Blažek, Václav

Gaulish language

Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity. N, Řada klasická. 2008, vol. 57,
iss. N13, pp. [37]-65

ISBN 978-80-210-4705-1
ISSN 1211-6335

Stable URL (handle): https://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/114125

Access Date: 16. 02. 2024
Version: 20220831

Terms of use: Digital Library of the Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University provides access to
digitized documents strictly for personal use, unless otherwise specified.

Digital Library of the Faculty of Arts,

Masaryk University
digilib.phil.muni.cz
 SBORNÍK PRACÍ FILOZOFICKÉ FAKULTY BRNĚNSKÉ UNIVERZITY
STUDIA MINORA FACULTATIS PHILOSOPHICAE UNIVERSITATIS BRUNENSIS
N 13, 2008

Václav Blažek

GAULISH LANGUAGE1

1. Borders of Gaul, its name and etymology

2. History of the epigraphical traditions
3. Main sources of Gaulish
3.1. Gaulish epigraphical tradition
3.1.1. Gaulish-Etruscan tradition
3.1.2. Gaulish-Greek tradition
3.1.3. Gaulish-Latin tradition
3.2. Calendar of Coligny
3.3. Medical compendium of Marcellus of Bordeaux
3.4. Endlicher’s glossary
3.5. Ancient glosses and Gaulish loans in Latin
3.6. Gaulish substratum in Gallo-Romance
4. Fragments of Gaulish grammar
4.1. Gaulish vs. Insular Celtic: comparative phonetics
4.2. Nominal morphology
4.3. Pronouns
4.4. Numerals
4.5. Verbal morphology
5. Conclusion: On the position of Gaulish within Celtic
6. Basic bibliography

In this article the state-of-the-art of research in the field of the Gaulish language is summarized,
compared and evaluated. The article begins with Caesar’s information about the borders of Gaul,
and its etymology. A brief survey of four epigraphic traditions recording the varieties of Gaulish fol-
lows. The largest space is devoted to illustrative examples of various Gaulish texts from Northern

1 Acknowlegment
This study originated with the help of the Centre for the Interdisciplinary Research of Ancient
Languages and Older Stages of Modern Languages at Faculty of Arts of Masaryk University
(MSM 0021622435). I would like to express my gratitude for the manifold and unselfish help
of various scholars: Stefan Zimmer, who introduced me to problems of Gaulish epigraphy,
Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Karl H. Schmidt, whose ability to find new and systematic
solutions is impressive, Proinsias MacCana and Líam Breatnach, who opened the door of the
School of Celtic Studies at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Study for me, and finally Eric
P. Hamp, who remains for me the richest source of inspiration, and not only in the field of
Celtic etymology. Without the help of John Bengtson the text would remain in its original,
barbarous form.
38 Václav Blažek

Italy and Gaul. Three special monuments are analyzed separately, the Calendar of Coligny, Medical
compendium of Marcellus of Bordeaux, and Endlicher’s or Viennese Glossary. In the case of the
famous Calendar the month-names and other terms, usually in abbreviations, are etymologized
according to various scholars. In the following part the lexical data from the ancient glosses and
Gaulish loans in Latin and Gallo-Romance languages are summarized. In the second half of the
present study the fragments of Gaulish grammar are sketched. The phonetic correspondences are
mapped on the Goidelic & Brittonic vs. Gaulish material. The nominal declension is illustrated by
the paradigms of the o-, ā-, i-, u-, r-, n- and consonant stems. The case endings are compared with
their counterparts in Lepontic, Celtiberian and Old Irish, plus Goidelic and late Indo-European
reconstructions. The personal pronouns and demonstratives are illustrated by concrete examples
from texts. Here a new etymology is proposed: a hypothetical continuant of IE *eĝō “I” in regu-c
cambion from the inscription from Chamalières which is derivable from *reĝō eĝ(ō) kibiom “I
straighten the bent one”. Thanks to the inscription from La Graufesenque and the Calendar of Co-
ligny, almost all Gaulish numerals of the first decade are known. On the other hand, it is difficult to
reconstruct even one complete paradigm of the verbal conjugation. And so only isolated examples
can be analyzed. Finally, the position of Gaulish within Celtic from the point of view of ‘recali-
brated’ glottochronology is discussed.

1. The basic information about the borders of ancient Gaul was mediated by Caesar in
his De bello Gallico, 1: Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt
Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur.
Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna
flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. ... Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obti-
nere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano: continentur Garumna flumine,
Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum;
vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad
inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem.
Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani, quae
est ad Hispaniam, pertinet; spectet inter occasum solis et septentriones. “All Gaul
is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another,
those who in their own language are called Celts, in our Gauls, the third. All these
differ from each other in language, customs and laws. The river Garonne separates
the Gauls from the Aquitani; the Marne and the Seine separate them from Belgae ....
One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at
the river Rhone; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the ocean, and the territories of
the Belgae, it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the River
Rhine, and stretches toward the north. The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of
Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; and look toward the north and the
rising sun. Aquitania extends from the river Garonne to the Pyrenaean mountains and
to the part of the ocean which is near Spain it looks between the setting of the sun,
and the north star.” [translated by W.A. McDevitte & W.S. Bohn]. It is apparent, the
Romans used the ethnonym Galli as a synonym to Celtae. The ethnonym has been
connected with Cornish gallos, Old Breton gal “might, power, authority”, Irish gal
“bravery, courage”. French gaillard “brave, vigorous, stout, robust, healthy” is of
the same origin (Pokorny 1959, 351). Less promising seems to be the comparison
with Irish gall, pl. gaill, gill “foreigner”, Welsh gâl “inimicus”, pl. galon; it could
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 39

be an adaptation of the name of the Gauls, who were in both business and military
contacts with the inhabitants of the British Islands in the 4th–7th centuries AD
(Holder I, 1638–39).

2. The first written reflex of Gaulish has been identified in the personal name in
the Etruscan funerary inscription from the 5th century BC mi Nemetieś “I am a
[tomb] of Nemetios” (Schmidt 1996, 6). The Gaulish language proper, or better
to say its numerous dialects, used at least four epigraphic traditions, namely the
Iberian script on the legends of coins from south Gaul (3rd–2nd cent. BC); the
Lugano script borrowed from Leponts, which was used for seven inscriptions
from north Italy, including 3 bilinguals (2nd–1st cent. BC); the Greek alphabet,
which spread from the Greek colony Massalia in south and central Gaul (3rd–1st
cent. BC); and the Latin script, from the time of Caesar’s campaign (51 BC) to the
4th cent. AD. In some inscriptions both Greek and Latin scripts appear together.

3. For our knowledge of the Gaulish language there are the following sources:
(1) Inscriptions and coin legends.
(2) Calendar of Coligny (§ 3.2.).
(3) Medical compendium of Marcellus of Bordeaux (§ 3.3.).
(4) Glossar of Vienna (or so called Endlicher’s glossar), consisting of 18 words
(§ 3.4.).
(5) The glosses of antique authors and Gaulish words borrowed in Latin (§ 3.5.).
(6) The Gaulish substratum in the Gallo-Romance languages (§ 3.6.).
(7) Proper names (hydronyms, oronyms, toponyms; ethnonyms, anthroponyms,
theonyms – see Billy 1993, DLG, Evans 1967, Holder I–III, Schmidt 1957,
Schmitt 1996–97) – here limited only to examples in the comparative phonetics
(§ 4.1.).

3.1. The following choice of the Gaulish epigraphic material from Northern Italy
and Gaul should illustrate the various types of the Gaulish texts

3.1.1. The epigraphic tradition of the Cisalpine Gauls is so called according to

adaptation of the North Italian alphabets of Etruscan origin, namely Lugano and
Sondrio. In Lugano the voiced and voiceless stops were not differentiated. Their
language is documented in 7 inscriptions from the 2nd–1st cent. BC, in three
cases also with Latin versions.

3.1.1.1. The inscription from Briona (unearthed in 1859 in San Bernardino by

Briona, 10 km in the northeast from Novara, where is today deposited in the Mu-
seums of Lapidaries; LG 73–75)
[N] .. [K] .. ESASOIOIKAN[ | TANOTALIKNOI | KUINTOS | LEKATOS | ANOKOPOKIOS |
“ ? Descendants of Dannotalos, Quintos – legatus, Andokombogios,
SETUPOKIOS | ESANEKOTI | ANAREUIŚEOS | TANOTALOS | KARNINTUS | TANKOS∙TOUTAS ..
40 Václav Blažek

“Setubogios to Exandekottos: Andareuiseos, Dannotalos erected tombstone after the decision

of a tribe”
Note:
The symbol “N” designates an assumed presence of the nasal before stop, which the script Lugano
did not differentiate.
The symbol “│” separates the lines of the original inscription.
The point “∙” corresponds with the original, although not always consistent segmentation of the
text.

3.1.1.2. The bilingual from Todi (unearthed in 1839 in a neighbourhood of Todi in

Umbria, today in the Etruscan Museum of Pope Gregory in Vatican; LG 76–78)
Side “A” (Latin version)
ATEGNATEI DRVTEI∙F∙│..COI]SIS│DRV│TEI∙F∙FRATER│EIVS│MINIMVS∙LOCAV│IT∙ET∙STATVIT
Side “B” (Latin version)
[ATEGNATI∙DRVTI∙F∙│..C]OISIS DRVTI∙F│[F]RATER∙EIVS│[M]INIMVS∙LOCAV.E│[ST]ATVITQVI
The senses of both the Latin versions are in principle identical:
“[tomb] of Ategnatos, son of Drutos. Coisis, son of Drutos, his brother youngest, placed [it]
and stood”
Side “A” (Gaulish version)
ATEKNATI∙TRUT│IKNI∙KARNITU│ARTUAŚ KOISIS∙T│RUTIKNOS
“for Ategnatos, a son of Drutos, Koisis erected the stelle, son of Drutos”
Side “B” (Gaulish version)
[AT]EGNATI∙TRUTI[K]NI │[KAR]NITU∙LOKAN∙KO[I]SIS│[TR]UTIKNOS
“for Ategnatos, a son of Drutos, Koisis erected the tomb, son of Drutos”
Note 1.: The patronymic TRUTIKNOS /Drutignos/ is translated as the “son of Drutos”, in agree-
ment with the Latin version.
Note 2: Kim McCone, Fs. Untermann 1993, 248, interprets LOKAN as /longam/ “urna”, cf. Old
Irish long “vase, vaisseau”, Welsh llong “vaisseau”.

