COLEGIO INTERNACIONAL SEK - EL CASTILLO

INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

HISTORY 4ºESO 2022-2023

UNIT 2. PART 1.
TIME FOR SOCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS
POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS (1776-1815)

CONTENTS
1. Introduction: liberal revolutions

2. American Revolution
a) The origins of the conflict
b) The American War of Independence (1775-1783)
c) Consequences of the independence of the U.S.A.

3. French Revolution
a) Causes of the revolution
-
b) Periods of the French Revolution
- The National Assembly (1789 – 1791)
- The Legislative Assembly (1791 - 1792)
- Democratic Republic (1792 – 1794)
The Girondin Convention (1792-1793)
The Jacobin Convention and the Terror (1793-1794)
- The Directory (1795-1799)

4. The Napoleonic Period (1799-1815)

a) The Consulate (1799-1804)
b) The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)

5. Consequences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire

 1. LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS

At the end of the 18th century the Old Regime Society (Ancient
Regime) was based on absolute monarchies, social estates
were divided by birth and the economy was controlled by the
State. This social model had some contradictions that we have
already explained. The different attempts to reform this
system by progressive changes failed and revolutionary
movements (brusque changes) arose.
From 1776 to 1848 Western society experienced different
revolutions. All these revolutions expanded Liberal ideas
promoted by the bourgeoisie. The main ideas of Liberalism were:
• They promoted the freedom of thought, religious liberty, etc.
• They defended national sovereignty, the division of power (executive, legislative and judicial)
and created Constitutions that included Human Rights declarations.
• Socially the estates divided by birth were substituted by a class society divided by wealth.
Economically they supported a Liberal economy and promoted the laissez faire model (let them do)
against State intervention.

2. AMERICAN REVOLUTION

A) THE ORIGINS OF THE CONFLICT

From the early 17th century British colonies were settled in

North America. By 1750 around two million people lived in the
British colonies in North America. When George III became
king of England in 1760, the British colonies were divided into
thirteen states. These colonies had enjoyed great
independence even though they depended on the British
parliament.
The Seven Years War (Britain/France) (1756-1763) meant the
transformation of Great Britain into a great colonial empire as
they obtained the French colonies in North America. The
Crown’s expenses multiplied as they had to ensure their
position in the colonies. The king and his government believed
that the Americans should pay more taxes to cover the cost of
sending British soldiers, ships and sailors to protect them.
The British Parliament passed several laws to tax different products (stamps on official documents,
glass, paints, lead, paper and tea). The Americans reacted against them. They weren’t able to elect
the members of British Parliament so they thought the Parliament had no right to tax them. The
colonies complained about the idea of "taxation without representation". This convinced many to
the cause of the American patriots against the mother country (Great Britain). From the colonies'
point of view, it was impossible to consider themselves represented in Parliament unless they
actually elected members. It was paradoxical that the country with a
very advanced parliamentary monarchy refused representation to part
of its citizens.
To avoid discontent King George III abolished all taxes except the one
on tea. The colonies refused to buy British tea. In Boston (November
1773), a band of men dressed up as native Americans dumped their tea
cargo into the Boston harbor. This act was known as the Boston “Tea
Party”. In response, the British government closed the port of Boston
and sent an army to the colonies to impose the orders. A direct
confrontation started.

B) THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775-1783)

In 1774, the Thirteen Colonies sent delegates to the First Continental

Congress, meeting at Philadelphia. They established a boycott on
British products and created an American militia. On 4th July 1776,
the Continental Congress at Philadelphia passed the Declaration of
Independence. This document had been drafted by Thomas
Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and John Adams and it declared the
right of the people of the U.S.A. to break free from Great Britain.
George III had interfered with their rights and they had the duty and
the right to rebel, as the Enlightenment ideas suggested. This
declaration included the first Declaration of the Rights of Men (Bill of
Rights).
To lead their forces, the Continental Congress had chosen George Washington as their commander
in chief. France helped the colonists to undermine British interests in America as revenge for the
Seven Years War. Spain helped France due to the second Family Compact. After more than six years
of war, in 1781 the British troops were defeated at Yorktown (Virginia) and they surrendered. Under
the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain agreed to recognise the independence of the North American
colonies.

