3 Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals 2

Example8
• Consider the signal

Example8
• The Fourier series coefficients

Example9
• Consider the discrete-time periodic square wave. x[n] = 1 for -N1 ≤ n ≤ N1.
• m = n + N1
Example9
• The summation consists of the sum of the first 2N1 + 1 terms in a geometric
series,
Note:
PROPERTIES OF
DISCRETE-TIME
FOURIER SERIES
First Difference
• If x[n] is periodic with period N, then so is y[n], since shifting x[n] or linearly
combining x[n] with another periodic signal whose period is N always results in a
periodic signal with period N.
Parseval's Relation for Discrete-Time Periodic Signals
• Parseval's relation for discrete-time periodic signals

Example10
• The sequence has a fundamental

period of 5. x[n] is viewed as the
sum of the square wave x1[n] and
the dc sequence x2[n]. Denote the
Fourier series coefficients of x1[n]
by bk and those of x2[n] by ck, we
use the linearity property,
• For x1[n]; N1 = 1 and N = 5

(a) Periodic sequence x[n] and its representation as a sum of
(b) the square wave x1[n] and
(c) the dc sequence x2[n].
Example10
• The Fourier series coefficients bk corresponding to x1[n] can be expressed as

N1=1
• The sequence x2[n] has only a dc value, which is captured by its zeroth Fourier
series coefficient:
Example10
• Since the discrete-time Fourier series coefficients are periodic, it follows that ck =
1 whenever k is an integer multiple of 5. The remaining coefficients of x2[n] must
be zero.
FOURIER SERIES AND LTI SYSTEMS
• In continuous time, if x(t) = est is the input to a continuous-time LTI system, then
the output is given by y(t) = H(s)est ,
• in which h(t) is the impulse response of the LTI system.

• Similarly, if x[n] = zn is the input to a discrete-time LTI system, then the output is
given by y[n] = H(z)zn,
• in which h[n] is the impulse response of the LTI system.

• When s or z are general complex numbers, H(s) and H(z) are referred to as the
system functions of the corresponding systems. Re{s} = 0, so that s = j⍵, and, est is
of the form ej⍵t. This input is a complex exponential at frequency ⍵. The system
function of the form s = j⍵ i.e., H(j⍵) as a function of j⍵, is referred to as the
frequency response of the system and is given by
• For discrete-time signals and systems, values of z for which |z| = 1, so that z = ej⍵
and zn is of the form ej⍵n. Then the system function H(z) for z restricted to the
form z = ej⍵ is referred to as the frequency response of the system and is given by
• The response of an LTI system to a complex exponential signal of the form ej⍵t (in
continuous time) or ej⍵n (in discrete time) is simple to express in terms of the
frequency response of the system.
• Let x(t) be a periodic signal with a Fourier series representation given by
• The output is
• y(t) is periodic with the same fundamental frequency as x(t). If {ak} is the set of
Fourier series coefficients for the input x(t), then {akH(jk⍵0)} is the set of
coefficients for the output y(t).
Example11
• The periodic signal x(t) with fundamental frequency 2π,
• An LTI system with impulse response
• The frequency response:

Example11
• ⍵0 =2π
• Let x[n] be a periodic signal with Fourier series representation given by
• with zk = ejk(2π/N), the output is

Example12
• Consider an LTI system with impulse response h[n] = αnu[n], -1 < α < 1, and with
the input
• x[n] can be written in Fourier series form as Note:

Example12
• The Fourier series for the output:

FILTERING
• To change the relative amplitudes of the frequency components in a signal or

eliminate some frequency components entirely, a process referred to as filtering.
• Linear time-invariant systems that change the shape of the spectrum are often
referred to as frequency-shaping filters.
• Systems that are designed to pass some frequencies undistorted and significantly
attenuate or eliminate others are referred to as frequency-selective filters.
• The Fourier series coefficients of the output of an LTI system are those of the
input multiplied by the frequency response of the system. Consequently, filtering
can be conveniently accomplished through the use of LTI systems with an
appropriately chosen frequency response.
Frequency-Shaping Filters
• LTI filters modify the relative amounts of low-frequency energy and high-
frequency energy.
• The magnitude of the frequency response is shown on a log-log plot.
• The magnitude is in units of 20log10|H(j⍵)|, referred to as decibels or dB. The
frequency axis is labeled in Hz (i.e.,⍵/2π) along a logarithmic scale.
• Logarithmic display of the magnitude of the frequency response in this form is
common and useful.
Frequency-Shaping Filters
• A filter whose output is the derivative of the filter input, i.e., y(t) = dx(t)/dt. With
x(t) of the form x(t) = ej⍵t, y(t) will be y(t) = j⍵.ej⍵t, from which it follows that the
frequency response is
• H(j⍵) is frequently displayed (as in the figure) as separate plots of |H(j⍵)| and
xH(j⍵).
Frequency-Selective Filters
• One example of a simple discrete-time filter, that successively takes a two-point

average of the input values:
• the frequency response of the system is

• |H(j⍵)| is large for frequencies

near ⍵ = 0 and decreases as we
increase |⍵| toward π, indicating
that higher frequencies are
attentuated more than lower ones.
• Frequency-selective filters select some bands of frequencies and reject others.

• Basic types of filter are widely used and have been given names indicative of their
function.
• A lowpass filter is a filter that passes low frequencies -i.e., frequencies around ⍵
= 0-- and attenuates or rejects higher frequencies. A highpass filter is a filter that
passes high frequencies and attentuates or rejects low ones, and a bandpass filter
is a filter that passes a band of frequencies and attenuates frequencies both
higher and lower than those in the band that is passed.
• In each case, the cutoff frequencies are the frequencies defining the boundaries
between frequencies that are passed and frequencies that are rejected -i.e., the
frequencies in the passband and stopband.
• An ideal frequency-selective filter is a filter that exactly passes complex

exponentials at one set of frequencies without any distortion and completely
rejects signals at all other frequencies.
• A continuous-time ideal lowpass filter with cutoff frequency ⍵c is an LTI system
that passes complex exponentials ej⍵t for values of ⍵ in the range -⍵c ≤ ⍵ ≤ ⍵c
and rejects signals at all other frequencies. The frequency response of a
continuous-time ideal lowpass filter is
Frequency response of an ideal lowpass filter.

• Ideal filters have the symmetric

frequency response behavior,
Discrete-time ideal frequency-selective filters:

(a) Frequency response of an ideal highpass filter; (a) lowpass; (b) highpass; (c) bandpass.
(b) frequency response of an ideal bandpass filter.
• The characteristics of the continuous-time and discrete time ideal filters differ by
virtue of the fact that, for discrete-time filters, the frequency response H(ej⍵)
must be periodic with period 2π, with low frequencies near even multiples of π
and high frequencies near odd multiples of π.
A Simple RC Lowpass Filter
• The first-order RC circuit.

• This circuit can be used to perform either a lowpass or highpass filtering
operation, depending upon what we take as the output signal.
• Linear constant-coefficient differential equation;
Assuming initial rest, the system is LTI.

With input voltage Vs(t) = ej⍵t
the output voltage Vc(t) = H(j⍵)ej⍵t.
First-order RC filter.
A Simple RC Lowpass Filter
• Note that forfrequencies near ⍵ = 0, |H(j⍵)|≈1, while for larger values of ⍵

(positive or negative), |H(j⍵)| is considerably smaller and in fact steadily
decreases as |⍵| increases. Thus, this simple RC filter (with Vc(t) as output) is a
nonideal lowpass filter.
A Simple RC Highpass Filter
• Choose the voltage across the resistor. The differential equation relating input
and output is
• If Vs(t) = ej⍵t, then we must have Vr(t) = G(j⍵)ej⍵t;
• The system attenuates lower frequencies and passes higher frequencies i.e.,
those for which |⍵| ≫ 1/RC- with minimal attenuation. This system acts as a
nonideal highpass filter.
A Simple RC Highpass Filter
• (a) Magnitude and (b) phase

plots for the frequency
response of the RC circuit
with output Vr(t).
First-Order Recursive Discrete-Time Filters
• Discrete-time LTI systems described by difference equations can either be

recursive and have impulse responses of infinite length (IIR systems) or be
nonrecursive and have finite-length impulse responses (FIR systems).
• An LTI system described by the first-order difference equation,
• From the eigenfunction property of complex exponential signals, if x[n] = ej⍵n,

then y[n] = H(ej⍵)ej⍵n, where H(ej⍵) is the frequency response of the system.
First-Order Recursive Discrete-Time Filters
• The magnitude and phase of H(ej⍵) are

shown in (a) for a = 0.6 and (b) for a = -0.6.
• For the positive value of a, the difference
equation behaves like a lowpass filter with
minimal attenuation of low frequencies
near ⍵ = 0 and increasing attenuation as
we increase ⍵ toward ⍵ = π.
• For the negative value of a, the system is a
highpass filter, passing frequencies near ⍵
= π and attenuating lower frequencies.
• For any positive value of a < 1, the system
approximates a lowpass filter, and for any
negative value of a > -1, the system
approximates a highpass filter, where |a|
controls the size of the filter passband,
with broader pass bands as |a| is
decreased.
Nonrecursive Discrete-Time Filters
• The general form of an FIR nonrecursive difference equation is,
• The output y[n] is a weighted average of the (N + M + 1) values of x[n] from x[n -
M] through x[n + N], with the weights given by the coefficients bk.
Nonrecursive Discrete-Time Filters
• Magnitude of the frequency response of a three-point moving-average lowpass filter.

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Example8

• Consider the signal

• The Fourier series coefficients

• Parseval's relation for discrete-time periodic signals

• The sequence has a fundamental

• For x1[n]; N1 = 1 and N = 5

• The Fourier series coefficients bk corresponding to x1[n] can be expressed as

• in which h(t) is the impulse response of the LTI system.

• in which h[n] is the impulse response of the LTI system.

• The periodic signal x(t) with fundamental frequency 2π,

• An LTI system with impulse response

• The frequency response:

• Let x[n] be a periodic signal with Fourier series representation given by

• with zk = ejk(2π/N), the output is

• x[n] can be written in Fourier series form as Note:

• The Fourier series for the output:

• To change the relative amplitudes of the frequency components in a signal or

• One example of a simple discrete-time filter, that successively takes a two-point

• the frequency response of the system is

• |H(j⍵)| is large for frequencies

• Frequency-selective filters select some bands of frequencies and reject others.

• An ideal frequency-selective filter is a filter that exactly passes complex

Frequency response of an ideal lowpass filter.

• Ideal filters have the symmetric

Discrete-time ideal frequency-selective filters:

• The first-order RC circuit.

Assuming initial rest, the system is LTI.

• Note that forfrequencies near ⍵ = 0, |H(j⍵)|≈1, while for larger values of ⍵

• If Vs(t) = ej⍵t, then we must have Vr(t) = G(j⍵)ej⍵t;

• (a) Magnitude and (b) phase

• Discrete-time LTI systems described by difference equations can either be

• From the eigenfunction property of complex exponential signals, if x[n] = ej⍵n,

• The magnitude and phase of H(ej⍵) are

• The general form of an FIR nonrecursive difference equation is,

• Magnitude of the frequency response of a three-point moving-average lowpass filter.

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