3.1.1.3. The bilingual from Vercelli (unearthed in 1960 on the bank of the river
Sesia, today deposited in the museum in Vercelli; LG 78–80)
Latin verion
FINIS │CAMPO∙QVEM│DEDIT│ACISIVS│ARGANTOCOMATER│ECVS∙COMVNE
M│
“(This is) the boundary to the field which Argantomaterecus gave in common

DEIS∙ET∙HOMINIB│VS∙ITA VTI LAPIDES│IIII∙STATVTISVNT

to gods and men; – thus 4 stones have been set up”

Gaulish version
AKISIOS∙ARKANTOKO<K>│MATEREKOS∙TO–ŚO│KO-TE AN?TOM TEUOX│TONION EU
“Akisios argantokomaterekos, he gave it, a boundary of gods and people.”
Note 1: The compound arganto-komaterekos consists of the word for “silver” and another com-
pound, interpreted by Lambert (2003, 80) as kom- & ater-ekos, where the first component is the
prefix “together” and the second component is a derivative of the word ater “father”, similar to Lat-
in patricius. The final result was probably a title designating an important person with a privileged
relation to silver, perhaps an administrator of a municipal safe or a local banker. Eska & Wallace
(2002, 131, fn. 4) think about the same prefix *kom- + the derivative of the verb root *meH- “to
measure”, hence it should be a title perhaps for a ‘treasurer’.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 41

Note 2: The word TEUOXTONION represents the gen. pl. of the compound of the type of dvandva,
reflecting Celtic *dē„o- & *gdonio- from IE *deÔ„o- & *dhĝhomÔo- “god” & “man” (lit. “terres-
trial”).
Note 3: The strange final EU is apparently an abbreviation. Eska & Wallace (2002, 140–42) sup-
pose that is is Cisalpine Celtic *esÔo „olo„tū (abl. sg.), a loan translation of Latin S.P = de sua
pecunia „from his wealth“, cf. Old Irish di=a folud id.

3.1.1.4. The funerary text of the inscription of Voltino (by Lago di Garda) con-
tains both Latin (A) and Celtic (B) parts. The Latin part is written in the Latin
alphabet, the Gaulish part is written in the Sondrio variant of the North Etruscan
script (Eska & Weiss 1996, 289).
(A) TETVMVS SEXTI DVGIAVA SAŚADIS
“Tetumus, [son] of Sextus, and Dugiava, [daughter] of Saśid- [are buried here]” vel sim.
(B) TOMEDECLAI OBALDANATINA
“[and] Obalda, [their dear] daughter, set me [i.e. the monument] up.”

3.1.2. The Gallo-Greek tradition means the Gaulish epigraphic monuments writ-
ten in the Greek alphabet. Most of the inscriptions were discovered at the territory
of the lower Rhône and its tributaries Gard and Durance.
3.1.2.1. The dedicatory inscription from Vaison (Vaucluse), unearthed in 1840
(LG 86–87):
segomaroj ouilloneoj tooutiouj namausatij eiwrou bhlhsami sosin nemhton
“Segomaros fils de Villū, citoyen de Nîmes, a offert à Belesama cet enclos sacré.”

3.1.2.2. The dedicatory inscription devoted to Taranis, discovered in 1886 in Or-

gon, Bouches-du-Rhône, today in the Musée Calvet in Avignon (LG 88–89):
ouhbroumaroj dede taranoou bratoudekantem
“Vebrumaros a offert à Taranus, par reconnaissance, avec la dîme.”

3.1.2.3. The dedicatory inscription from Glanum (Saint-Rémy) (LG 89):

matrebo glaneikabo bratoudekanten
“Aux Mères de Glanum, par reconnaissance, avec la dîme.”

3.1.2.4. Cup from Vallauris, Greek alphabet (Meid 1994, 51):

ouenikoi medou “friendly through mead”.

3.1.3. In the number and length of inscriptions richest is the tradition using the
Latin alphabet, although is younger than the preceding ones. Most of these in-
scriptions have their origin in Central Gaul (cf. the map in LG 92).

3.1.3.1. The dedicatory inscription from Néris-Les-Bains, Allier, where it was

discovered c. in 1836 (LG 106–07):
BRATRONOS NANTON[T]ICN EPAĐATEXTORICI . LEVCVTIO SVIOREBE LOGITOI
“Bratronos, fils de Nantonios a établi un leucution (bois sacré?) pour Epadatextorix en as-
sociation avec ses soeurs.”
Note: Important is the only use of the word for “sister” in the Gaulish lexical
corpus.
42 Václav Blažek

3.1.3.2. The inscription on a granit from Plumergat, canton d’Auray, with only a
partial translation (LG 108–09):
VABROS IIIOOVT ATREBO AGANNTOBO DURNEO GIAPO
“Vabros (a offert?) aux Pères-frontières ...”
Note: The word ATREBO represents the dat. pl. of *ater, known from the title gutuater (Caesar,
BG VIII, 38).

3.1.3.3. The dedicatory inscription on a stone in the Latin monumental script

from Alisia, today Alise-Sainte-Reine, which was determined by G. Poisson al-
ready in 1908 (see LG 100). Let us compare the translations of (A) Lambert
(1994, 100–03) and (B) Schrijver (1997, 182):
MARTIALIS DANNOTALI IEVRV UCUETE SOSIN CELICNON
(A) “Martialis, son of Dannotalos, has devoted Ucuetis this building,
(B) Martialis, son of Dannotalos, has offered to Ucuetis this celicnon,
ETIC GOBEDBI DUGIIONTIIO UCUETIN IN ALISIIA
(A) and with smiths who honour Ucuetis in Alisia”
(B) which is [[made]] by the smiths who worship Ucuetis in Alisia”

3.1.3.4. The inscription on the lead tablets from Larzac (near Millau) in Latin
italics is the longest Gaulish inscription discovered up to the present time, con-
sisting of a total of 160 words. The following example is limited to side 1a in the
interpretation of [A] Schmidt (1990, 16–25), [B] Olmsted (1989, 160–62) and
[C] Meid (1994, 40–46). In its contents the inscription belongs to the magic texts,
here concretely of a warning character designated by Romans as defixiones. The
inscription of Larzac is a contract of one of the groups of witches, directed against
another group, represented by witches Severa and Tertionikna. The members of
the alliance named in the second part of the fragment quoted here rely upon the
magic abilities of some sibyl, who has at her disposal an ‘underworld magic’.
1. IN SINDE SE BNANOM BRICTO[M]
A: “Gegen diesen dieser Frauen Zauber,
B: Discharge this of women’s incantations,
2. [I]N EIANOM ANUANA SANA ANDERNA
A: gegen deren Namen die (acc. pl.) unterweltlichen (der)
B: in these, the distinct feminine names,
3. BRICTOM UIDLUIAS UIDLU[A]
A: Zauber der Vidluia Magien (acc. pl.)
B: with the vision of seers of incantations.
4. TIGONTIAS SO ADSAGSONA SEUE[RIM]
A: (der) stechenden (ist) dies. Die Gegenwirkende (nom. sg.) Severa (acc.)
B: This supplicant of the indicated one, Severa
5. TERTIONICNIM LIDSSATIM LICIATIM
A: (und) Tertionicna (acc.) lidssatim (attr.) liciata (attr.)
B: Tertionicna, a lot caster and letter-writer,
6. EIANOM UO-DUNO-DERCE LUNGET[UT]U // EIANOM VODUI VODERCE
LUNGET[.] UTONID
A: deren unter-(Grab)hügel-Öffnung sie-soll-legen // B: with a conspicuous outcry to them,
she released
7. TON-ID PONC NITIXSINTOR SI[ES]
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 43

A: ausserdem, wenn zaubern diese

B: whomever when they are indicated. Bind
8. DUS-CELINATIA IN EANON ANUAN[A]
A: mit-bösem-Vorzeichen, gegen deren Namen (acc. pl.)
B: the unpropitious through this. Named
9. ESI ANDERNADOS BRICTOM BANO[NA]
A: ist (der) Unterwelt Zauber. Banona
B: is the group of women of incantations: Banonia
10. FLATUCIAS PAULLA DONA POTITI[US]
A: (Tochter) der Vlatucia; Paulla, Frau des Potitus;
B: of Vlatucia, Paulla wife of Potitos,
11. AIAI DUXTIR ADIEGIAS POTI[TA
A: Aiai, Tochter der Adiega; Potita,
B: Iaia daughter of Adiega, Potitia
12. M]ATIR PAULLIAS SEUERA DU[XTIR]
A: Muter. der Paulla; Severa, Tochter
B: mother of Paulla, Severa daughter
13. UALENTOS DONA PAULLI[I]US
A: des Valens, Frau des Paullus;
B: of Valens, the wife of Paullos..
14. ADIEGA MATIR AIIAS
A: Adiega, Mutter der Aiia;
B: Adiega mother of Aia,
15+16. POTITA DONA PRIM[IUS DUXTIR] ABESIAS
A: Potita. Frau des Primus, Tochter des Abesa.”
B: Potita wife of Primos, the daughter of Abesia. “

3.1.3.5. The inscription from Chamalières (near Clermont-Ferrand) was un-

earthed in 1971. The text is written again in Latin italics on lead tablets, which
were preferred in communication with the other world. The interpretation follows
K.H. Schmidt (1981, 260):
ANDEDÍON UEDIÍUMI DIÍIUIION RISU NARITU MAPON[ON] ARUERNATIN.
“By the magic tablet, I honour the divine Maponos Arvernatis, in whom a god dwels.
LOTITES SNÍ EDDIC SOS BRIXTÍA ANDERON
Quicken us [in the attack] and the following [men] by the magic of the Anderoi:
: C.LUCION, FLORON NIGRINON ADGARION, AEMILION PATERIN,
the invoker C. Lucios Floros Nigrinos, Aemilios Paterin(os),
CLAUDION LEGITUMON, CAELION PELIGN[ON], CLAUDION PELIGN[ON],
Claudios Legitumos, Caelios Pelign(os), Claudios Pelign(os),
MARCION UICTORIN ASIATÍCON. ADDEDILLI
Marcios Victorin(os), Asiati(cos), the son of Ađđedillos
ETIC SECOUI TONCNAMAN TONCSIÍONT-IO.
and the Segovii, who will swear the oath.
MEÍON, PONC SESIT, BUET-ID OLLON.
The small thing will become great, when he has sown it.
REGU-C CAMBION EXSOPS PISSÍIU-MI ISO-C CANTÍ RISSU
I straighten the bent one. Though blind, I will see so by means of the song tablet.
ISON SON BISSÍET.
He will strike that one [the enemy].
LUGE DESSU-(M)MI-ÍIS. LUGE DESSU-MÍ-IS. LUGE DESSU-MÍ-ÍS. LUXE.
I prepare them for Lugus. I prepare them for Lugus. I prepare them for Lugus.
44 Václav Blažek

LUXE
Swear!”

