COMPUTER 6

IT & RESEARCH
2nd Quarter, Week 3

Name of Learner: _____________________________ Date: _______________

Section: _____________________________________

Sampling designs and procedure

Writing the Methodology
Key Areas of the Research Proposal

Background Information
SAMPLING DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

SAMPLING
● The process of obtaining information from a subset (sample) of a larger group
(population)
● Selecting some of the units or elements in a population to draw conclusions about
the entire population.

How do you do a survey/Test?

Study or observe the element of
Sample - contacting a portion/subgroup of the population (e.g., 10% or 25%) or just
one or few segments
- best with a very large population (N)
- easiest with a homogeneous population

Census ​- the entire population

● feasible when population(“n”) is small
● or the cost of making an error is high
● when the elements are different from each other
Characteristics of Sampling Technique

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Cheaper 1. Inadequacy of samples

2. Save Time 2. Chances for bias

3. Accurate and reliable result 3. Chances of committing the errors in

sampling

4. Suitable for carrying out different 4. Difficulty of getting the

surveys even in a very large representative sample
universe
5. Economical in nature 5. Untrained manpower

When conducting research, it is almost always impossible to study the entire population that
you are interested in. If you were to survey the entire population, it would be extremely timely
and costly. As a result, researchers use samples as a way to gather data.

STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN/PROCESS

1. Define Target population
2. Identify the Sampling frame
3. Select a sampling design or procedure
4. Determine the Sample size
5. Draw the sample/ Execute Sampling Design

1. DEFINE TARGET POPULATION

All the elements related to the research problem is the population
Complete group of specific population elements relevant to the research.
Example
• All students is ‘population’
• MBA Students is ‘target population’

2. IDENTIFY SAMPLING FRAME

Draw a list of units from the specific population
The list excludes unqualified ineligible elements from the population
Example
Students who have not paid the fee or joined late are not considered.
Students who eat McDonalds.

3. SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Probability​- every unit has an equal nonzero chance of being selected

Types and Techniques

1. Random Sampling​- selected by using chance or random numbers, or an
equal chance of being selected to be included in the sample. Also known
as lottery or raffle sampling
2.
Example:
You have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a
simple random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered 1
through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers
(typically with a computer program) and those individuals assigned
those numbers are the ones you include in the sample.

Advantage Disadvantage
Minimal knowledge of Low frequency of use
population needed

Easy to analyzed data Does not use researchers’

expertise

Larger risk of random error

3. Systematic Sampling​- select a random starting point and the select

every k​th subject in the population. Also called as interval sampling, there
is a gap or interval between each selected unit in the sample

Example:
if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school
and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students
would be put into list form and then every 20th student would be
selected for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any possible
human bias in this method, the researcher should select the first
individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample
with a random start.

Advantage Disadvantage
Moderate cost; moderate usage Periodic ordering required
Simple to draw sample
Easy to verify

4. Stratified/Mixed Sampling​- divide the population into at least two

different groups with common characteristic(s), then draw SOME subjects
from each group (group is called strata or stratum)

Example:
To obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher
would first organize the population by college class and then select
appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors.
This ensures that the researcher has adequate amounts of subjects
from each class in the final sample
 Advantage Disadvantage
Assures representation of all Requires accurate information
groups in sample population on proportions of each stratum
Characteristics of each stratum Stratified lists costly to prepare
can be estimated and
comparisons made

5. Cluster Sampling​- grouped into subpopulations and lists of those

subpopulations already exist or can be created. May be used when it is
either impossible or impractical to compile an exhaustive list of the
elements that make up the target population.

Example:
Let’s say the target population in a study was church members in
Mandaluyong. There is no list of all church members in the city. The
researcher could, however, create a list of churches in Mandaluyong,
choose a sample of churches, and then obtain lists of members from
those churches.

Advantage Disadvantage
Can estimate characteristics of The cost to reach an element to
both cluster and population sample is very high
Each stage in cluster sampling
introduces sampling error- the
more stages there are, the more
error there tends to be

Non-Probability – sampling does not involve random selection or does not give
individuals on the population of equal chances of being selected.

Type and Techniques

1. Accidental/Convenience Sampling​- ​Use subjects that are easily

accessible, or those whom researcher or interviewer meet by chance are
included in the sample and get the reactions.

Examples:
Let’s say that a researcher and professor at a University is interested
in studying drinking behaviors among college students. The professor
teaches a sociology 101 class to mostly college freshmen and decides
to use his or her class as the study sample. He or she passes out
surveys during class for the students to complete and hand in.

Advantage Disadvantage

Very low cost Variability and bias cannot be

measured or controlled
 Extensively used/understood Projecting data beyond sample
not justified

Restriction of Generalization

2. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling​- ​selected based on the knowledge

of a population and the purpose of the study.