C) CONSEQUENCES OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE USA

To organise their political system, the USA created a Constitution in 1787. The primary aim of the
Constitution was to create a strong elected government, directly responsive to the will of the people.
The Constitution became effective in 1789 and its basic principles were:
 • The division of power: executive (president), legislative (congress) and judicial.
• The Constitution stands above all other laws.
• All persons are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its protection.
• Liberal principles (national sovereignty and division of powers)

A federal system of government was set up. Each state had its own government for most matters
(domestic policies). The president controlled the executive power and together with the congress of
the U.S.A. took common decisions on defense and foreign policies.
George Washington was elected as the first president of the U.S.A. in 1789.
The Constitution was completed with a Bill of Rights and freedom for all citizens in 1789.

3. FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 – 1804)

A) CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION

❖ THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The ideas of the Enlightenment criticised absolute government and royal power. The
Enlightenment thinkers believed in the need for freedom for people (speak, write, religion…).
Educated, well-off members of the Third Estate learnt about the new ideas and many noblemen
believed the king had too much power.
French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and tried to put them
into practice. For example, they demanded that all French subject be free and equal under the
law. And believed that it is possible to create a better society.

❖ AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The American Revolution was a model for the French Revolution.
The American declaration of independence inspired the French soldiers: everyone was born
equal, every man had rights that could not be taken away and the government should act in the
interests of the people.
The 1787 Constitution was a model as it applied basic liberal principles, such as the division of
powers and national sovereignty. And some people started to say that a country should be run
by the government chosen by the people
❖ ECONOMIC CRISIS
The French population had increased at a slow rate, but still fast enough to outstrip growth in the
production of food. This created sustained inflation of food prices which were especially painful
for the poor, the vast majority of the French, who were peasants with little or no land. The crown,
the nobility and the clergy had been compensating for inflation by holding down wages and
putting up rents and dues, making situation even worse. This entire situation intensified during
the 1780s with a series of bad harvests, cattle disease and recession.
In 1788, Louis XVI and his government faced serious difficulties. The country was nearly bankrupt
because the cost of fighting in the Seven Years War and the American War of Independence had
been very high. Also, the royal family was spending large amounts of money on palaces, luxury
goods and extravagant parties.
More money could only be obtained by increasing taxes. Taxes were paid by the Third Estate
(merchants, lawyers, shopkeepers and peasants). The clergy (First Estate) and the nobility
(Second Estate) were excused from paying many of the existing taxes. The nobility and the clergy
should pay some taxes in order to contribute to the French economy to resolve the crisis. To
improve the country’s finances, Louis XVI’s ministers suggested that he increase taxes, even for
the privileged upper classes.

❖ SOCIAL CRISIS
By the late 18th century, all three estates of the realm were discontented with the crown, but for
different reasons:
- The nobility and the clergy wanted to protect their
traditional economic privileges. They refuse to pay the
taxes that the king’s ministers were demanding.
- The upper bourgeoisie, wanted to abolish the absolute
monarchy because it didn’t allow them to participate in
government.
- The petite bourgeoisie, was suffering from economic
difficulties caused by wars, higher taxes and increased
competition from British products.
- The peasantry also suffered economic problems caused by
wars, taxes, poor harvests and cattle disease. Moreover,
they also had to pay higher rent to the clergy and the
nobility.
In addition to these problems, the bourgeoisie and peasantry were angered by the luxurious
lifestyle of the royal family and court. They also objected the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and
the nobility.
 ❖ POLITICAL CRISIS
At the end of the 18th century, France was ruled by Louis XVI (1774-
1793). The king had absolute power and he was unaware of the needs
of his subjects (people).
Different people were complaining about how France was run and
especially the power the king had:
- power with no limits: absolute authority
- no Parliament: Estates General was only called by King. For that
reason, the estates of the realm could not present their demands or
try to limit the king’s power. The last time they met was 1614.

B) PERIODS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789 – 1901)

In order to discuss the economic crisis, the King, Louis XVI, called the Estates General on 5th May
1789 in Versailles, made up of representatives of the nobles, clergy and the Third Estate.
At the meeting of the Estates General, the Third Estate, in order to increase its representation,
proposed a new voting system in which each representative would have an individual vote (individual
suffrage instead of by estate). In this way, the Third Estate could outvote the other two as they had
a bigger number of representatives. Louis XVI and the majority of the nobles and clergy rejected the
request. The king supported the privileged groups and
ordered the Third Estate to leave the meeting place.
On 17th June, the Third Estate proclaimed themselves the
true representatives of the nation and they formed a
National Assembly. On 20th June they gathered together
on a tennis court at Versailles and swore the Tennis
Court Oath. They refused to break up until France had a
constitution that reflected their demands.
The king feared that this Assembly could reduce his
power. In Paris, rumours flew. Some people suggested that Louis
was intent on using military force to dismiss the National
Assembly. Other charged that the foreign troops were coming to
Paris to massacre French citizens.
The people of Paris supported the Assembly and protesters
began to riot in the streets of Paris. On 14th July 1789 they
attacked the Bastille, a famous political prison symbol of
absolute power, where political prisoners were detained, and it
held a large supply of weapons. This saved the National Assembly
from being broken up. The storming of the Bastille quickly became a symbol of the French
Revolution. Nowadays, the French still celebrate July 14 as Bastille Day.
The Revolution soon spread to other cities. In the countryside there was a rumour that the nobles
were going to take revenge by burning crops and starving the peasants into submission. This led
peasants all over France to rise up against their lords and burn many chateaux, palaces and farms. All
these events, known as The Great Fear, urged the Assembly to abolish the feudal system.
The king finally agreed to the Third Estate’s demands. A new Constituent National Assembly was
elected to write a constitution and Louis XVI recognised the Constituent National Assembly´s
legality.
The main contributions of the National Assembly were:
• The feudal system was abolished: peasants had no longer to
work for the lord and accept his abuses. The tithe was also
abolished.
• The 1791 Constitution was approved. Louis XVI continued to
be the king but not as an absolute monarch. The separation
of powers (legislative, executive and judicial) was
established. They installed a parliamentary monarchy
national sovereignty where representatives were elected by
limited suffrage.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August
1789), which would preface the 1791 Constitution,
guaranteed equal rights to all French citizens. Its principles
were based on man´s rights to liberty, equality and property.

THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791 - 1792)

Once the Constitution was approved, a Legislative Assembly was formed and started to legislate.
It created a new army (the National Guard). Church property was nationalised but the state promised
to fund the practice of Catholicism. A civil Constitution of the Clergy separated the Church and the
State.
Many of these reforms weren’t accepted by some French groups and by some European countries.
The main enemies of the Constitutional monarchy were:
• The nobility: many nobles wanted to recover their privileges and they conspired to suppress
this new government.
• The clergy: the Assembly approved on July 1790 the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. With this
law, the power of the pope was ended and priests would have to swear an oath accepting the
French Revolution. All church lands were taken over by the government and convents and
 monasteries were closed down. Pope Pious VI condemned this new law. Many French
opposed this law as they were devout Catholics.
• The royal family: Louis XVI was worried about the events taking place. On June 1791 Louis
XVI and his family tried to escape from France. They had reached the town of Varennes when
they were forced to return to Paris.
• The popular groups (sans-culottes): the new political system defended the interests of the
bourgeoisie. Popular groups wanted deeper changes.
Some European countries saw all these events as a threat to their own countries. They were scared
the revolution could spread to their own countries. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the Pope’s
opposition to it gave an excuse to some European countries to attack France. On April 1792, France
declared war on Austria, beginning a period of war in Europe which was to last on and off for over
twenty years. French armies hoped to spread the revolution to other countries in Europe.
Many people suspected that Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette (of Austrian origin) wanted
France to be defeated so that the Austrian emperor would put an end to the revolution. During July
1792, there were a number of demonstrations against the king in Paris. Parisian mobs attacked the
palace where the king was staying. Louis XVI took refuge in the assembly but the attackers forced the
deputies to remove Louis XVI from power. France became a Republic in September 1792.

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (1792 - 1794)

The Assembly was dominated by two important political groups:

• The Girondins believed in the revolution, but represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.
Their political ideas gradually became more moderate. They favoured liberal economic
policies that helped the middle class, and wanted to maintain limited suffrage.
• The Jacobins or Montagnard also believed in the revolution, but their political ideas gradually
became more radical. The Jacobins wanted to abolish the monarchy and put the king on trial,
expand the suffrage and control price rises to help the workers. As a result they gained
support from the Parisian labourers known as the sans-culottes. The main leader of the
Jacobins was Robespierre

THE GIRONDIN CONVENTION (1792-1793)

After the Sans-culottes arrested the king and proclaimed the Republic, the power went to the
moderate revolutionaries (Girondists), elected by universal male suffrage, who created the National
Convention.
THE JACOBIN CONVENTION AND THE TERROR (1793-1795)
The sans-culottes, the mob of small tradesmen, artisans and their
employees feared the end of the revolution and the return to the Ancient
Regime. To stop this, together with the Jacobins mounted a coup d’etat to
take control over the power from the Girondins. Under the leadership of
Robespierre, the Jacobins imposed a dictatorship, known as The Terror
(April 1793-July 1794). Robespierre established a repressive, dictatorial
government whose objective was to defend the revolution. Using the
Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal, they carried out
a Reign of Terror against all enemies of the revolution. Over 3000 people
were executed.
A new democratic constitution was created, the 1793 Constitution, but the internal and external
situation made it impossible to apply. They extended the right to vote and created some social laws,
such as price and salary controls (Law of the Maximum). They even created a new calendar.
Robespierre, the Jacobin leader, became very influential. He
played a leading role in calling for the king to be punished. In
December 1792, Louis XVI was put on trial for plotting against
the revolution. Luis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette were
accused of treason and executed on the guillotine in January
1793.
The execution of the king caused horror throughout Europe.
Other countries became more hostile to France and in February 1793, England, Spain, Italy and the
Netherlands joined in the war against France (the First Coalition).
During 1793 and 1794, the peasants in the Vendeé region of the west of France opposed the policy
of the Republic. They supported the king, the nobility and the clergy. They were finally defeated after
two years. All these events together radicalised the revolution. The army was expanded by massive
conscription. The enemies of the revolution should be prosecuted and judged. Robespierre and his
group ruled France with the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal.
During the summer of 1974, the situation in France became less volatile. Internal revolts were
suppressed, and army attacks from the countries that opposed the Revolution, were defeated.
Nevertheless, the majority of the bourgeoisie were opposed to the Jacobins and their violent
methods of rule. In July, the bourgeoisie led a coup to remove the Jacobins from power and put an
end to the political persecutions. Robespierre and other Jacobin leaders were tried and executed at
the guillotine (the 9th Thermidor).
 THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799)

By 1795, the conservative bourgeoisie had gained control of the country. In order to stop the violence
and executions, they established the Directory. The Directory was a more conservative government
which was composed of five members.
Its leaders implemented a new constitution, the 1795 Constitution. It was a moderate constitution
that established a restricted vote. Executive power was very strong, controlled by a Directory of five
members. Legislative power was controlled by two different chambers (the Council of Five Hundred
and the Council of the Elders) with a very limited electorate.
Therefore, there was opposition to the government on two sides: on the one side was the privileged
sector, which awaited the return of the monarchy, and the other were the Saint-culottes, who
preferred the Jacobin government.
The ensuing political and social crisis meant that the army was the only body capable of reinstating
order.
The French managed to defeat the Spanish and the Austrians and both had to sign a peace treaty.
Napoleon Bonaparte became the most famous general in France. He won splendid victories in Italy
and Egypt. He returned to France in 1799 and seized power in Paris. He organised a military coup and
established a new form of government called the Consulate. He became the real ruler of France with
the title of First Consul.

4. THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD (1799-1815)

A) THE CONSULATE (1799-1805)

In November 1799 Napoleon started a new government called the

Consulate. Bonaparte´s aim was to implement the Revolution´s more
moderate ideologies.
A group of three men, including Napoleon, became the new rulers of
France. Napoleon was the First consul.
This was a period of autocratic and authoritarian rule. The new
Constitution of 1800 did not speak of the separation of powers or of
the declaration of the rights.
He acquired more power slowly and he named himself permanent consul in 1802.
Napoleon represented the interest of the moderate bourgeoisie, implementing economic liberalism
and creating the Bank of France. He allowed exiles to return if they accepted the new government
and signed an agreement with the Church called the Concordat.
At the same time, a set of codes (civil, criminal, trade) were drawn up that completed the
Constitution. The state was organised into departments that were run by prefects (military
governors) who implemented government policies. The public finance sector was reformed and in
education, states schools were created (lyceés).
He also established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied
equally to all citizens. It introduced new legal concepts, such as
civil marriage, divorce, adoption and state education. It
standardised the laws of citizenship, family and property across
France. This legal standardization facilitated modern economic
development.
Under the Napoleonic Code, women had no right to their own
property one they were married, they weren’t able to possess
the wages they earned themselves, they have not control over
their own children. They also could not serve as witnesses in court, and if they committed adultery
they were sent to jail (men in contras would only be charged with a minor crime). Under the rule of
Napoleon, women lost most of the right and liberties gained during the French Revolution.
Napoleon, now an all-powerful ruler, crowned himself Emperor in December 1804 in Notre Dame
the Paris.

B) THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815)

Between 1804 and 1811, Napoleon and his army formed a great empire that spanned most of Europe,
except Britain and stablished a dictatorial form of government. In the conquered territories, absolute
monarchs were overthrown and some of the principles of the French Revolution imposed: moderate
liberalism in politics and economics, limitations on the power of the Church and removal of some of
the privileges enjoyed in the Ancient Regime. New schools to advanced scientific and technological
study were created. And the Napoleonic Code and the metric system were imposed for
standardization that helped to unify Europe.
Napoleon’s foreign policy was his most important contribution. Napoleon’s foreign policy can be
divided in two phases:
1805-1807: England and France had
been at war since 1803. Napoleon
prepared for an invasion of England, but
he was defeated at Trafalgar (1805). The
British navy, under Lord Nelson’s
leadership, defeated the French fleet.
Napoleon then concentrated on the
continent and attacked Prussia and
Austria. Napoleon won a stunning
victory over the Russians and Austrians
at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805). The
Prussians were defeated at the battle of
Jena.
By 1807 Napoleon was at the height of
his power. He had forced peace on the
most powerful countries on the continent on his own terms. He made his relatives rulers of some of
these countries (Holland, Italy, Germany, etc.) Only Great Britain continued to defy him. He
attempted to close the continent to British trade. This ban was known as the Continental System,
but Portugal helped the British to obtain most of the products they needed.
1808-1815: To stop Portugal helping Great Britain, Napoleon made an agreement with Godoy,
Charles IV of Spain´s Minister. Godoy allowed Napoleon to cross Spain to conquer Portugal but he
decided to conquer Spain on his way. The Spanish population revolted and the Spanish Peninsular
War started (1808-1814).
By 1810, Napoleon’s power in Europe appeared to be very strong. Three countries refused to accept
this power: Spain, Great Britain and Russia.
Most Spanish people refused to accept Napoleon’s brother Joseph as their king. Instead, they carried
out a kind of guerrilla war against the French. In June 1812 Napoleon decided to invade Russia. The
Russians retreated and burned food supplies as the French invaders went deeper into the country.
As the Russian winter set in, starvation, sickness and the terrible cold destroyed much of Napoleon’s
army. Great Britain helped the Spanish to defeat the French. The Duke of Wellington, together with
the Spanish army, defeated the French.
In 1813, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in Germany. France was invaded and
Napoleon was deposed as emperor and exiled to Elba (in the Mediterranean Sea).
In March 1815, Napoleon escaped and returned to France where he gathered an army. This period is
known as the Hundred Days’ Government. After this period, he was defeated at the Battle of
Waterloo (June 1815) by a combined army of Britain, Austria and Prussia led by the Duke of
Wellington. He was exiled to the island of St. Helena (off the coast of Africa), where he remained
until his death in 1821.
 5. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

The main consequences od the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire was the crisis and
disintegration of the Ancient Regime. The most important changes during this time were:
Political changes:
• The end of absolute monarchy and therefore new forms of government were established,
such as constitutional monarchies and republics.
• New constitutions were based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers.
• New constitutions established limited male suffrage and civil rights.
• Elections led to the emergence of political groups.

Economic changes:
• Legal changes ended the economic privileges that had characterised the Ancient Regime.
• All citizens now had to pay tax and contribute to the state´s expenses. This included the
nobility and the clergy.
• New laws guaranteed private property rights.
• Free trade was also guaranteed, which benefited middle-class merchants.

Social changes:
• Once the clergy and nobility had lost the privileges they had enjoyed under the Ancient
Regime, the estates system ceased to exist.