3.1.3.6. Tile from Châteaubleau (Seine-et-Marne) is one of the most recent (3rd–
4th cent.) and most recently discovered (1997) inscriptions, maybe a wedding
song (see Lambert 2001, 71, 112–13; LG 209–11):
1. NEMNALIÍUMI BENI. UEÍONNA INCOROBOUIDO
“je célèbre une femme qui est fiancée avec dot de bétail /or/
qui est menée (au mariage) à Coro Bouido
2. NEÍANMANBE GNIÍOU APENI TEMEUELLE ÍEXSETE SI
dont je ne connais pas les noms et une femme qui est en âge (lit. “dont les pudenda sont
sombres”) /or/
qui est consentante (lit. “en cette volonté”) /or/
et je suis une femme plus noble, vous devez dire /or/ qu’elle dise
3. SUEREGENIATU O QUPRINNOPETAMEBISSIÍETETA.
vous la famille /or/ son nom de famille, je demande qu’elle soit une épouse (QUPRINNO =
comprinna)
4. MIÍIÍEGUMI. SUANTE UEÍOMMIPETAMASSI PAPISSONE
pour moi /or/ je prie le fils de Kypris,
qu’il (la) frappe pour moi je dis, par désir je me fiançais, nous te prions, ô Papissonos;
5. SUIREXETESI (or SUNIAETESI…?) ÍEGIÍINNA ANMANBE ÍEGUISINI
il la désirera bien, (elle) étant appelée par ses noms; je l’appelle,
6. SIAXSIOU . BEÍIASSUNEBITI MOI/T UPIÍUMMI ATERI
je chercherai BEÍIASSU (le seuil facile? /or/ que tu prospères); il est brisé par moi /or/
vers le seuil je vois un MOTU, mon père,
7. XSI INDORE CORE. NUANA ÍEGUMISINI. BEÍIASSUSETE
dans cet endroit fermé; maintenant, attends; je appelle; BEÍIASSU SETE. Elle ira. Appelle-
moi ‘époux’.
8. SUE CLUIO U SEDAGISAMO CELE UIROÍONOUE
Je vous entends. Épouse Sedagisamo(s), un compagnon honnête et juste.
9. ÍÍOBIÍEBEÍIASSUSETE RE GA ÍEXSTUMISENDI
BEÍIASSU SETE. Elle ira. Appelle-moi ‘époux’.
10. ME . SETINGI PAPISSONEBEÍIASSUSETEMETINGISE
Entre moi et elle, Papissonos, BEÍIASSU SETE, entre moi, entre elle,
11. TINGI BEÍIASSUSETERE GARISE (or GANSE?) ÍEXSTUMISENDI
BEÍIASSU SETE, ils iront /or/ ô reine, appelle-moi ‘épouse’.

There are other inscriptions with more profane contents. The following short texts
are preserved on vessels (see Meid 1994, 51; LG 141–42):
3.1.3.7. Beaker from Banassac, Latin italics:
NEĐĐAMON DELGU LINDA “I contain the drinks of the nearest.”
LUBI RUTENICA ONOBIIA TIEDI ULANO CELICNU
“Aime les (coupes?) rutènes du eau-de-vie?, tu seras un roi pour le banquet “

3.1.3.8. Bottle from Limé, Latin majuscule:

IBETIS UCIU, ANDECARI BIIETE
“Drink (2pl.) from this, (and) you will be very amiable”.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 45

3.1.3.9. Remarkably naughty texts in late Gaulish, strongly influenced by Latin,

appear on the conic circles outweighed distaffs, part of a rich find discovered
north from Autun in eastern Gaul :
NATA UIMPI, CURMI DA “Pretty girl, give beer!” (Meid 1994, 54)
MONI GNATHA, GABI BUÐÐUTON IMON
“Come here, girl, take my little kiss” (Meid 1994, 53) or
“Come here, girl, take my penis” (Watkins).

3.2. The famous Calendar of Coligny (Ain) was unearthed in 1897. It is dated
to the end of the 2nd cent. AD, but it apparently represents a late copy of an
older version. The calendar is in principle lunar, with the length of the months
vacillating between 29 and 30 days, plus two intercalary 30–day-months added
every 5 years. During the 5 year cycle there are thus two 385–day years and three
355–day years, with an average year of 367 days (see McCluskey 1990, 165):

Year 1: 385–days Year 2: 355–days Year 3: 385–days Year 4: 355–days Year 5: 355–days
Riv Gia Edr Riv Gia Edr Riv Equ Sam Ogr Equ Sam Ogr Equ
In1 30 29 30 30 29 30 30 In2 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
30 Ana Sim Can Ana Sim Can Ana 30 Ele Dum Cut Ele Dum Cut Ele
29 30 29 29 30 29 29 29 29 30 29 29 30 29
Sam Ogr Equ Sam Ogr Equ Sam Ogr Gia Edr Riv Gia Edr Riv Gia Edr
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 30 30 29 30 30 29 30
Dum Cut Ele Dum Cut Ele Dum Cut Sim Can Ana Sim Can Ana Sim Can
29 30 29 29 30 29 29 30 30 29 29 30 29 29 30 29

Abbreviations of the months: In1 & 2 Intercalary month 1 & 2, Ana Anagantio-, Can Cantlos, Cut
Cutios, Dum Dumann-, Edr *Edrini-, Ele Elembiu, Equ Equos, Gia Giamoni-, Ogr *Ogronn-, Riv
Rivros, Sam Samon-, Sim *Simivisonna-.
Notes on the month-names (LG 112–13; RIG III):
I. SAMON, gen. SAMONI – cf. W. haf, B. hañv, OIr. sam-rad “summer” < *samo-;
II. DVMAN, gen. DVMANNI – cf. Latin fūmus “smoke”; perhaps the month of fumigation (DLG
129) – similarly L. februarius.
III. RIVROS, gen. RIVRI – cf. W. rhew, B. reo, rev “intensive cold”, OIr. réud “strong cold” <
*(p)reuso- or *ro-iuos “great fest” < *(p)ro-iuostu- (both ideas by Thurneysen), cf. the term iuos in
the Calendar (DLG 220, 163);
IV. ANAGAN/ANAGTIO, gen. ANAGANTIO, ANAGTIOS – cf. Anextlo-maros “of a big protec-
tion”, the epithet of Apollo, from the verbal base *aneg-, *anag- “to protect”;
V. OGRONN / OGRONN, gen. OGRONI – cf. W. oer, OIr. úar “cold” < Celt. *ogro-;
VI. CVT-/ GVTIOS, gen. QVTIO, QUTI / CVTIO – cf. OIr. guth “voice” and G. gutuater by Lam-
bert or an adaptation of the Greek month-name KooÚtioj by Thurneysen (DLG 111);
VII. GIAMON / GIAMONI, gen. GIAMONI – cf. W. gaeaf, B. gouañv, OIr. geim-red “winter”<
*giÔamo-;
VIII. SIMIVIS. SEM.V., gen. SIMIVISONN. SEMIVISO. SIMIVISO < *semi-„esont- “half
spring”, cf. OW. guiannuin “spring” < Brittonic *„esant-eino-;
IX. EQVOS, gen. EQVI – apparently the q-Celtic (‘Sequanian’?) continuant of IE *e$„os “horse”;
cf. the Greek month-names †ppioj in Calabria and Ippodromioj in Thessaly (DLG 138).
X. ELEMBIV / ELEMB., gen. ELEMBI < *elenbhÔo-, perfectly agreeing with Greek œlafoj
“deer”, cf. the fest ™lafhbÒlia from Phocis and the corresponding month-name `Elafhbolièn.
XI. AEDRINI / EDRINI – perhaps to OIr. aed “fire” (*aidu-), cf. L. aestas “summer” < *aidh-tāt-
(DLG 29-30);
46 Václav Blažek

XII. CANTLOS / GANTLOS, gen. CANTLI – cf. W. cathl “song”, OIr. -cétal id. < Celt. *kan-tlo-.

In the Calendar there are also other remarkable words, frequently abbreviated:
AMMAN – the term used in the head of the second intercalary month; cf. OIr.
amm “time, moment” (DLG 37).
ANMA[TU-], ANM[ATU-] lit. “not good”, i.e. “incomplete” – the term deter-
mining the shorter, 29–days-months, in contrary to MAT[U-] “good”, i.e. “com-
plete”, for the “complete” 30-days-months (DLG 43).
CIALLOS B[LEDN?]IS SONNOCINGOS “the second year course of the sun”,
i.e. “the second intercalary”, where CI+ALLOS represents a compound of the
demonstrative and the continuant of IE *alno- “other”; B..IS could be completed
as BLEDNIS or gen. BLEDNIAS “year”, cf. OIr. bliaidain, W. blwydd, B. bloaz
“year” < *bleidni-, and SONNOCINGOS is the compound of SONNO- “sun”
and CINGOS, etymologized on the basis of OIr. cingid “marches” (LG 116–17).
D[IION?] – probably the abbreviation of the word “day”; cf. W. dydd, B. de(i)z
id. (LG 114).
IVOS(..), IVO, IV – the term designatin the beginning and end of the month,
perhaps the phases of the Moon (so Thurneysen or Olmsted) or a juridical term
corresponding to OIr. uisse “juste” (Pinault; see DLG 163; LG 114).
LAT[ION?] – the term in the head of the second intercalary month; cf. OIr. laithe
“day” < Celt. *lation (DLG 166).
MAT[U-], M[ATU-] “good”, i.e. “complete”, for the “complete” 30-days-months;
cf. Celtiberian acc. pl. matus and OIr. maith “good”, OB mat id. (DLG 186).
MID, M[ID] – the context MID SAM[ONIOS] and MID X[III], latter about
the first intercalary month, indicates the meaning “month” more probably than
“mid”. In the Calendar the specific letter Đ, reflecting *ts & *st, was not used at
all; it means, the correct spelling of MID could be MIĐ, allowing the projection
in *mits < *mīnts < *mēns-, cf. OIr. mí, gen. mís, W., C., B. mis “month” < Celtic
*mīnsan < *mēnsi.
OX[ A]NTIA – perhaps “80”, cf. oxtu “8” (LG 116).
PRINNI LAGET – used about the ANMATU-months., lit. perhaps “falling, i.e.
diminishing tree”: PRINNI is probably the gen. of *prinno-, corresponding to
prenne “tree” from the Viennese Glossar, W., B. prenn “wood”, OIr. crann “tree”.
LAGET has been connected with the root *leg„h- “light” beginning from Thur-
neysen (1899, 529), cf. Ir. lagat “diminution”, laigiu “smaller”, W. llai id. (RIG
III, 426; DLG 213–14; Olmsted 2001, 36).
PRINNI LOVDIN – used about the MATU-months. LOVDIN has to correspond
with B. luziañ “emmêler” (RIG III, 426; DLG 213–14), but if the determination
of the function and etymology of LAGET is correct, for LOVDIN it is natural to
expect the opposite meaning. For this reason it sems best the etymology based on
IE *(H1)leudh- “to grow” (Olmsted 2001, 37).
NOVX in TRINOVX SAMON[II] – apparently “night”, cf. also TRINOX[TION]
and further OIr. innocht “tonight”, W. nos “night” (LG 114, 112; Olmsted 2001,
40).
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 47

QVIMON – the last word written in the end of the first; perhaps contracted from
*co(w)imon or the q-relic of ‘Sequanian’ type (DLG 109).
RI, R – in GANO R, RIX RI. Olmsted (2001, 45) connects it with OIr. ré “moon”,
deriving both from Celt. *rion.
RIX – can reflect the starting-point *rēk-t-s, derivable from *rek- “to reckon”, i.e.
±”measure” (Olmsted 2001, 45).
SINDIV = OIr. indiu “today”.

3.3. A unique source of the Gaulish language is the medical compendium of

Marcellus of Bordeaux, who lived in the 4th and 5th centuries. There are both
glosses (e.g. ratis “herba pteridis”, i.e. “fern”, cf. Old Irish raith, Breton raden,
Welsh rhedyn id. < *p3˜tis, further e.g. Lithuanian papártis, Russian paporoť
id. with a partial reduplication) and a complete sentence, here reproduced in the
interpretation of W. Meid (1996, 45):
in mon dercom argos axati-son
“in my eye the brightness should enter”

3.4. A very rich source of information on Gaulish are glosses and loans in other
languages, especially in Latin. Quite unique is so-called Viennese or Endlicher’s
glossary titled “De nominibus Gallicis”, named according to the librarian, who
published it in 1836 (LG 206–7). The glossary consists of 17 entries with equiva-
lents in Vulgar Latin. Sometimes Gaulish words are used to determine the func-
tions of compounds. For instance, the following words appear there: 1. ambe
“brook, stream”, 2. anam “marsh”, 3. auallo “apple”, 4. are “before, in front of”,
5. brio “bridge”, 6. doro “entry, door”, 7. dunum “mountain”, 8. lautro “bath”,
9. more “sea”, 10. nanto “valley” & trinanto “three valleys”, 11. nate “son”, 12.
onno “river”, 13. prenne “big tree”, 14. roth “steep”, 15. treide “foot”. The only
verb, cambiare “to give a thing for a thing”, has the Latin infinitive ending, but
the base is Gaulish. It also penetrated into Romance languages: Italian cambiare,
French change, cf. the Celtic counterpart in Breton kemm “change”. The Latin
equivalents of the nominal forms in the glossary appear in various cases, not only
in the nominative: ablative: 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 15; accusative: 2, 7, 14; vocative: 11.
At least in some cases the same situation is probable for the Gaulish words. The
oldest manuscript of the glossary is dated to AD 796, when Gaulish was surely
extinct. This means that the glossary represents a copy of older texts, recording a
late epoch in the development of Gaulish.

3.5. From the glosses of ancient authors and the words of Gaulish origin which
became already familiar in Latin, it is possible to identify the following Gaul-
ish words (see LG 204–06; Schmidt 1967; Sowa 1998), e.g.: acaunumarga “of
stone-marl” (Pliny), consisting of the word *akaunon “stone” < *akamnon, and
*margā, which also appears by Pliny in the compound glisomarga “a kind of the
white clay”, cf. F. marne ~ marle “marl” < *margila;
alauda “lark” (Pliny) > fr. alouette id.;
48 Václav Blažek

alausa “a kind of fish from the Moselle called shad / Culpea alosa” (Ausonius) >
F., Pr. alauso, Sp. alosa;
ambactus “vassal, dependent on the lord” (Festus) < *amb(i)-agto- *“making
around”, cf. W. amaeth “farmer”, OB. ambaith id. (Celtic origin is also apparent
in the case of OHG. ambaht “servant”, continuing in Germ. Amt “office, serv-
ice”);
andabata & andobatta “the gladiator who fights in the helmet without openings
for the eyes” (Cicero), i.e. “in blind”, lit. “fighting blind”, where the stem *ando-
corresponds to Old Indic andhá- & Avestan azda- “blind”;
arinca “kind of grain, rye or grained wheat” (Pliny) – it is compatible with Greek
¥rakoj “vetch”;
attegia “hut, cottage” (Juvenalis), probably *ad- “to, by” & *tegia “house, roof”,
therefore ±”shelter”, cf. OIr. teg, OW. tig “house”;
beber, acc. bebrum “beaver” in late Latin against Latin proper fiber id.;
beccus “beak, bill” (Suetonius) > F. bec;
benna “a kind of carriage” (Festus) > F. benne, It. benna;
betulla “birch” (Pliny), cf. late Latin beta and Celtic parallels in OIr. beithe, W.
bedw, OB. bedu id.; Pr., Cat. bez, Sp. biezo “birch” are also of Celtic origin;
billus, billa “trunk of the tree” (late) and F. bille id. < G. *bilio- & *biliā, cf. OIr.
bile “big tree”;
br£kai (Diodorus of Sicily), br£kkai (Hesychius) = L. brācae, brācēs “trou-
sers, breeches” > F. braies, Sp. braga, Romanian bracă, etc. id.
bracis “malt” (Pliny), cf. the Gaulish epitheton Braciaca “of beer”? of the god
Mars; the Gaulish or Latin word continues in F. braie; cf. the Celtic parallels as
OIr. braich, W. brag “malt”;
brogae “field”, dimin. brogilus (Schol. Juvenal.), F. arch. and onomastic breuil
“field” < G. *brogi-, cf. W., B. bro “country”, OIr. mruig id.;
brucaria “heather” (late) > F. bruyère id., cf. OIr. froích, W. grug id. < Celt.
*„roiko-, besides B. brug id., which represents more probably the Gaulish word
borrowed through the Romance mediation, how the change *„r- > br- indicates;
bulga “leathern knapsack, bag” (Festus) > OF. bouge(tte) id. > E. budget, cf. OIr.
bolg “bag, belly”;
camminus “road” (7th cent.) > F. chemin, It. cammino, Sp. camino, Cat. camí etc.
id., cf. OIr. céimm “walking, step”, W. cam “id., footprint”;
cantedon “100 feet” (Isidore of Sevilla) < *$‚t(o)-pedom, cf. OIr. cét, W. cant
“100” & OIr. ed “space, interval”;
carpentum “two-wheeled, covered carriage” (Titus Livius), the original Gaulish
form probably was *karbanton, cf. OIr. carpat “war chariot”; the chariot was
called after the hamper, the place for the charioteer; related is L. corbis “bas-
ket”;
carrus “two-wheeled wagon for transporting burdens” continues in F. char and
also E. car; the Gaulish word which has its counterpart in OIr. carr “vehicle”,
W. car, OB. carr id., replaced its Latin equivalent proper, namely currus “war-
chariot”; all from the protoform *k3so-, from the verb *kers- “to run”;
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 49

cateia “a kind of spear, probably barbed”, cf. OIr. caithid “throws”;

cauannos “owl” > F. chouan, chouette, cf. W. cwan, OB. couan, B. kaouann id.,
further OHG. hūwo id.;
cectoria, cectorium “furrow forming the border of a field”, cf. OIr. cécht “plow
or its handle”;
cis(s)ium “light two-wheeled vehicle, cabriolet”, cf. OIr. cess “knitted basket” <
*kistā;
cleta “hamper, hurdle” > F. claie id., Pr., Cat. cleda “grate in the window”, cf. OIr.
cliath “hamper, hurdle”, W. clwyd “barriere” < pre-Celtic *kleÔtā;
combrus “felled trees” (6th–7th cent.), “dam” (11. st.) < G. *komberos, cf. OIr.
commar, W. cymer, B. kemper “confluence”;
couinnus “war-chariot of the Brittons and Belgae” (Mela), W. cywain “coach-
man” < Celt. *ko-„egno-, cf. W. gwain “wagon”, OIr. fén id. < *„egno-;
crocina “suit of the skin”, cf. OIr. crocenn “(suit of) skin”, B. kroc’hen “skin”;
curucus “craft formed from the construction covered by skin”, cf. OIr. curach, W.
corwg id. < *koruko-, cf. Greek kèrukoj “leathern sack”;
koÚrmi “alcoholic drink of fermented barley” (Dioscorides) = G. kurmi “beer”
(inscription from Autun), cf. OIr. cuirm “beer”, OW. curum, W. cwrf, B. coruf
“beer”;
damma “roe, antelope, gazelle” > F. daim, cf. OIr. dam “bull, deer”, damán
“fawn” (*damogno-), W. dafad “ram” (*damato-);
drungus “troop of enemies”, cf. OIr. drong “group, band, gang”, OB. drogn
“troop”;
esox “a fish of the Rhine”, maybe “pike” (Pliny), cf. OIr. éo, gen. iach “salmon”,
W. ehawc, MB. eheuc id.;
essedum “two-wheeled war-chariot used by Gauls, Belgae and Brittons” (Caesar,
Vergilius) < *en-sedo- or via assimilation from *ad-sedo-, cf. the Latin gloss
asseda “seat of quadriiuga”, W. assed “wagon” < *ad-sed-;
gaesum “spear, javelin”, cf. OIr. gae “spear”, MW. gwaew “spear, javelin”;
gladius “sword”, cf. OIr. claideb, W. cleddyf & cleddydd id. (the difference c : g
was perhaps caused by the orthographic vacillation or by Etruscan mediation);
glastum “blue colour” (Pliny), cf. OIr. glas “blue-green”, W. glas “blue”;
gulbia “beak, bill” (Isidore of Sevilla), cf. MIr. gulba id., W. gylfin id.;
iotta “soup of a milk, mash” (6th cent.), cf. OW. iot, OB. iot “mash”;
lancea “spear” (Nonius, Diodorus of Sicily), cf. OIr. dó-leicim “I throw”;
leucas ‘the Gaulish mile, c. 2,4 km’ (Saint Hieronymus), leuga id. (Isidore of
Sevilla) > F. lieue > E. league id.;
linna “mantle” (Isidore of Sevilla), cf. OIr. lenn “mantle”, OB. lenn “a piece of
linen, veil, curtain” < *pCtnā, cf. OCS. platьno “linen”;
mannus “pony, little horse” < G. *mandu-, cf. Basque mando “mule” < Celtic;
OIr. menn “young animal, kid”;
nausum “ship” (Ausonius), cf. OIr. nau id.;
olca “arable field” (Gregor of Tours) > Pr. olca, F. ouche (dial. also “garden”),
Sp. huelga;
50 Václav Blažek

petorritum “four-wheeled chariot” (Festus), cf. G. petuar[ios] “fourth”; OIr. ri(u)

th “course”;
petia & pecia (late) > F. pièce “piece” from G. *petsi-, cf. W. peth, B. pez(h), OIr.
cuit “piece” < Celt. *k„ezdi-;
pititus (7. st.) > F. petit “small”;
riga “furrow” (late) < G. *rika, from here also OPr. riga, F. raie id., cf. OB. rec,
MW. rych id., all from *p3ko-/-ā;
rodarum “plant with the leaves which become red” (Pliny) < *(H1)roudh- “red”;
rusca “bark” (9th cent.) > OPr., Cat. rusca “bark (of oak)”, F. ruche “beehive”,
cf. OIr. rúsc “bark”, W. rhisgl id.;
sagum, sagus, saga “Gaulish tunic” (Isidore, Polybius) > F. saie;
sugia “soot” (late) > F. suie, Pr. suja, suga, from G. *sudia, cf. OIr. súide id.;
taratrum “borer, gimlet” (Isidore of Sevilla) > F. tarière, OPr. taraire, Sp. tal-
adro, cf. W. taradr, MB. tarazr, OIr. tarathar;
tarinca “iron nail” > OF. taranche “big iron pin”, Pr. tarenco id., besides another
gloss taringa “iron pins”, cf. OIr. tairnge “iron nail, point”;
taxō, acc. taxōnem “badger” > F. taisson, It. tasso, Sp. tejon id., cf. Gmc. *þahsu-
> OHG. dahs id.;
tinca “tench” (Ausonius) > F. tanche, OF. tenche, It. tinca, Sp., Pr. tenca;
uassus “vassal, servant”, cf. OIr. foss, W. gwas id. < *upo-stH2o- “standing be-
yond”;
uātēs, uātis “prophet, poet”, sr. G. *„ātēs “caste of prohets” (Strabo IV, 4.4:
OÙ£teij), OIr. fáith “prophet;
uerēdus “post-horse”, cf. W. gorwydd “horse” < Celt. *uo-rēdos < *upo-reÔdho-.
The Latin word with the Greek prefix para- penetrated into F. palefroi and Germ.
Pferd “horse”;
vertragus “kind of a hound” < G. uer- “super-” & *trag- “foot”, from here OF.
viautre, Old Milanese veltres, It. veltro “kind of a big dog”;
uiriola “bracelets” (Pliny) > F. virole, Furlan viruele etc., id.

3.6. Another valuable source of knowledge of the Gaulish lexicon is substratum

words in the Gallo-Romance languages (according to various scholars as many as
160), frequently appearing also in other Romance groups (see LG 187–203):
Pr. agreno “black-thorn”, Cat. aranyo id. < G. *agran(i)o-, cf. OIr. áirne and W.
eirin, B. irin <*agrinia & *agrīno-;
Pr. banno “horn” < G. *bannā, cf. W. ban “tip, point”, OIr. benn “point, horn”;
F. barre “pole, stick”, barrière “gratte, lattice; dam”, cf. OIr. barr “top (of a
tree)”, W. barr;
F. dial. (Limousin) bec, (Creuse) beco, It. dial. bega “bee, wasp”, cf. OIr. bech
“bee”, W. beg-egyr “hornet”;
F. bouc “he-goat” < G. *bukko-, cf. Ir. bocc, W. bwch, B. bouc’h id.;
F. boue “mud”, cf. W. baw id.;
F. briser “to break”, cf. OIr. brissid “breaks”;
OF. bruisier “to press, wound, knock”, cf. OIr. bruïd “crushes”;
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 51

F. chêne, OF. chesne, chasne “oak” < Celt. *kassano-/*kassino-;

F. darne “piece of a fish”, cf. B. darn “part”;
OF. drille “piece of a cloth, hadr”, cf. W. dryll, B. drailh “piece”;
F. dial. droue “cockle” < G. *dra„ā, cf. B. draok id. < *dra„ākā;
F. dru “stout, vigorous, dense” < G. *druto-, cf. W. drud “agile, bold, cheeky,
arrogant”;
F. flanelle “woollen cloth”, dimin. of the Gaulish protoform *„lanā, cf. W. gwlan,
B. gloan, OIr. olann “wool”;
F. gaillard “bold, merry, jolly” from G. *galiā “force”, cf. OIr. gal “passion of
battle”, W. gallu “I can”;
F. glaner “to glean”, OPr. glenar id., cf. OIr. glenn- “to chose”;
OF. grenon “beard”, Pr. gren “moustache”, cf. the epithet of the Gaulish Apollo
Grannus and further OIr. grenn “beard”, OW. grann “eyebrow”;
F. grève “sandy bank”, West F. dial. groue, cf. W., B. gro “river sand”;
F. if “yew” < G. iuos (Calendar of Coligny), cf. further OIr. éo, W. yw;
Pr. garra, F. jarret “hollow of the knee” (dimin. *garrito-), cf. B. garr “leg”, W.
gar “leg, thigh”, Ir. gairri “calf of the leg”;
F. mèague “whey”, sr. stir. medg “curdled milk”, W. maidd < Celt. *mizgā;
F. mouton “wether”, It. montone “ram” < G. *multō, cf. OIr. molt, W. mollt, B.
maout “ram”;
Pr. pairol “pot, jar”, cf. W. pair, OIr. coire id. < *k„3Ôo-;
F. roche “rock”, cf. B. roc’h id. < *rokkā;
F. soc “ploughshare”, metaphorically transferred from the original meaning “pig”,
cf. OIr. socc “snout; pig”, W. hwch, B. houc’h “boar” < *sukko-;
F. dial. (Picardian, Normandian) souche “stump”, (Berrichon) suque, (Piemon-
tese) süka, It. socca, Aragonese zoque < G. *tsukkā, cf. Germ. Stock “stick, pole;
stump”;
F. talus “slope”, cf. OIr. taul “forehead, face, prominence”, W., B. tal “face” <
*talu-;
F. tan “bark of the oak” < G. *tanno- “kind of the oak”, cf. B. tann, C. glas-
tannen id.
F. trogne “red face”, cf. W. trwyn “nose”;
F. truand “beggar” < G. *trugant-, cf. OIr. truag “unfortunate, wretch”, W. tru
id.;
F. vandoise “white-fish < G. *„indesiā, from the stem *„indo- “white”, cf. Ir. find,
W. gwynn, B. gwenn id.;
F. vanneau “plover”, cf. OIr. fannall, B. gwennili, W. gwennol “swallow”;
F. ver(g)ne “alder”, cf. Ir. fern, W. gwern id., B. gwern “id.; marsh, swamp”.
52 Václav Blažek

4.1. Gaulish vs. Insular Celtic - phonetic correspondences

IE * Examples
p- OIr. én, W. edn, OC. hethen, OB. etn-, MB. ezn, B. evn, ein “bird” < *petno-; cf. Ogam
Ena-barri “bird’s head”, G. ND Etnosus (Bourges)
-p- Ir. caera, gen. caerach “sheep” (*caerax : *caeracos), W. caer-iwrch “he-roe” < *kap-
ero-; cf. G. NP Caeracates (Tacitus)
-pt- OIr. secht, MW. seith, C. seyth, B. seiz, G. sextan “7” < *septi
b- MIr. benn “horn; top”, W. bann “id., height”, MB. ban “hillock, projection” < *b‚d-no-,
cf. F. auvent “protective roof” < G. *ande-banno- (*b- is confirmed by the Germanic
parallels: West Flemish pint “point, tip”, MHG. pinz “awl” < *bend-; OE. pinn “pin”,
MHG. pfinne “nail” << *bend-n-);
-b- OIr. aball, W. afall, B. avallenn “apple-tree”, late G. auallo, cf. NL Aballo < *abCno-
bh OIr. bráth(a)ir, W. brawd, pl. brodyr, MB. breuzr, B. breur, pl. breudeur “brother” <
*bhrātēr, cf. G. ND Bratronos (Néris-de-Bains)
t- OIr. túath “kin, tribe, people”, MW. tut “people, land”, W. tûd, C. tus, B. tud “people” <
*te„tā; cf.. G. ND Teutates / Toutatis
-t- OIr. cath, W. cad, C. cas “fight”, cf. G. NV Catu-rīges < *katu-
d OIr. derc “eye”, B. derc’h “sight”, cf. G. in mon derco “in my eye” (Marcellus) <
*der$-
dh- OIr. dorus “door” < *dh„orestu-, W., C., OB. dor < *dh„orā, cf. G. duorico “colonnade”,
late doro “ostium” (Marcellus);
-dh- OIr. rúad, W. rhudd, OB. ruz “red” < *ro„dho-; cf. G. NV Roidius, Ande-roudus, ND
Rudianus
k- OIr. coll, W., OB. coll “hazel” < *koslo-, cf. G. NL Cosla, today Coole, and Coslus,
today Coolus
-k- OIr. luch, gen. lochad “mouse” < *lukkts, gen. *lukotos, W. llyg, OB. loc, B. pl. logod,
W. llygod < *lukotes; cf. G. NP Lucotios, Loukotiknoj ‘son of mouse’
-ks- OIr. tréise “force” < *treksiā, treisse “stronger” < *treksio-, W. trech id. < *trekso-; cf.
G. NV Trexius,-a
g- OIr. glend, gen. glinde “valley”, W. glynn id. < *glend-os : -esos, besides W., B. glann
“shore”, OC. glan < *gl‚dā, cf. G. NL Glanna (9th cent.; today Glennes)
-g- OIr. teg “house” < *(s)teg-os-, OW. tig, W. tî, C. ti, OB. tig, B. ti id., cf. G. > L. attegia
“cottage” (Juvenalis)
gh- OIr. glan, W. glân, OB. glan “pure” < *ghCH-no-, cf. G. NL Glanum, Glanis, Glain etc.
-gh- MIr. ligim “I lie”, W. lleu “to lay”, G. legasit “offerted” < *legh-ā-s-ti + -t
$- OIr. cét, W. cant, B. kant “100” < *$‚tom; cf. G. *kanto- in the measure of distance
candetum = *kant-edum “100 steps” < *$‚to-pedom
-$- OIr. deich, OW. -dec, W. deg, C., B. dek, G. decam (Limoges) “10” < *de$i
ĝ- OIr. gnáth “known”, W. gnawd “habit” < *ĝnōto-, cf. G. NV Eposo-gnātus “known
through horse”
-ĝ- OIr. rígain “queen”, W. rhiain “girl, virgin”, G. dat. rigani “reginae” (Lezoux) <
*rēĝ‚nī
ĝh- OIr. gam, OW. gaem, W. gauaf, OC. goyf, B. gouañv “winter” < *ĝhiÔemo-, cf. the Gaul-
ish winter month giamon[[ios]] (Coligny)
-ĝh- OIr. brí, gen. breg “hill” < Celt. *brigs : *brigos < *bh3ĝhs : *bh3ĝhos, W., C., B. bre id.
< Celt. *briga < *bh3ĝhā; cf. G. NL Uindo-briga “white hill”, etc.
k„- OIr. cethair, W. pedwar, B. pevar “4” < *k„et„ores, cf. G. petuar[[ios]] “4th”
(Graufesenque)
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 53

-k„- OIr. nech “somebody”, W. neb, OB. nep “some”, cf. G. (Larzac) gen. nepi < *ne-k„o-s,
gen. *ne-k„is
g„ OIr. ben “woman”, OW. ben, W. benyw “female” < *g„enā, G. gen. pl. bnanom “mu-
lierum” (Larzac)
g„h- MIr. gorim “I warm”, Ir. gor “heat”, W. gori “to scorch”, B. gor “heat” < *g„hor-;
The Gaulish reflex remains unclear, perhaps gobedbi dat./instr. pl. “smith” : OIr. gobae,
W. gof id. < *g„hob(h)-, if it corresponds with L. faber id.
-g„h- OIr. laigiu “smaller” < *lagiÔōs, W. llaw “little, low, sad”, OB. lau “bad; mediocre” <
*laguo-; cf. G. NV Lagu-audus, Lagussa and the lau “bad” in late G. text of Marcellus
of Bordeaux
s- OIr. sam, W., C. haf, OB. ham, B. haņv “summer” < **siHo-, cf. the Gaulish month
Samon[ius] (Coligny) = OIr. fest Samain; G. > F. dial. samará “June”
-s- OIr. íarnn, W. haearn, OC. hoern, OB. hoiarn, B. houarn “iron” < Celt. *īsarno- <
*ēs3-no-”bloody”, cf. G. NL Isarno-dori, glossed in Vita Eugendi (+510) ‘Gallica lingua
Isarnodori, id est ferrei ostii’, i.e. “iron gate”
sk- OIr. sceirt- “to spit, vomit”, OB. scruitiam “I spit”, G. (Marcellus of Bordeaux)
scrisum(i)-io “that I spit”
-sk- OIr. *rúsc “bark”, Welsh rhisgl < *rūsk(o)-, besides OC rusc “cortex”, B. rusk “bark”;
cf. Gaulish loans in Romance: OPr. rusca “bark”, Cat. rusca “bark of an oak”, It. dial.
(North) rüsca “bark”
sl- OIr. slóg, slúag “army, troop”, W. llu “troop”, MC. lu, OB. -lu “army”, cf. G. NP Catu-
slugi < *slo„gho-
sp- OIr. selg = MB. felch “spleen” << *spelĝ-; cf. G.-L. favissa “tank, sump” < *spe„o-
“cavity”?
sr- OIr. srón “nose, nostrils”, W. ffroen “nostrils”, MB. froan, B. fron id., G. > OF. froigne
“frowning face”, F. dial. (Vosgien) frognon “snout” < *srok-nā
-sr- OIr. nom. pl. f. teuir, G. tidres “3” (f.) < Celt. *tiδres < *tisr-es; cf. OIr. acc. pl. f. téora,
W., B. teir < *tisr-‚s
st- OIr. ser, W. ser, MC. steyr, B. ster “stars” < *H2ster-, cf. G. ND Đirona, Sirona < Celt.
*stēr-on-ā
-st- OIr. gus “power, might”, Ogam gen. sg. -gusso(s), G. (Lezoux) dat. sg. gussou id. <
*ĝustu-, cf. G. NV Guđo-marus “great through power”, OW. Ungust (*Oino-gustus),
maybe also W. gwst “pain, illness”
s„- OIr. sé, W. chwech, C. whegh, B. c’houec’h “6” < *(-)s„e$s, cf. G. suexos “6th”
(Graufesenque)
r- OIr. roth m., W. rhod f. “wheel” < *rotHo-/-ā; cf. G. Roto-magus, today Rouen, etc.
-r- OIr. muir, W. môr, C., B. mor “sea” < *mori-, cf. G. more “mare” (Viennese glossar),
Are-morici etc.
l- OIr. lúach “shining”, W. llug < *le„kos, cf. G. NL Leuco-mago “pure field”, ND Le/
oucetius (Mars)
-l- OIr. milis, W. melys “sweet” < *melit-ti-; cf. G. NV Meliddus, Melissus << *melit-to-
m- OIr. marb, W. marw, C. marow, B. maro “died”, G. > F. dial. marv “rigid, insensitive”
< *m3„o-
mr- OIr. mruig, bruig, W., C., B. bro “area, state” < Celt. *mrogi-/-ā < *morĝ- “boundary”,
cf. G. NP Allo-broges : Nitio-broges, lit. “from other country” vs. “inhabitant of own
country”, similarly W. Cymry “Welsh” < *kom-brogi- “of the same country”; cf. also Pr.
broa “uncultivated country which separates two fields” < G. *broga
-m- OIr. dechmad, W. degfed, B. dekved, G. (Graufesenque) decametos “10th” < *de$i-
eto-
54 Václav Blažek

n- OIr. ni, ní, na, W., C. ny, B. ne, G. (Lezoux, Larzac) ne “not”
-n- OIr. sen, W., C., B. hen “old” < *seno-; cf. G. NV Seno-gnato, Seno-virus, Seno-rix
3 OIr. NL Humar-rith, W. rhyd, OC. rid, OB. rit, red “ford” < *p3tu-; cf. G. Ritu-magos,
today Radepont, Mapo-ritum (“son’s ford”), etc.
OIr. carr, W. càr, B. karr “wagon” < *k3so-, cf. G. > L. carrus
C OIr. lethan, W. llydan, OB. litan, B. ledan “wide, large” < *pCt˜2no-, cf. G. NL Litana
(silva), Litano-briga
i OIr. imb-, imm- “around”, W. am-, G. amb(i)- < *ibhi- < *H2‚(t)-bhi-
‚ OIr. land “territory, soil, piece of land, plain”, W. llan “village”, B. lann “steppe, flat
place” < *(p)l‚dh-ā; cf. G. > F. landa “uninhabited, uncultivated area”, Pr., Cat., Sp.,
Port., It. landa “field”
Ô- OIr. ét “jealousy”, W. add-iant “longing” < *Ô‚tu-, cf. G. NV Iantu-maros = Ir. étmar
“jealous”
-Ô- OIr. nóe, nuae, W. newydd, C. newyth, OB. nevid, B. nevez, G. (Lezoux) nouiio.. “new”
< *no„iÔo-
„ OIr. fer, W. gwr “man” < *„iro-; cf. G. NV Uiros (coin), Seno-uirus, Uiro-marus, NL
Uiro-dunum, today Verdun, etc.
i OIr. lind “pool; liquid”, W. lynn “drink; lake”, OB. lin “pool, lake”, B. lenn < *lindh-; cf.
G. (Banassac) pl. linda “drink”
u OIr. dub, OW. Dub-, W. du, OC. duw, B. duw “black” < *dhubh-u-; cf. G. NF Dubis,
today Doubs, or the well La Dhuine (*dubīnā), from which the brook Font noire flows
out today
ī OIr. lí “colour”, W. lliw, OC. liu, B. liou id. < *lī„o-; cf. G. NV gen. Lio-mari, etc.
ū OIr. dún “fortification”, W. NL Din, OB. din “arx” < *dhūno-; cf. G. -dunum in the names
of fortifications; dunum “enim montem” in the viennese glosses
e OIr. sen, W., C., B. hen “old” < *seno-, cf. G. NV Seno-rix, Seno-virus, Seno-carus,
etc.
a OIr. all “beyond”, W., OB. all “other”, G. (Graufesenque) allos “second” < *alno-; cf.
NP Allobrog-ae, -es = W. allfro “foreigner” (*”of other side of boundary”)
o OIr. oll “big, great”, W., C., B. oll “all” < *olno-, cf. G. (Chamalières) ollon, NV Ollo-
gnatus
ē OIr. rí, gen. ríg, Ogam gen. -rigas, W. rhi “king” < *rēĝ-s, gen. -os; cf. G. Albio-, Bitu-,
Dubno-rix, all “world’s king”
ā OIr. máth(a)ir = G. (Larzac) matir < *mātēr, cf. W. modryb, C. modereb, OB. motrep
“aunt of the maternal side” < *māt3k„ī
ō OIr. már, mór, W. mawr, OC. maur, OB. mor, B. meur < Celt. *māros < *mōro- <
*moH1-ro-; cf. G. NV Maro-uirus, -boduus, etc., Catu-marus = W. Cadfawr, Nerto-
marus = OIr. Nertmar
C˜C OIr. athir “father” < *p˜2t´r, G. voc. ater < *p˜2ter, dat. pl. atrebo “patribus” < *p˜2t3bhos;
cf. W. edrydd “dwelling” (“father’s [house]”) = MIr. aithre < Celt. *atrios
eÔ OIr. ríad(a)im “I go, ride”, W. rhwydd-hau “to hurry” < *reÔdh-; cf. G. > L. r(a)eda
“four-wheeled wagon”, similarly OIr. dé-riad “carriage and pair”
aÔ OIr. gae, gen. ga “spear”, MW. gwaew, OB. guugoiuou “spear, javelin” (*uo-gaiso-) <
*gaiso-; cf. G. > L. gaesum “spear, javelin” (Servius, Nonius), also G. NV Ario-gaisus,
GaizatÒ-rix, etc.
oÔ OIr. óin, late. oen, MW., C. un, B. unan “one” < *oÔno-, cf. G. NV Oinos
e„ OIr. tuath “tribe, people”, MW. tut “people, state”, W. tûd “landscape”, B. tud “people”
< *te„tā; cf. G. ND Teutatis / Toutates, NV Teuta, Teutalus, Teuta-gonus, Teuto-matus,
besides Con-toutos, Uiro-touta
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 55

a„ OIr. úa, ó “from, through, with”, OW. hou, velš. o “if”, o “from” < *a„- < **H2e„-; cf.
G. (Graufesenque) autagis “arrangement, schedule”
o„ OIr. crúach “heap, pile; mountain”, W. crug, OC., OB. cruc “hill” < *kro„ko-/-ā; cf.
F. dial. (Béarnais) cruque “heap of earth”, B. NL Croucincum (Geograph of Ravenna),
Krouki£tonnon (Ptol.), etc.

4.2. Nominal declension in context of other old Celtic languages

Only the best documented paradigms are presented. The complete tabulation of
the Celtic nominal declension was published by Blažek 2007.
(The Old Irish and proto-Goidelic paradigms follow Pedersen 1909–13 and Thur-
neysen 1946)

o-stems: OIr. fer “man”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. m. -os -os -os in fer < *wiros -os -os
Nom.-Acc.sg. n. -on -om -om scél -om -om
Acc. m. -on/-om -om inN bferN <*wirom -om -om
Voc. -e? aL fhirL< *wire -e -e
Gen. -i indL firL<*wirī -ī -iHi
Ogam maq(q)i
-o
-oiso
Dat. -ui/-u -ui -ui -indL fhiurL<*wirū -ōi -o-ei
Ogam Bigu
Loc. -e -ei -ei -ei
Instr. -u? -u -ō -o-H1
Abl. -uð -ōd -o-ed
Nom.-Acc. du. fer < *wirā -ō -o-H1
Gen. fer < *wirou
Dat. fer(a)ib < *wirobim
Nom. pl. m. -oi > -i -oi -oi indL fhirL<*wirī -oi -oi
Nom.-Acc. pl. n. -a scél -ə2 -H2
Acc. m. -us -uś -us annaG firuG<*wirūs -ōns -o-oms
Voc. aL fhiru<*wirūs -ōs -o-es
Gen. -on -um innaN bferN<*wirom -ōm/-om -o-H-om?
Ogam maqa[n] maila-
gni
Ogam macorbo
Dat. -obo -obos -ubos -naib fer(a)ib<*wirobi -o-bhos -o-bhos
Loc.
Instr. -uis/-us -ōis -o-eis
Abl.

Note: The symbols G, L, N designate mutations, concretely G = gemination, if the word was termi-
nated in -s, L = lenition, if the word was terminated in a vowel, N = nasalisation, if the word was
terminated in a nasal.
56 Václav Blažek

ā-stems: OIr. tuath “kin, tribe”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. -a -a -a inL tuathL< *toutā -ā
Ogam inigena
Acc. -an/-im -am -am inN dtuaithN < *toutim -ām
Voc. -a? -a aL thuathL < *toutā -ā
Gen. -as/-ias -as innaG tuaitheG < *toutiās -ās
Ogam Ercias
Dat. -ai/-i -ai -ai (do)ndL tuaith < *toutī -āi
Loc.
Instr. -ia?
Abl. -að -ād
Nom.-Acc du. tuatha
Gen. tuath
Dat. tuath(a)ib
Nom. pl. -as -as -i innaG tuathaG < *toutās -ās
Acc. -as -aš -as innaG tuathaG < *toutās -āns
Voc. aL thuatha < *toutās -ās
Gen. -anom aum innaN dtuathN < -ā-ōm/
*toutǎnom -ā-nom
Dat. -abo (do)naib tuathaib < -ābho(s)
*toutābi
Loc.
Instr. -abi -ābhi(s)
Abl.

i-stems: OIr. flaith “rule, government”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE. early IE
Nom. sg. -is -is -is flaith < *wlatis -is
Acc. -in -im flaith < *wlatim -im
Voc. -i flaith < *wlati -ei
Gen. -ηις flatho, -a < *wlatois? -eyos
Ogam Allattos
Dat. -e -ei -ei flaith < *wlatī -ei
Loc.
Instr.
Abl. -ið -id
Nom.-Acc. du. flaith < *wlatī -ī
Gen. flatho, -a = gen. sg.
Dat. fla(i)thib < *wlatibim -ibhim
Nom. pl. -εις /-is -is fla(i)thi < *wlatejes -eyes
Acc. -is fla(i)thi < *wlatīns -īns
Voc. fla(i)thi < *wlatejes -eyes
Gen. -iom -isum? fla(i)the < *wlatijōm -iyōm
Dat.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 57

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE. early IE
Loc.
Instr. Dat. fla(i)thib < *wlatibi -ibhi
Abl.

u-stems: OIr. guth “voice”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. -ους /-us guth < *gutus -us
Acc. guth < *gutum -um
Voc. guth < *gutu -u
Gen. gotho, -a < *gutous -ous
Ogam Cunagussos
Ogam Vergoso
Dat. -οου -uei guth < *gutū -ewi
Ogam magu, Manu
Loc.
Instr.
Abl. -ueð -ewed?
Nom.-Acc. du. guth < *gutū -ū
Gen. gotho, -a <*gutewou?
Dat. goth(a)ib < *guteubim
Nom. pl. -oues goth(a)e -a < *gutewes -ewes
Acc. guthu < *gutūns -ūns
Voc. goth(a)e < *gutewes -ewes
Gen. -oum goth(a)e < *gutewjōm -ewōm
Dat. -ouib[u]s -owebh[o]s
Loc.
Instr. Dat. goth(a)ib < *guteubi -ewobhi
Abl.

r-stems: OIr. ath(a)ir “father”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. -ir ath(a)ir < *(p)atīr *pə2tēr
Acc. -rem ath(a)ir < *(p)ateram *pə2teri
Voc. -er ath(a)ir < *(p)atīr *pə2tēr
Gen. -eros athar < *(p)atros *pə2tros
Ogam Akeras
Dat. ath(a)ir < *(p)ateri *pə2teri
Loc.
Instr.
Abl.
Nom.-Acc. du. athir < *(p)atere *pə2tere
Gen. athar < *(p)atrou *pə2trou
Dat. athr(a)ib < *(p)atribim *pə2t3bhim
58 Václav Blažek

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE

Nom. pl. -eres a(i)thir < *(p)ateres *pə2teres
Acc. aithr(e)a < *(p)aterās *pə2ter‚s
Voc. aithr(e)a < *(p)aterās *pə2ter‚s
Gen. -ron athr(a)e < *(p)atrijōm *pə2tr(iy)
ōm
Dat. -rebo *pə2t3bho
Loc.
Instr. Dat. athr(a)ib < *pə2t3bhi
*(p)atribi
Abl.

n-stems: OIr. cú “dog”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Celtic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. -ου/-u -u -u cú < *kwū *$wō
Acc. coin < *kwonim *$woni
Voc. cú < *kwū *$wō
Gen. -unos con < *kunos *$unos
Ogam Broinionas
Dat. -onei -unei coin < *kwonei *$wonei
Loc.
Instr. -unu
Abl. -unej
Nom.-Acc. du. coin < *kwone *$wone
Gen. con < *kunou *$unou
Dat. con(a)ib < *kunobim *$unobhim
Nom. pl. coin < *kwones *$wones
Acc. -onas cona < *kunās *$un‚s
Voc.
Gen. con < *kwondm *$wonōm
Dat. -onebos
Loc.
Instr. Dat. con(a)ib < *kunobi *$unobhi
Abl.

Consonantic stems: OIr. rí “king”

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE
Nom. sg. -s -s rí < *rīgs *rēĝs
Acc. ríg < *rīgim *rēĝi
Voc. rí = Nom. *rēĝs
Gen. -os -os ríg < *rīgos *rēĝos
Ogam Icorigas
Dat. -i -ei ríg < *rīgei *rēĝei
Loc.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 59

Gaulish Lepontic Celtiberian Old Irish < Goidelic late IE early IE

Instr.
Abl. -eð
Nom.-Acc. du. ríg *rēĝe
Gen. ríg *rēĝou
Dat. ríg(a)ib *rēĝobhim
Nom. pl. -es ríg < *rīges *rēĝes
Acc. -eš ríga < *rīgās *rēĝ‚s
Voc. ríga < *rīgās *rēĝ‚s
Gen. ríg < *rīgōm * rēĝōm
Dat.
Loc.
Instr. -bi Dat. ríg(a)ib < *rīgobi *rēĝobhi
Abl.

4.3. Pronouns
4.3.1. The personal pronouns are attested only in the reinforcing or enclitic roles
(LG 69; Rubio Orecilla 1997):
Person Pronoun Examples and paralles
1 sg. nom. mi < *mē ande díon uediíu-mi < *‚dhi diÔom „eidÔō mē “ver- einen Gott ehre
(< acc.) ich” = Gothic in-weitiþ guþ (de Bernardo Stempel 2001, 164-68),
exsops pissíu-mi < *eks-ok„s k„issÔō mē “blind, I will see”
(both Chamalières; see LG 159-60); cf. OIr. mé, W. mi “I”
1 sg. dat. mi < *moi íexstumisendi <*Ôegs-tū-moi-sindi(n) (Châteaubleau; Schrijver
2001, 138)
me or tomedeclai < *to-me-de-ek-lā-e (Voltino; Eska & Weiss 1996, 290)
1 sg. abl. med or
met < *med *to-med-ek-lai?
met-ingi-set-ingi “between me (and) between her” (Châteaubleau;
Lambert 2001, 112)
2 sg. nom. tu < *tū íexs-tu-mi-sendi “say you me that” (Châteaubleau; see Schrijver
2 sg. dat. ti < *toi 2001, 138)
2 sg. acc. ti < *tē tiedi = tieđi (Banassac) < *tī etsi < *toi esti “tibi est” (DLG 140).
lotites snieđđic < *snies-ti-c (Chamalières; see LG 69, 156)
3 sg. nom. f. si < *sī- íexsete si ? (Châteaubleau), cf. pl. sies (LG 69, 169, 210);
cf. OIr. sí, W., B. hi “she”
3 sg. abl. f. set < *sed met-ingi-set-ingi “between me (and) between her” (Châteaubleau;
Lambert 2001, 112)
1 pl. nom. sni(s) < *snē(s) lotites snieđđic < *sni-esti-k„e (Chamalières); cf. OIr. sní, MW.,
OB. ni, MC. ny (see DLG 235; Katz 1998, 51, 54, 58-59, 79; con-
1 pl. gen. onson < *‚som tra: LG 156)
cantírtssuisonson = *canti+(u)irts=suis+onson; cf. OB han, B.
hon “our” (LG 160; RIG II. 2, 280)
2 pl. ? suis < *s„ēs cantirtssuis = *canti+(u)irts=suis (Chamalières; see LG 69, 160);
2 pl. nom.? sue íexsetesi sue (Châteaubleau; cf. Schrijver 2001, 139;
2 pl. acc. sue sue cluiou “je vous entends” (Lambert 2001, 109)
cf. OIr. sí, MW. chwi, OB. hui, MC. why (Katz 1998, 51)
60 Václav Blažek

Person Pronoun Examples and paralles

3 pl. acc. m. sos < *sons lotites snieđđic sos (Chamalières); cf. OIr. -(s)u, B. -ho- (DLG
3 pl. nom. f. sies < *sī-es 237)
nitixsintor sies (Larzac; see LG 69)

Note: Celtic languages represent the only IE branch, where the pronoun *eĝō “I” is not directly
attested. It is tempting to speculate about its traces in the formation regu-c cambion “I straighten
bent one” < *reĝō (e)ĝ kibÔom, attested in the inscription from Chamalières, parallel with the use
of the reinforcing mi, e.g. in uediíu-mi “I do honour”, pissíu-mi “je vois” (Chamalières); íegu-mi
“je dis” (Châteaubleau).

4.3.2. Other pronouns

eianom gen. pl. f., eiabi dat./instr. pl. f. (Larzac) from the stem *eÔā- or *esÔā-
(Schrijver 1997, 63);
isoc & ison? (both Chamalières); cf. Lepontic iśos, Celtiberian iste, Latin iste
“that” (Schrijver 1997, 63);
ixsi “the same” (Châteaubleau); cf. L. ipsi (Lambert 2001, 108);
*sindos: insinde se bnanom brictom “in(to) the magic of women here” (Larzac),
indas bnas “the women” = OIr. acc. pl. inna mná (Schrijver 1997, 49); maybe
also sendi (acc. sg. f.?) in íexstumi-sendi “appelle, toi, celle-ci pour moi” (Lam-
bert 2001, 111);
*sonda (nom. sg. f.) in onda boca “this mouth”, cf. W. honn “this” f. (Schrijver
1999, 48-49);
sosio in Buscilla sosio legasit “Buscilla has offered this” (Schrijver 1997, 49);
sosin “that” (nom. sg. ntr.) in sosin celicnon (Alise-Sainte-Reine), σοσιν νεμετον
(Vaison-La-Romaine).

4.4. Numerals
Gaulish Old Irish Gaelic Manx Welsh Cornish Breton Celtiberian
1 *oinos (NV) oín-, óen- aon un un vn un
san-, cf.
“1000”
2 m. dáu da da dau dew daou
f. uo-dui “2x” dwy dyw diou
3 m. tri tri tri tri try, tri tri tiris acc. sg.
f. tidres teoir tair te(y)r, tyyr teir
4 m. petuar[ios]+ cetha(i)r ceithir kaire pedwar peswar pevar
f. cethéoir pedair peder, -yr peder
5 pinpe-, pompe cóic coig queig pump pump pemp ? kuekue-
6 suexos+ se se shey chwech whe(gh) c’houec’h sues
7 sextan/m- secht seachd shiaght saith seyth, syth seiz
8 oxtu- ocht ochd hoght wyth eth eiz
9 namet[os]+ noí naoi noy naw naw nao, nav nouan-
10 decam- deich deich jeih deg dek dek tekam-
100 canto- cét ceud keead cant cans kant kantom
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 61

Gaulish Old Irish Gaelic Manx Welsh Cornish Breton Celtiberian

1000 san-kilista-
míle mile mil myl mil
thousane

Note 1: The symbol “+” indicates the ordinals.

Note 2: The Neo-Celtic numeral “1000” was borrowed from Latin mille, with exception
of Manx, where it is a loan from English.

4.5. Verbal morphology

The verbal morphology of Gaulish is mapped only very fragmentarily. It is dif-
ficult to complete the paradigms and for this reason the individual forms will be
analyzed (LG 64-66):
Present indicative
1 sg. thematic in -u & -ou [-ū] < *-ō, frequently with reinforcing -mi (*mē)
delgu “je contiens” (Bannasac); gniíou “je connais” & cluíou “j’entends” (Châ-
teaubleau)
uediíumi “I do honour”, pissíumi “je vois” (Chamalières); iegu-mi “je dis” (Châ-
teaubleau)
1 sg. athematic in -mi & -me < *-mi
ιμμι (Grafitti from Pennes-Mirabeau), geneta imi “I am a girl/daughter” (conic
circles outweighed distaffs from Eastern Gaul) < *es-mi.
petame “je demande” (Châteaubleau), cf. W. pedaf, B. pedañ “je prie”, borrowed
from L. petō, -ere.
2 sg. athematic in -si?
esi “thou are” (Larzac) < *essi; the usual derivation from the 3 sg. *esti is more
difficult (cf. DLG 140).
3 sg. thematic in -t < *-ti
senit (Larzac), sesit (Chamalières), neat (Argenton-sur-Creuse).
3 sg. athematic
tiedi = tieđi (Banassac) < *tī etsi < *toi esti “tibi est” (DLG 140).
1 pl. thematic in –massi?
petamassi (Châteaubleau) < *-mosi, cf. OIr. absolute –mai < *-mosi (Lambert
2001, 101)
3 pl. thematic in -nt(i)
senant (Paris, Pilier des Nautes), [ι]αχταντ (Beaucaire),
(passive) diligentir (Larzac)
(relative) dugionti-io “qui honorent” (Alise), sagitionti-ias or ont-iias “qui cher-
chent” (Larzac)

Future: desiderative, sometimes deponent

1 sg. siaxsiou “je chercherai” (Châteaubleau) < *si-sag-sÔō.
1 sg. deponent marcosior “que je fasse le cheval” (conic circles outweighed dis-
taffs).
62 Václav Blažek

1 sg. deponent velor “je voudrais” (Marcellus of Bordeau; see LG 179).