Example:
You want to conduct a tracer study of the graduates of a certain
course for specific time frame. So, you do not get all the graduates but
only the graduates of the BSED course from 2009-2013.

Advantage Disadvantage
There is a assurance of quality Bias selection of sample may
response occur

Meet the specific objective Time consuming process

3. Quota Sampling​- units are selected important characteristics and then

select desired samples in a non-random way
Example:
You would like to know what percent of the student population use
Colgate and Close-up as their toothpaste. You decide to study 20% of
the 400 IBCS student population. So, you go from student and ask
them the toothpaste that they use until you complete the 80 desired
samples.

Advantage Disadvantage
Used when research budget is Variability and bias cannot be
limited measured or controlled
Very extensively Projecting data beyond sample
used/understood not justified
No need for list of population Time consuming
elements

4. Snowball Sampling​- appropriate to use in research when the members

of a population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals,
migrant workers, or undocumented immigrants.

Example:
 if a researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from
Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented individuals
that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those
subjects to help locate more undocumented individuals. This process
continues until the researcher has all the interviews he or she needs
or until all contacts have been exhausted.

Advantage Disadvantage

Low cost Not independent

Useful in specific circumstances Projecting data beyond sample
& for locating rare populations not justified

DIFFERENCE OF PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY PROBABILITY

PROBABILITY NON-PROPBABILITY
You have a complete sampling frame. You Used when there isn’t an exhaustive
have contact information for the entire population list available​. Some units are
population. unable to be selected, therefore you have
no way of knowing the size and effect of
sampling error (missed persons, unequal
representation, etc.).
You can select a random sample from your Not random
population​. Since all persons (or “units”)
have an equal chance of being selected for
your survey, you can randomly select
participants without missing entire portions
of your audience.
You can generalize your results from a Can be effective when trying to generate
random sample​. With this data collection ideas and getting feedback​, but you cannot
method and a decent response rate, you generalize your results to an entire
can extrapolate your results to the entire population with a high level of confidence.
population. Quota samples (males and females, etc.)
are an example.
Can be more expensive and More convenient and less costly​, but
time-consuming than convenience or doesn’t hold up to expectations of
purposive sampling. probability theory.

SAMPLING ERRORS
The errors which rise due to the use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling
errors.

Two types of sampling errors:

1. Biased Errors- due to selection of sampling techniques; size of the sample

2. Unbiased Errors/Random sampling errors
 ● Differences between the members of the population included or not included

Methods in reducing Sampling Errors

● specific problem selection.

● Systematic documentation of related research.
● Effective enumeration.
● Effective pre testing.
● Controlling methodological bias.
● Selection of appropriate sampling techniques.

NON- SAMPLING ERRORS

Refers to biases and mistakes in selectin of sample

Causes for Non-Sampling Errors

● sampling operations
● Inadequate of response
● Misunderstanding the concept
● Lack of knowledge
● Concealment of the truth
● Loaded questions
● Processing errors
● Sample size

WRITING METHODOLOGY

How to write a research methodology? Methodology section should generally be written in

the past tense.

Here’s the steps that will guide you writing your methodology.

Step1​. Explain your methodological approach

Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.

What research problem or question did you investigate? For example, did you aim to
systematically describe the characteristics of something, to explore an under-researched
topic, or to establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And what type of data did you need to
achieve this aim?
• Did you need quantitative data (expressed in numbers) or qualitative data
(expressed in words)?
• Did you need to collect primary data yourself, or did you use secondary data that
was collected by someone else?
• Did you gather experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables, or
descriptive data by gathering observations without intervening?
Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin with a discussion of the
rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology.

● Why is this the most suitable approach to answering your research questions?
● Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it require justification?
● Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
● What are the criteria for ​validity​ and r​ eliability​ in this ​type of research​?

Step 2:​ Describe your methods of data collection

Once you have introduced your overall methodological approach, you should give full
details of your ​data collection methods​.

1. Quantitative Methods​- valid generalizable results, describing method in detailed

for another researcher that might improve your study in the future.
▪ You can explain the operational concept, measured variables,
sampling method or criteria, tools, procedure and materials you
used to gather data.

● Surveys- describe where, when and how the survey was conducted
▪ How did you design the questions and what form did they take
(e.g. multiple choice, Likert scale)?
▪ What sampling method did you use to select participants?
▪ Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and
how long did participants have to respond?
▪ What was the sample size and response rate?

You might want to include the full questionnaire as an appendix so that your
reader can see exactly what data was collected

● Experiments- give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures you
used to conduct the experiment.
▪ How did you design the experiment?
▪ How did you recruit participants?
▪ How did you manipulate and measure the variables?
▪ What tools or technologies did you use in the experiment?
In experimental research, it is especially important to give enough detail for
another researcher to reproduce your results.

