Network Protocol :

Protocols are set of rules that help in governing the way a particular technology will function
for communication.
In other words, it can be said that the protocols are digital languages implemented in the form
of networking algorithms.
There are different networks and network protocols, user's use while surfing.
There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in
communicating with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for communicating over a

network.

It divides any message into series of packets that are sent from source to destination
and there it gets reassembled at the destination.

2. Internet Protocol (IP):

IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol.

It is mostly used with TCP.

The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network
until it reaches the destination system.

TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the networks.

3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission Control Protocol

implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking
between different applications.

4. Post Office Protocol (POP):

 POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.

5. Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP):

SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-Mail.

6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another.

Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents,
etc.

7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP):

HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two or more systems.

HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text or
images.

HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system for

establishing a connection with the server machine for making a request.

The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.

8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS):

HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol

to secure the communication among two computers one using the browser and
other fetching data from web server.

HTTP is used for transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web
server (response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the
transferring of data is done in an encrypted format.

So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data
throughout the transfer of packets.

9. Telnet:

Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another.

The connecting process here is termed as remote login.

The system which requests for connection is the local computer, and the system
which accepts the connection is the remote computer.

10. Gopher:
 Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites.

Gopher also works on the client/server principle.

Some Other Protocols

Some other popular protocols act as co-functioning protocols associated with these primary
protocols for core functioning. These are:

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
 RAP (Route Access Protocol)
 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)
 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

Layered Network Architecture :

o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a
higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the
contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one
layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with
the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a
layer-n protocol.
An example of the five-layered architecture.

o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes
place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. It also
ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another
implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design
process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and
manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the
design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the
independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one
layer can be changed without affecting other layers.
 o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analysed and tested
individually.

OSI Reference Model :

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. It is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the
end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
 lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can transmit the
data, the other device can only receive the data. Example- Input from keyboards,
monitors, TV broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, etc.
o Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can send and
receive the data but only one at a time not simultaneously. Example- Walkie-Talkie,
Railway Track, etc.
o Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the data
simultaneously. Example- Telephone System, Chatting applications, etc .

o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples
of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission
control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

o User Datagram Protocol

o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at
the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services : Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-
oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the
single route.
 o Flow control: The transport layer is also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-
to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

Overview of TCP/IP Protocol suite

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of : The Application Layer, Transport Layer, Internet Layer and
Network Access Layer.
TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
o The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet
Protocol).
o The protocols used by this layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, IGMP
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
o The protocols used by this layer are HTTP, SNMP, SMTP, DNS, TELNET ,FTP
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
(International Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic protocol It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
used as a communication gateway between the development of an internet. It is a
network and the end user. communication protocol that provides the
connection among the hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a The transport layer does not provide the surety
guarantee for the delivery of the packets. for the delivery of packets.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation layers are In this model, the session and presentation
separated, i.e., both the layers are different. layer are not different layers. Both layers are
included in the application layer.
It is also known as a reference model through which It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
various networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP
model is built from the OSI model. It is also referred
to as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only
connection-oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
easily replaced when the technology changes. replaced.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
interfaces as well as provides a proper distinction interfaces are not properly separated. It is
between them. It is protocol independent. protocol dependent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.