EARTHQUAKE

BY: Aditya Thakur

 INTRODUCTION
One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature
is a severe earthquake and its terrible aftereffects. An earthquake
is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by the abrupt release
of strain that has accumulated over a long time. For hundreds of
millions of years, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped the
Earth as the huge plates that form the Earth's surface slowly
move over, under, and past each other. Sometimes the movement
is gradual. At other times, the plates are locked together, unable
to release the accumulating energy. When the accumulated
energy grows strong enough, the plates break free. If the
earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths
and injuries and extensive property damage.
 How It Takes Place?
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
This release of energy is typically caused by the
movement of tectonic plates beneath the Earth's
surface.
An Earthquake is what happens when two blocks of
the earth suddenly slip past one another. The surface
where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The
location below the earth’s surface where the
earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the
location directly above it on the surface of the earth is
called the epicenter.
 To measure EARTHQUAKE
•Seismometers, essential instruments in earthquake measurement,
consist of a sensor (seismometer or seismograph) and a recording
system. The sensor, typically a mass attached to a fixed base, detects
ground motion during an earthquake. This relative motion is recorded on
a seismogram, a graphical representation of seismic waves over time.
Measuring the earthquake's magnitude is crucial for understanding its
energy release, with scales like Richter or moment magnitude (Mw)
commonly employed. Locating the earthquake's epicenter involves
comparing P-wave and S-wave arrival times at different seismometer
locations. The intensity, indicating the earthquake's effects at a specific
location, is assessed using the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale. A
global network of seismometers, like the Global Seismographic Network
(GSN), continuously monitors and records seismic activity, contributing to
ongoing advancements in earthquake measurement technology.
•

•
P-waves (Primary or Compressional Waves) and S-waves (Secondary or Shear Waves) are two types of seismic waves
that are produced by earthquakes and other sources of ground motion. These waves play a crucial role in seismology
for understanding the Earth's interior structure and the characteristics of seismic events.
P-waves (Primary or Compressional Waves):
S-Wave
•

•
Nature: P-waves are compressional waves, meaning they cause particles in the material they pass through to
move back and forth in the same direction as the wave.
Propagation: They are the fastest seismic waves and can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
P-Wave
• Movement: The particles in the material experience compression and expansion as the P-wave passes through,
like the squeezing and stretching of a spring.
• Arrival Time: P-waves are the first to arrive at a seismometer after an earthquake.
• S-waves (Secondary or Shear Waves):
• Nature: S-waves are shear waves, causing particles to move perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
• Propagation: Unlike P-waves, S-waves cannot travel through liquids or gases. They only propagate through
solids.
• Movement: S-waves produce a side-to-side motion in the material they pass through, similar to the motion
created by shaking a rope.
• Arrival Time: S-waves follow P-waves and arrive later at a seismometer.
• Key Differences:
• Propagation Medium: P-waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases, while S-waves can only travel through
solids.
• Wave Motion: P-waves cause particles to move in the same direction as the wave, while S-waves cause particles to
move perpendicular to the wave direction.
• Speed: P-waves are generally faster than S-waves.
• Arrival Time: P-waves arrive at seismometers first, followed by S-waves.
• The ability to detect and analyze the arrival times of P-waves and S-waves at different seismometer stations is crucial
for locating the earthquake's epicenter and understanding the Earth's internal structure. The fact that S-waves cannot
travel through the Earth's outer core, which is molten, is one of the key pieces of evidence supporting the idea that
the Earth has a solid inner core.
 Most Powerful Earthquake
•Great Chilean Earthquake
•According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the 1960
Valdivia Earthquake, also known as the Great Chilean Earthquake, is
the strongest earthquake ever recorded. It hit the Valdivia town in
southern Chile on May 22, 1960, and its magnitude was measured at
9.5.

•The earthquake also spawned a deadly tsunami which took the

combined death count to an estimated 5,700 in Chile alone. The
calamity left around two million homeless and caused damage worth
about $550 million. The tsunami killed 61 people in Hawaii, two on
the US West Coast, and 139 in Japan, as per the National Centers for
Environmental Information (NCEI).
 Causes of Earthquakes
• Tectonic Plate Movements
• Volcanic Activity
• Human Activities
 Tectonic Plate Movements

The tectonic plates are always slowly

moving, but they get stuck at their edges
due to friction. When the stress on the
edge overcomes the friction, there is an
earthquake that releases energy in waves
that travel through the earth's crust and
cause the shaking that we feel.
 Volcanic Activity

Moving magma and volcanic fluids cause earthquakes.

They occur in swarms (many earthquakes occurring close
together) before an eruption. They are caused by liquid
magma, hot fluids, and gases forcing their way through
the crust to reach the surface. Volcanic-tectonic
earthquakes (VTs) are, simply put, caused by slip
on a fault near a volcano. Volcanoes are often
found in areas of crustal weakness and the mass of
the volcano its self adds to the regional strain.
 Human Activities

The interference of man with nature can also

become a cause of natural disasters like
earthquakes. Building dams and storing a huge
amount of water can cause earthquakes. Nuclear
testing and bombings can also be a reason for an
earthquake. The removal of material from the
earth can cause instability, leading to sudden
collapses that trigger earthquakes.
 Effects of Earthquakes
• Ground Shaking
• Surface Rupture
• Landslides
• Avalanches
• Tsunamis
 Ground Shaking

Ground shaking is a term used to describe the vibration of

the ground during an earthquake. Ground shaking is
caused by body waves and surface waves. As a
generalization, the severity of ground shaking increases
as magnitude increases and decreases as distance from
the causative fault increases. Although the physics of
seismic waves is complex, ground shaking can be
explained in terms of body waves, compressional, or P,
and shear, or S, and surface waves, Rayleigh and Love.
 Surface Rupture

The primary earthquake hazard is surface

rupture. It can be caused by vertical or
horizontal movement on either side of a
ruptured fault. Ground displacement,
which can affect large land areas, can
produce severe damage to structures,
roads, railways and pipelines.
 Landslides

An initial landslide caused by the earth shaking

is one thing, but earthquake aftershocks and
heavy rains can mobilize the debris again and
again. Studies have demonstrated that, in the
first years after a strong earthquake, landslides
can be triggered by rainstorms 5 to 10 times
weaker than those that would have caused a
landslide before the earthquake.
 Avalanches

Snow avalanches are most likely to occur

after a fresh snowfall adds a new layer to
a snowpack. If new snow piles up during
a storm, the snowpack may become
overloaded, setting off a slide.
Earthquakes can set off avalanches, but
much smaller vibrations can trigger them
as well.
 Tsunamis

A tsunami is an ocean wave triggered by

large earthquakes that occur near or
under the ocean in which large volumes
of debris fall into the water.
 Earthquake Preparedness and Safety
• Emergency Plans
• Building Design
• Emergency Kits
 Emergency Plans

Being prepared can reduce fear,

anxiety, and losses that accompany
disasters. Because you might not have
much time to evacuate when a disaster
strikes, it is important to have a plan in
place to get your family out of danger
quickly and efficiently.
 Building Design

Strengthening the house by

earthquake retrofit is a step towards
reducing the risk of personal injury.
A retrofitted house means neither
the foundation will bolt nor the
furniture, and the appliances will
shake so much that they topple over
and cause injury.
 Emergency Kits

As a result, an emergency first aid kit designed for

use in a disaster must serve multiple purposes:
1) Contain provisions for minor injuries and
illnesses.
2) Provide life-saving equipment for severe injuries.
3) Serve as a resource for longer-term issues, such
as wound care or minor illnesses, when access to
a hospital is limited.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Earthquakes offer valuable information about the Earth's
structure and movements of tectonic plates.
2. Regions with seismic activity may coincide with geothermal
energy sources, presenting opportunities for renewable
energy.
3. Earthquakes contribute to the creation of diverse landscapes,
influencing the topography.
4. Tectonic movements linked to earthquakes play a role in the
formation and concentration of mineral resources.
5. Despite initial disruptions, earthquakes can lead to ecological
renewal through events like landslides and nutrient
redistribution.
6. Seismic events provide scientists with opportunities to study
the Earth's interior, enhancing our understanding of seismic
waves.
7. Earthquakes contribute to the development of various
landforms, such as mountains, valleys, and ocean trenches.
8. Seismic activity, particularly in volcanic regions, is associated
with the formation of hot springs and volcanic activation.
 Conclusion
Without a doubt, earthquakes cause considerable damage around the
world. They destroy human-built infrastructure, cause deaths and injuries.
Yet, earthquakes have actually shaped the world as we see it today. They
also allow us to exploit certain raw materials from the ground by
shuffling rock layers. So, earthquakes have both positive and negative
effects. Like many other natural hazards, earthquakes provide
many natural service functions. Thus the positive effects of earthquakes
include: influencing the flow of underground water, oil and natural gas,
make mineral resources available, landform development, monitoring the
inside of Earth and producing seismic hazard assessments for designing
earthquake-resistant structures.