● Existing Data- Explain how you gathered and selected material (such as
publications or archival data) for inclusion in your analysis.
▪ Where did you source the material?
▪ How was the data originally produced?
▪ What criteria did you use to select material (e.g. date range)?

2. Qualitative methods​- since methods are often more flexible and subjective, it’s
important to reflect on the approach you took and explain the choices you made.
 Discuss the criteria you used to select participants or sources, the context in
which the research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting the data
(e.g. were you an active participant or a passive observer?)

● Interviews or focus groups- describe where, when and how the interviews
were conducted.
▪ How did you find and select participants?
▪ How many people took part?
▪ What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-structured,
unstructured)?
▪ How long were the interviews and how were they recorded?

● Participant observation- Describe where, when and how you conducted the
observation or ethnography.
▪ What group or community did you observe and how did you gain
access to them?
▪ How long did you spend conducting the research and where was it
located?
▪ What role did you play in the community?
▪ How did you record your data (e.g. audiovisual recordings,
note-taking)?

● Existing Data- Explain how you selected case study materials (such as texts
or images) for the focus of your analysis.
▪ How did you collect and select them?

Step 3​: Describe your methods of analysis

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the data. Avoid going
into too much detail—you should not start presenting or discussing any of your
results at this stage.

● Quantitative methods- your analysis will be based on numbers. In the

methods section you might include:
▪ How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g. checking for
missing data, removing outliers, transforming variables)
▪ Which software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS, Stata or
R)
▪ Which statistical tests you used (e.g. two-tailed t-test, simple linear
regression)

● Qualitative methods- In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on

language, images and observations (often involving some form of textual
analysis). Specific methods might include:
▪ Content analysis: categorizing and discussing the meaning of
words, phrases and sentences
▪ Thematic analysis: coding and closely examining the data to
identify broad themes and patterns
▪ Discourse analysis: studying communication and meaning in
relation to their social context
Step 4:​ Evaluate and justify your methodological choices
Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these particular
methods, especially if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic.
Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this
approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach you chose, but
justify why these were outweighed by the strengths.

KEY AREAS OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

When writing a research design or research proposal, ensure you consider and cover the
following areas:

1. A working title or topic area

● ensure that you convey the key points of the research

2. General overview of the research area

● provide a brief synopsis/background and issues of the research

3. Identification of the relevant literature

● reference any key literature that may support your proposal and use the
literature to demonstrate how/where it fits within the context of the subject
area

4. Key research questions

● in order to demonstrate that your research is viable and do-able it is
essential to identify some of the key questions it aims to answer
● You should formulate these clearly, giving an explanation as to what
problems and issues are to be explored and why they are worth exploring

5. Methodology
● outline the methodologies you aim to use

6. Timescale / research planning

● identify the timescale and acknowledge the planning done, required
and/or involved
 7. Bibliography
● ensure to include a Bibliography for any references to literature within
your research proposal

Learning Competency
Describes sampling designs
Explain how to write a complete research methodology
Presents written research methodology

ACTIVITIES

Activity 1.

Directions: Identify the correct letter inside the box that corresponds on the definition below.

________1. Study and observe the element of the entire population

________2. Subgroup of population

________3. Selecting a small group of population(representative)

________4. Select some starting point and select every k​th​ subject in the population, also called as
interval sampling
________5. Nonprobability sampling technique where participants are asked to recommend a few
acquaintances for the study

________6. Population elements selected based on the researcher’s judgement

________7. Refers to biases and mistakes in selectin of sample

________8 Sampling procedure that every unit has an equal nonzero chance of being selected
________9. Errors resulting from the particular sample selected being imperfect representation of
the population (biased and Unbiased errors)

________10. Researcher divides the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then
randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata.

Activity 2.

Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

Step 4:
Reflection:
In your own words, what do you think are the thing/s that needs to be considered the
most in writing research design or research proposal and why?

__________________________________________________
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References:
https://www.slideshare.net/rajuindukoori/sampling-design-and-procedure?qid=4ae5cd70-2a99-4e7
f-8dba-909fde991a46&v=&b=&from_search=1
https://www.slideshare.net/ceszamaldita/sampling-designs-by-ms-princess-jean-ronquillo
https://www.slideshare.net/swatiluthra5/sampling-ppt
https://www.le.ac.uk/oerresources/lill/fdmvco/module9/page_41.htm

Prepared by: Ednalyn F. Orola

Teacher 1 – BSNHS

Note: Practice Personal Hygiene Protocols at all times.

Key to corrections: