1. External language variation vs internal language variation.

Register
Language variation refers to the differences in language use across different
contexts. It can be broadly categorized into two main types: external and
internal.
External language variation arises from factors outside the language itself.
First of all, dialects and accents vary across different regions. For example,
the English spoken in the United States differs from that spoken in the United
Kingdom due to historical, cultural, and geographical factors. Language
variation can also be influenced by social factors such as socioeconomic
/ˌsəʊ.si.əʊˌek.əˈnɒm.ɪk/ status, age, gender, and ethnicity. For instance, the
language used by a university professor might differ from that used by a
teenager. Moreover, historical events can significantly impact language
variation. For instance, the Norman invasion of England led to the
introduction of many French words into the English language.
Internal language variation refers to changes that occur within the language
itself, driven /ˈdrɪv.ən/ by linguistic processes. These include some phonetic
changes. That is, sounds may change over time, leading to new
pronunciations. For example, the word "night" was once pronounced "niht"
in Old English. In addition, the structure of words can change. For example,
the Old English plural ending "-as" has evolved into the modern English
plural ending "-s." The rules governing sentence structure can also change.
For example, the word order in English has shifted from subject-object-verb
to subject-verb-object over time.
Register refers to the variety of language used in different situations. It is a
type of internal variation that is influenced by social and contextual factors.
For example, the register used in a formal academic setting differs from the
register used in a casual conversation with friends.
Speaking about key characteristics of register, we can define some of them:
Lexical variation. Different registers use different vocabulary. For example,
a doctor might use the term "myocardial infarction" while a layperson
(непрофесіонал, мирянин) might say "heart attack."
Grammatical variation: There may be differences in grammar and syntax
between registers. For example, contractions are more common in informal
registers.
 Phonological variation: Pronunciation may vary across registers. For
example, the word "ask" might be pronounced differently in a formal and
informal register. (In informal contexts, such as casual conversation among
friends, "ask" might be pronounced as /æks/, a common phonetic variation
where the sounds of /s/ and /k/ are swapped. This is known as metathesis and
is common in some dialects or casual speech. Example: "Can I aks you
something?")
In conclusion, external and internal language variation are essential concepts
for understanding how languages evolve and adapt over time. Register, as a
special case of internal variation, highlights the importance of social and
contextual factors in shaping language use.
2. Sources of Language Variation
Language is not a static entity; it evolves and varies across different contexts and
groups.
Firstly, different regions develop distinct dialects or accents, influenced by
historical, cultural, and environmental factors. For example, English speakers in
the UK, USA, Australia, and India exhibit variations in pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar. Even within a single country, such as the United
States, regional dialects can significantly differ, leading to variations in terms
like “soda,” “pop,” or “coke,” depending on the region.
Next, age is a crucial factor influencing language variation. Different
generations often adopt distinct linguistic features. For instance, younger
speakers may use contemporary slang and neologisms /niˈɒl.ə.dʒɪ.zəm/ that
older generations may not recognize. This generational difference can create a
linguistic gap; for example, phrase like "cancel culture" is prevalent among
younger speakers but might be unfamiliar to older individuals. (Cancel culture
refers to a social phenomenon where individuals or groups are publicly shamed,
boycotted /ˈbɔɪ.kɒt/, or "canceled" for perceived offensive behavior, statements,
or beliefs.)
Gender influences language use in various ways. Generally, women are often
found to use more polite and standard forms of language, while men may use
more direct and assertive speech patterns.
Social status significantly affects language variation. Individuals from different
backgrounds may exhibit distinct linguistic features that reflect their social class.
Higher status is often associated with the use of standard language forms, while
lower socio-economic groups may rely on regional dialects or colloquialisms.
This variation can affect how individuals are perceived in society and their
opportunities for advancement.
Education is a key determinant of language variation. Those with higher levels
of education tend to use more formal and standardized language. They often
possess a broader vocabulary and a better understanding of grammatical
conventions. Conversely, individuals with less formal education may rely more
on colloquial language. This disparity can affect communication in academic
and professional contexts, where standard language forms are often preferred.
Ethnicity is another significant source of language variation. Different ethnic
groups may have unique linguistic features, such as vocabulary, pronunciation,
and grammar. For instance, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) has
distinct grammatical structures that differ from Standard American English.
These linguistic varieties reflect cultural identity and heritage, contributing to
community cohesion and self-expression. Additionally, the interaction between
different ethnic groups can lead to language contact and the emergence of new
linguistic features.

Conclusion
In conclusion, language variation arises from a complex interplay of factors,
including geography, age, gender, social status, education, and ethnicity.
Understanding these sources not only enhances our knowledge of linguistics but
also allows us to appreciate the diverse ways in which language functions within
society. As we navigate an increasingly interconnected world, recognizing and
respecting these variations will become even more crucial in fostering effective
communication.
Social Stratification: A B2 Level Explanation
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical /ˌhaɪəˈrɑː.kɪ.kəl/ arrangement of
individuals or groups in a society based on factors such as social status, income,
wealth, education, and occupation. In essence, it's the way society is divided into
layers.
We can define some key aspects of social stratification:
Inequality: There are unequal distributions of resources and opportunities among
different groups.
Hierarchy: Social strata are ranked in a hierarchical order, with some groups
having more power, prestige, and privilege than others.
Mobility: Individuals can move up or down the social ladder through education,
career advancement, or other factors.
Systems: Social stratification can be based on different systems, such as caste,
class, or estate.
Examples of social stratification:
Class-based societies: Societies where people are divided into classes based on
their economic position.
Caste systems: Societies where people are assigned to a social group based on
their birth and cannot change their caste.
Estate systems: Societies where people are divided into social groups based on
their land ownership and hereditary status.
Factors influencing social stratification:
Economic factors: Income, wealth, and occupation
Social factors: Education, family background, and social networks
Political factors: Government policies and laws
Cultural factors: Values, beliefs, and norms
Consequences of social stratification:
Inequality of opportunity: People from lower social strata may have limited
access to education, employment, and other resources.
Social unrest: Inequality can lead to social unrest and conflict.
Social mobility: While social mobility is possible, it can be difficult for people
from lower social strata to move up the ladder.
Understanding social stratification is important for understanding how societies
function and the challenges faced by different groups. It's a complex issue with
far-reaching implications for individuals and societies alike.