3 sg. bissiet “il sera” (Chamalières).
3 pl. relative toncsiionti-io “qui auront juré / jeté le sort” (Chamalières)

Subjunctive in -s-
2 sg. redresta “que tu montes” (Cajarc; LG 65)
2 pl. íexsetesi sue regenia tu “may you try & get, ye, ancestors, (and) thou” (Châ-
teaubleau), where íexsetesi is derivable from *ēg-s-e-tesi-(e)s or -(e)t (Lambert
2001, 95; Schrijver 2001, 139-41: IE *H1eiĝh-)

Optative in -si-, deponent

3 pl. ni tixsintor (Larzac).

Imperative
2 sg. in -i: lubi (grafitties); gabi (conic circles outweighed distaffs from St.-
Révérien)
2 sg. in -e: luge, luxse (Chamalières), ueííobiíe “sois fiancé” (Châteaubleau)
Note: The forms andigs, incors (Larzac) can belong here too, if the expected final
-i was apocopated (cf. luxse).
2 pl. in -tis (-ti+is?): ibetis “drink” (Limé), cf. OIr. ibid, B. evit, Vannetais ivet id.
(DLG 157).

Preterite
3 sg.
δεδε < *dhe-dhH2-e “a offert”.
sioxti (La Graufesenque); cf. OIr. sïacht “a cherché” < *se-sag-ti.
ειωρου / ieuru “a offert” < *(p)e-(p)orH-u, cf. OIr. ernaid “il offre” (LG 104–06;
Isaac 1997).

5. Conclusion: On the position of Gaulish within Celtic

The lexical data of Gaulish are not complete (c. 70% of the basic lexicon consist-
ing of 100 semantic units), but sufficient for application of the so-called ‘rec-
alibrated’ glottochronology. This result supports the Gallo-Brittonic unity, but
the chronological level of its disintegration is only one century younger than
the Goidelic / Gallo-Brittonic disintegration. It is a pity that the lexical corpus
of Celtiberian is too scarce to include it in this comparison as well. On the other
hand, Lepontic seems to belong to the same dialect zone as Gaulish.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 63

-1200 -800 -400 0 400 800 1200

Gaelic

Goidelic 700 Manx

1025
Irish

Celtic Welsh
-1100
Brittonic 810 Cornish
1150
Breton
-1000
Gaulish

Abbreviations: B. Breton, C. Cornish, Cat. Catalonian, Celt. Celtic, E. English, F. French, G. Gaul-
ish, Germ. German, Gmc. Germanic, HG. High German, IE Indo-European, Ir. Irish, It. Italian, L.
Latin, M Middle, ND nomen dei, NL nomem loci, NP nomen populi, NV nomen viri, O Old, OCS
Old Church Slavonic, Port. Portuguese, Pr. Provençal, Sp. Spanish, W. Welsh.

Basic bibliography

de BERNARDO STEMPEL, PATRIZIA. 1987. Die Vertretung der indogermanischen liquiden

und nasalen Sonanten im Keltischen. Innsbruck: IBS 54.
de BERNARDO STEMPEL, PATRIZIA. 2001. Gotisch in-wetiþ guþ und gallisch ANDE-díon
UĒDIÍU-mi (Chamalières, Z. 1). Historische Sprachforschung 114/1, 164–170.
BILLY, PIERRE-HENRI. 1993. Thesaurus Linguae Gallicae. Hildesheim: Olms.
BLAŽEK, VÁCLAV. 2007. Celtiberian. Sborník prací filozoficé fakulty brněnské univerzity /
Studia minora facultatis philosopicae universitatis brunensis N 12, 2007, 5–25.
CAESAR’s Gallic War, translators W.A. McDevitte & W.S. Bohn. New York: Hamper &
Brother 1869.
DLG = DELAMARRE, XAVIER. 2001. Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise. Paris: Errance.
DOTTIN, GEORGES. 1918. La langue gauloise. Grammaire. textes et Glossaire. Paris:
Klincksieck.
ESKA, JOSEPH F. & EVANS, ELLIS D. 2002. Continental Celtic. In: The Celtic Languages,
ed. by Martin J. Ball & James Fife. London — New York: Routledge, 26–63.
ESKA, JOSEPH & WALLACE, REX. 2002. Thoughts on Vercelli eu. Journal of Indo-Euro-
pean Studies 30, 129–144.
ESKA, JOSEPH S. & WEISS, MICHAEL. 1996. Segmenting Gaul. tomedeclai. Studia Celtica
30, 289–292.
EVANS, D. ELLIS. 1967. Gaulish Personal Names. A Study of some Continental Celtic
Formations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
HOLDER, ALFRED. 1896–1904–1913. Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz. Leipzig: Teubner.
ISAAC, GRAHAM R. 1997. Two Continental Celtic Verbs. Studia Celtica 31, 161–171.
KALYGIN, VIKTOR P. & KOROLEV, ANDREJ A. 1989/2006. Vvedenie v keľtskuju filologi-
ju1/2. Moskva: Nauka.
KATZ, JOSHUA T. 1998. Topics in Indo-European Personal Pronouns. Harvard Univer-
sity: PhD. Diss.
64 Václav Blažek

LAMBERT, PIERRE-YVES. 2001[1998–2000]. La tuile de Châteaubleau (Seine-et-Marne).

Études celtiques 34, 57–115.
LEJEUNE, MICHEL. 1985. Notes ďétymologie gauloise: La première déclinaison celtique.
Études celtiques 22, 88–91.
LG = Lambert, Pierre-Yves. 2003. La langue gauloise. Description linguistique, com-
mentaire d´inscriptions choisies2. Paris: Errance.
MacNEILL, EOIN. 1928. On the Notation and Chronology of the Calendar of Coligny.
Ériu 10, 1–67.
MEID, WOLFGANG. 1994. Gaulish Inscriptions. Budapest: Archeolingua.
MEID, WOLFGANG. 1996. Heilpflanzen und Heilsprüche: Zeugnisse gallischer Sprache
bei Marcellus von Bordeaux. Innsbruck: IBS, Vorträge und kleinere Schriften, 63.
MEID, WOLFGANG & ANREITER, PETER (eds.). 1996. Die grösseren altkeltischen Sprach-
denkmäler (Akten des Kolloquiums Innsbruck, 29. April-3. Mai 1993). Innsbruck: Bei-
träge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Sonderheft 95.
NOVOTNÁ, PETRA & BLAŽEK, VÁCLAV. 2006. On application of glottochronology for
Celtic languages. Linguistica Brunensia. Sborník prací filozofické fakulty brněnské uni-
verzity A 54, 71–100.
OLMSTED, GARRETT. 1988. The Use of ordinal numerals on the Gaulish Coligny Calen-
dar. Journal of Indo-European Studies 16, 267–293.
OLMSTED, GARRETT. 1989. The meter of the Gaulish inscription from Larzac. Journal of
Indo-European Studies 17, 155–163.
OLMSTED, GARRETT. 1992. The Gaulish Calendar. Bonn: Habelt.
OLMSTED, GARRETT. 2001. A Definitive Reconstructed Text of the Coligny Calendar.
Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man (Journal of Indo-European Studies,
Monograph 39).
PEDERSEN, HOLGER. 1909–13. Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen. Göt-
tingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
POKORNY, JULIUS. 1959. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bern –
München: Francke.
RIG I = Recuil des inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), Vol. I: Textes gallo-grecs, by Michel
Lejeune. Paris: CNRS Editions 1985.
RIG II = Recuil des inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), Vol. II, fasc. 2: Textes gallo-latins sur
instrumentum, by Pierre-Yves Lambert. Paris: CNRS Editions 2002.
RIG III = Recuil des inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), Vol. III: Les Calendries (Coligny, Vil-
lards ďHéria), by Paul-Marie Duval & Georges Pinault. Paris: CNRS Editions 1986.
RIG IV = Recuil des inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), Vol. IV: Les légendes monétaires, by
Jean-Baptiste Colbert de Beaulieu & Brigitte Fischer. Paris: CNRS Editions 1998.
RUBIO ORECILLA, FRANCISCO JAVIER. 1997. Formas pronominales sufijadas y exentas en
galo y en céltico continental. Die Sprache 39/1, 31–58.
SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1957. Die komposition in gallischen Namen. Zeitschrift für Celtische
Philologie 26, 33–301.
SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1967. Keltisches Wortgut im Lateinischen. Glotta 44, 151–174.
SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1978–80. On the Celtic languages of Continental Europe. Bulletin of
the Board of Celtic Studies 28, 189–205.
SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1981. The Gaulish Inscription of Chamalières. Bulletin of the Board
of Celtic Studies 29, 256–268.
 GAULISH LANGUAGE 65

SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1990. Zum plomb du Larzac. In: Celtic Language, Celtic Culture: A
festschrift for Eric P. Hamp, ed. by A.T.E. Matonis & Daniel F. Melia. Van Nuys (Cal.):
Ford & Bailie, 16–25.
SCHMIDT, KARL H. 1996. Celtic: A Western Indo-European Language? Innsbruck: IBS,
Vorträge und Kleinere Schriften 66.
SCHMITT, CHRISTIAN. 1996–97. Keltisches im heutigen Französisch. Zeitschrift für Celt-
ische Philologie 46–50, 814–829.
SCHRIJVER, PETER. 1997. Studies in the history of Celtic pronouns and particles. May-
nooth: National university of Ireland.
SCHRIJVER, PETER. 2001[1998–2000]. The Châteaubleau tile as a link between Latin and
French and between Gaulish and Brittonic. Études Celtiques 34, 135–141.
SOWA, WOJCIECH. 1998. Keltské výpožičky v latinčine. Varia 7, 186–194.
THURNEYSEN, RUDOLF. 1899. Der Kalendar von Coligny. Zeitschrift für Celtische Phi-
lologie 2, 523–544.
THURNEYSEN, RUDOLF. 1946. A Grammar of Old Irish. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Ad-
vanced Study..
TIBILETTI, BRUNO & MARIA, GRAZIA. 1981. Le iscrizioni celtiche d’Italia. In: I Celti
d´Italia, ed. Enrico Campanile. Pisa: Giardini.
WHATMOUGH, JOSHUA. 1970. The Dialects of Ancient Gaul. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard
University Press.
ZIMMER, STEFAN & BAUM, NORBERT (hrg.). 2004. Die Kelten — Mythos und Wirkli-
chkeit. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

Resumé

Cílem předkládaného článku je shrnout současný stav poznání galského jazyka. Vzhledem
k omezenému prostoru byl možný pouze výběr faktů: ukázky epigrafických památek a jejich inter-
pretace podle různých autorů, nástin historicko-srovnávací fonetiky, fragmenty jmenné, zájmenné a
slovesné flexe, číslovky. Bibliografie shrnuje nejnovější významné práce, plus některé studie starší,
jejichž cena nadále zůstává.

Ústav jazykovědy a baltistiky FF MU

[email protected]