
 The molecules that collide with less energy than activation energy will remain intact
and no reaction occurs.
Ea/RT
 Fraction of effective collisions f = e –
 For a reaction having activation energy of 100 kJ mol-1 at 300K.
 Thus, out of 10-18 collisions only four collisions are sufficiently energetic to convert
reactants to products.
 The reactant collide with sufficient energy, they will not react unless the orientation of
the reactant molecules is suitable for the formation of the transition state.
 The fraction of effective collisions (f) having proper orientation is given by
the steric factor p.
 Rate = p x f x Collision rate
Ea/RT
 Rate = p e – Z [A2] [B2] ------- 1
 As per the rate law, Rate = k [A2] [B2] ------ 2
 On comparing equation (1) and (2),
Ea/RT
Rate constant k = p Z e –
KbAk; vd;W epidg;gNj… ntw;wpapd; Kjy; gb…

63
8. IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
1. Give the difference between acids and bases
Acids Bases
1 Sour taste Bitter taste
2 It turns blue litmus paper Red. It turns red litmus paper blue.
3 To give H+ ions in water To give OH¯ ions in water.
4 Ex.- HCl, H2SO4 Ex.- NaOH, KOH
2. Explain the Arrhenius concept and Limitations of acid and bases

 An acid dissociates to give H+ ions in water.
HCl + H2O ⇌ H+ + Cl-
 A base dissociates to give OH¯ ions in water.
NaOH + H2O ⇌ Na+ + OH-
Limitations
 It does not explain the behaviour of acids and bases in non aqueous solvents
like acetone, THF...
 It does not account for the basic nature of the substances like ammonia (NH3)
which do not possess OH- ion
3. Explain the Lowry – Bronsted concept and Limitations of acid and bases
 An acid is a proton donar.
 A base is a proton acceptor.
Limitations
Substances like BF3, AlCl3.., that do not donate protons are known to behave as acids.
4. What are Lewis acids and bases? Give two example for each.
Lewis acids Lewis bases
1 Electron deficient molecule Molecule with pair of electrons
2 Accepts an electron pair Donates an electron pair
3 Positive ion Anion (or) neutral molecule

4 Ex.- BF3, AlCl3, CO2, Fe2+ Ex.- NH3, H2O, F-, CH2=CH2
5. What are conjucate Acid - Base pairs?

Chemical species that differ only by a proton are called conjugate acid - base pairs.
, NH4+ & NH3

64
6. Indentify the conjugate acid-base pair for the following reaction in aqueous solution.
conjugate acid-base pair

Base2 Acid1 Base1 Acid2




conjugate acid-base pair conjugate acid-base pair
7. Account for the acidic nature of HClO4 in terms of Bronsted - Lowry theory,
identify its conjugate base.
HClO4 H+ + ClO4-
HClO4 is donate a proton. So it is an acid.
HClO4 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + ClO4-
The conjugate base of HClO4 is ClO4-
8. Define pH
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of base 10 of the molar
concentration of the hydronium ions present in the solution.
pH = - log10 [H3O+]
9. Define Ionic product of water. Give its value at room temperature.
The product of concentration of hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion of pure water is known as
ionic product of water (Kw).
Ionic product of water at 250 c,
= 1 X 10-7 X 1 X 10-7 = 1 X 10-14
65
10. Calculate the PH of a) 0.001 M HCl b) 0.04 M HNO3
0.001M HCl 0.04M HNO3

[H3O+] = 0.001 = 1x10-3 mol L-1 [H3O+] = 0.04 = 4x10-2 mol L-1
PH = - log10 [H3O+] PH = - log10 [H3O+]
= - log10 [1x10-3 ] = - log10 [4x10-2 ]
= - 1 x log10 [1x10-3 ]
= - log10 [10-2 ] - log10 4
= -1 x -3
PH = 3 = 2 - 0.6021
H
P = 1.40
11. Calculate the PH of 1.5 x 10-3 M Ba(OH)2 solution.
Concentration of hydroxyl ions

2[OH-] = 2 x 1.5 x 10-3 M = 3 x 10-3 M
POH = - log10 [OH-]
= - log10 (3 x 10-3 )
= 3 - log 3 = 3 – 0.48 = 2.52
PH = 14 - POH
= 14 - 2.52 = 11.48
12. Derive the relationship between pH and pOH
PH = - log10 [H3O+]
POH = - log10 [OH-]
PH + POH = - log10 [H3O+] - log10 [OH-]
PH + POH = - log10 [H3O+][OH-]
Ionic product of water Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
PH + POH = - log10 Kw (- log10 Kw = p Kw )
PH + POH = pKw
If Kw = 1 x 10 -14
pKw = - log10 (1 x 10 -14) = 14
PH + POH = 14
13. Explain Common Ion effect with an example.
 When a salt of a weak acid is added to the acid itself, the dissociation of the weak acid
is suppressed further. It is known as Common Ion effect.
 The addition of sodium acetate to acetic acid solution, the dissociation of acetic acid is
suppressed
 In this case, CH3COOH and CH3COONa have the common ion, CH3COO-

66
14. Define Oswald’s Dilution law

Ostwald’s dilution law relates the dissociation constant of the weak acid (Ka) with its
degree of dissociation (α) and the concentration ( C ).
α = degree of dissociation, Ka = dissociation constant, C = concentration.
15. Derive an expression for Oswald’s Dilution law

CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+
CH3COOH H+ CH3COO-
Initial number of moles 1 - -
Number of moles Ionized α - -
Number of moles at equilibrium 1-α α α
Equilibrium concentration (1-α)C αC αC
The dissociation constant of acetic acid is,
Weak acid dissociates only to a very small extent.

Compared to one, α is so small
Ka = α2C
(α = degree of dissociation, Ka = dissociation constant, C = concentration.)

67
16. Explain Buffer solution and its types

 Buffer is a solution which consists of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base (or)
a weak base and its conjugate acid.
 This buffer solution resists drastic changes in its pH upon addition of a small quantities
of acids (or) bases.
 There are two types of buffer solutions.
1. Acidic buffer solution : weak acid and its salt.
CH3-COOH + CH3COONa
2. Basic buffer solution : weak base and its salt.
NH4OH + NH4Cl
17. What is Buffer capacity and buffer index
 Buffer capacity is defined as the number of gram equivalents of acid or base added to 1
litre of the buffersolution to change its pH by unity.
 Buffer index (β) is a quantitative measure of the buffer capacity.
dB = number of gram equivalents of acid / base added to one litre of buffer solution.
d(PH) = The change in the pH after the addition of acid / base.
18. Explain buffer action

The buffer action in a solution containing CH3COOH and CH3COONa.
The dissociation of the buffer components occurs as below.
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+ -------- 1
CH3COONa → CH3COO- + Na+
If an acid is added to this mixture, it will be consumed by the conjugate base CH3COO-
to form the undissociated weak acid.
The increase in the concentration of H+ does not reduce the pH significantly.
CH3COO- + H+ → CH3COOH
If a base is added, it will be neutralized by H3O+, and the acetic acid is dissociated to
maintain the equlibrium. Hence the pH is not significantly altered.
H3O+ + OH- → 2H2O -------- 2
In Equation 1 + 2
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+
H3O+ + OH- → 2H2O
----------------------------------------------------
CH3COOH + OH- → CH3COO- + H2O
------------------------------------------------------------------------
68
19. Derive Henderson – Hasselbalch equation

HA + H2O ⇌ [H3O+] + [A-]
due to common ion effect

[Acid]aq = [Acid] ; [Base]aq = [Salt]
Reverse the sign on both sides
We know that
Similarly for a basic buffer
20. Define Solubility Product.

The solubility product of a compound is defined as the product of the molar concentration
of the constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric co-efficient in a
balanced equilibrium equation.
21. Write the uses of Solubility Product.

Solubility product finds useful to decide whether an ionic compound gets precipitated
when solution that contains the constituent ions are mixed.
 Ionic product > Ksp, precipitation will occur and the solution is super saturated.
 Ionic product < Ksp, no precipitation and the solution is unsaturated.
 Ionic product = Ksp, equilibrium exist and the solution is saturated.

69
22. Write the expression for the solubility product of Ca3(PO4)2 and Hg2Cl2
Hg2Cl2 ⇌ Hg2 + 2Cl
S S 2S
KSp = [Ca2+]3 [PO43-]2 KSp = [Hg22+] [Cl-]2
KSp = (3S)3 (2S)2 KSp = (S) (2S)2
KSp = 27S3 x 4S2 KSp = 4S3
KSp = 108S5
23. Derive an expression for the hydrolysis constant and degree of hydrolysis of salt of
strong acid and weak base
 The reactions between a strong acid and a weak base,
 NH4+ is a strong conjugate acid of the weak base NH4OH and it has a tendency
to react with OH- from water to produce unionised NH4OH
 There is no such tendency shown by Cl- and therefore [H+] > [OH-]
the solution is acidic and the pH is less than 7.
 The relationship between the Kh and Kb as
Kh . Kb = Kw
 Let us calculate the Kh value in terms of degree of hydrolysis (h) and

the concentration of salt

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chemistry is basic for our life

“KbahJ> ,ayhJ vd; w thh; j ; i jfs;

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

11 HYDROXY COMPOUNDS AND ETHERS

12 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND

13 ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

15 CHEMISTRY IN EVERDAY LIFE

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

* cah;thf epidj;jhy; cah;e;jpl KbAk; *

ntw;wpf;fhd Kjy; gbNa jd;dk;gpf;if jhd;...

6. Explain zone refining process with an example

12. Describe the role of the following in the process mentioned.

(ii) Cryolite inthe extraction of aluminium

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

17. What is Concentration? Give the methods of Concentration.

 Galena, Zinc blende ore is concentrated by this method

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

21. Explain any three methods of Leaching.

22. Explain the Magnetic separation process.

,yl;rpak; ,y;yhj ,jak;, ntWk; rijNfhsk; jhd;…

23. Define Roasting

24. Define Calcination

25. Define Smelting

26. Explain Reduction by carbon

27. Explain Auto reduction reaction

28. How Titanium is refined by the Van-Arkel method?

Kaw;rpfs; jtwyhk;… Mdhy; Kaw;rpf;f jtwhNj…

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

31. What is mean by Ellingham diagram?

37. Give the uses of Aluminium

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

39. Give the uses of Copper (Cu)

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

8. Write a short note on hydroboration?

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

9. Give the uses of Borax

 Two BH2 units are linked by two bridged hydrogens.

xt;nthUth; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fk; mtuth; jd;dk;gpf;ifNa fhuzk;…

13. Write a note on Fischer Tropsch synthesis

15. Give the structure of CO and CO2

CO2 - Linear structure

16. Write a note on Zeolites?

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

19. How to prepare Borax?

20. Write a note on Borax bead test.

21. What is the action of heat on Boric acid

 Metaboric acid 413K Tetraboric acid ;

 Tetraboric acid red hot Boric anhydride

22. Explain H3BO3 is a mono basic acid.

23. Write the action of diborane on ammonia (or)

24. Write the equation for diborane react with metalhydride

25. Write the Laboratory preparation of Boron tri-fluoride.

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

28. Give the uses of Boric acid

32. What is burnt alum?

33. Write the action of heat on potash alum.

34. Give the uses of potash alum.

P KATHIRVEL, M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, GBHSS - ANTHIYUR - ERODE. Cell 9150550110

36. Write a short note on fullerences.