UNIT 3.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (1789-1871)

1. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (1879-1871)

The reforms of the Enlightenment did not solve the problems of the AR. That is why, from
1770s onwards, a series of liberal revolutions spread across Europe and North America and
profoundly transformed the continent and its colonies in just over a century. They meant the
end of the AR, and the building of a new society based on the equality of citizens before the
law. The new political system, known as liberal, was based on popular sovereignty (the right to
vote) and the people’s right to build their own state. As a consequence, the absolute
monarchies disappeared, the bourgeoisie became the dominant social group and new States
were created. The revolutions that began at the end of the 18 th century were also called the
bourgeois revolutions, since they were led by the bourgeoisie. Nonetheless, other social
groups also participated in the revolutions.

-Politically, the aims of the revolutionaries were to end absolutism and establish a
liberal political system based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers.
The first political revolutions took place in the United States in 1776 and in France in
1789. Both became models for other countries. The profound consequences of these
movements justify the beginning of a new historical period, the Contemporary Period.

-On the economic level, it was the Industrial Revolution that was the central issue, as
we shall see in due course. Technological improvements put an end to the agrarian
economy and imposed a new urban and industrial economy.

-On the social level, the estate system gave way to a new class society based on
personal merit measured by wealth, as desired by the bourgeoisie, which became the
dominant social group.

-On the artistic field, neoclassicism gave way to romanticism and realism.

2. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

In the late 18th century, the thirteen British colonies on the east coast of the United States
demanded independence from Britain. Then, a political revolution was caused by the
discontent of the colonists, who demanded representation in the British Parliament, greater
commercial independence, and to occupy the territories beyond the Appalachian Mountains,
which the British had forbidden them to do. The spread of the Enlightenment led many
colonists to view the British government as despotic, but the spark that ignited the conflict was
Britain's imposition of new taxes such as the Stamp Act (1765), which made all legal
documents more expensive, and the Tea Act (1773), which gave the British East India Company
a monopoly on the sale of tea in the colonies. This decision sparked a rebellion in Boston
known as the Boston Tea Party, when a group of colonists disguised as Native Americans threw
an entire cargo of tea carried by three British ships into Boston harbour. King George III sent an
army to stop the rebellion, but this repression eventually led to the outbreak of the
Revolutionary War (1775-1783), in which the rebels formed an army under the command of
George Washington. During the war, representatives of the thirteen colonies met in
Philadelphia and adopted the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776, which recognised
the equal rights of all people, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Thus, the United States of
America was born.

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In the end, with the support of France and Spain, the colonies defeated the British at
Yorktown, and their independence was recognised by Britain through the Peace of Paris
(1783). In the aftermath of the war, the US Constitution (1787), the first to be adopted by the
British. (1787), the first ever drafted, established a new state organised as a federal republic,
based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers between the President, Congress
and the Supreme Court. The Constitution guaranteed freedom of religion, press, speech, and
assembly, as well as the right to trial by jury. It also provided that no one could be deprived of
life, liberty, or property without due process of law. In addition, the Constitution was updated
with amendments. G. Washington became the first US president in 1789. The American
Revolution would have an enormous impact on the world.

3. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

A. Previous situation

In the late 18th century, the Third Estate (composed of the bourgeoisie, peasants and artisans)
aspired to profound social reforms. The spread of Enlightenment movement, the development
of the bourgeoisie and the example of the American Revolution stimulated the desire for
change in Europe. A revolutionary wave began in France in 1789 and spread through Europe.
Its aim was to end absolutism and the AR. Revolutionaries wanted all male citizens to be
considered free and equal and the right to participate in political life.

-The peasants (80% of the population) were opposed to the heavy taxes and rents
imposed on them by the feudal lords. The economic crisis, which was the result of a
series of poor harvests meant a significant rise in the price of bread, an increasing of
taxation and generated a spirit of rebellion among the people that was living in misery.

-The bourgeoisie wanted to end the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy and
they also wanted freedom of trade and to participate in political life. Moreover, their
businesses were limited by the monarchical control of the economy.

-The nobility and the clergy, despite their wealth, experienced economic difficulties
due to their increasing expenses.

-The monarchy, even, was in serious trouble because of his lack of money, so that the
crown had gone into debt for its support of the American revolutionaries.

In any case, the revolution was a long and complex process that went through different
phases.

B. The meeting of the Estates-General

The spark that set off the revolution was a food crisis, due to the poor harvests, which lead to
extensive hunger, but also because of a financial crisis caused by government debt and
inflation. Louis XVI’s ministers proposed that the privileged began to pay taxes, but they
demanded that the King convene the Estates-General, the only institution that could approve
new taxes. Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General, that had not met since 1614, and were
made up of representatives of the three estates (nobility, clergy and the third estate). The EG
met in Versailles in May 1789, chaired by the king. The nobility and the clergy wanted a voting
system based on estates, while the third estate, which was more numerous, demanded a
voting system based on one vote per person. When their demands were rejected, the third
estate representatives decided to leave the meeting and declared themselves as the National
Constituent Assembly (NCA), on behalf of the people. They moved to a tennis court and

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pledged to draft a constitution that reflected the will of French people. The people of Paris
supported the Assembly’s proposals, and in July, they stormed the Bastille, that was used as a
prison, and it was considered a symbol of the king’s absolute power. The revolution spread to
the countryside, where nobles’ homes were burnt during the so-called Great Fear. Louis XVI
was frightened and accepted the NCA, which made France a pre-constitutional monarchy and
ended the AR.

C. The National Constituent Assembly (1789-91)

This initial phase was driven by the moderate bourgeoisie, that tried to reach an agreement
with the king and the privileged estates. The bourgeois aspired to abolish the AR, elect a
parliament by selective suffrage (giving the vote to people with a certain level of wealth) and
establish a constitution. The first decisions of the NCA were to abolish feudalism, including the
guilds, nationalize the Church’s properties and approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen, including the rights to freedom, property and equality before the law.
Months later, they approved the Constitution of 1791, that established popular sovereignty,
separation of powers and censor suffrage, though the king preserved the right of veto. This
way, absolutism gave way to a liberal political system.

D. The Legislative Assembly (1791-92)

After approving the Constitution, the NCA was dissolved and substituted by a Legislative
Assembly that faced several problems:

-The opposition by the king, who asked absolute monarchies in Europe to help restore
absolutism. Louis XVI was arrested in June 1791 when he tried to flee the country.

-The opposition by exiled nobles who did not accept the new situation and conspired
from abroad against the revolution.

-The opposition by the Church, whose properties were expropriated and sold. In
return, the state promised to fund the practice of Catholicism (Civil Constitution of the
Clergy).

-The opposition by the sans-culottes, who were independent workers, small merchants
and artisans. They were discontents because they considered that the bourgeois
government was not resolving their demands.

-A new army, the National Guard, was also created to defend the Revolution from the
Austrian army, that was invading France.

-The clashes between moderate revolutionaries (Girondins) and radical revolutionaries

(Jacobins).

D. The National Convention (1792-95)

The Legislative Assembly was dissolved and replaced by the National Convention (NC), which
was initially dominated by the Girondins. The betrayal by the king and the Austrian military
invasion led to the revolt by the common people (sans-culottes), which stormed Tuileries
Palace and imprisoned the royal family. Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in
January 1793. In response, monarchies in Europe formed an absolutist coalition against France
whilst inside the country, counter-revolutionary revolts broke out.

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In June 1793, the Jacobins, the most radical sector of the bourgeoisie, seized power. The
Revolution had now entered its most extreme phase. A new constitution recognised popular
sovereignty (universal male suffrage). The executive was led by a Committee of Public Safety,
which gave power to Robespierre. To reject the Austrian invasion, a mass levy forced all
citizens to join the army. To stop conspirators, the Reign of Terror was imposed. Freedoms
were suspended and people opposed to the government were imprisoned or executed by
guillotine. The guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph Guillotin, who, as
deputy, proposed this form of capital punishment for humanitarian and efficiency reasons. To
satisfy the demands of the sans-culottes, prices and salaries were controlled (Law of the
Maximum), the assets of counter-revolutionaries were distributed among the poor, and
education became compulsory. Nevertheless, many people opposed the dictatorial
government, and a coup in July 1794 ended the Jacobin government. Robespierre and other
Jacobin leaders were executed by guillotine.

E. The Directory and the Consulate (1795-1799)

The moderate bourgeoisie (Girondins) took back control of the Revolution. Jacobin laws were
cancelled, and exiles were encouraged to return. A new Constitution (1795) granted executive
power to a collegial government, known as the Directory, and restored census suffrage. The
Directory was permanently unstable because it faced opposition from the aristocracy, which
sought to re-establish its privileges, and the common people, who supported the return of the
Jacobins. Moreover, Directory carried out numerous military campaigns (Italy, Prussia, Austria,
Egypt) in which the young general Napoleon Bonaparte rose to prominence. Using his prestige,
in 1799 he overthrew the Directory by a coup d’état, substituting it with a Consulate made up
of three consuls.

4. EUROPE UNDER NAPOLEON (1799-1814)

Napoleon’s coup d’état was supported by a large part of the bourgeoisie, whose interests he
represented. This was a period of authoritarian rule. The Constitution of 1800 did not include
the separation of powers or a declaration of rights. Liberties were very limited, and censorship
was imposed to control public opinion. But Napoleon also aspired to consolidate some of the
revolutionary principles and promote economic recovery. He achieved peace in France by
allowing the exiled nobility to return and signing the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. He
recognised the Catholic religion, and in turn, the Church would not reclaim land that had been
taken from it during the revolution. Furthermore, a commercial code was established to
stimulate the economy, the Bank of France was created, and new bank notes were issued.
Napoleon was made First Consul for Life in 1802 and later became Emperor of the French in
1804 through a plebiscite. Napoleon also instituted the Civil Code of 1804 which included
equality before the law, liberty, separation of Church and State, economic freedom, and the
creation of public welfare assistance. The state was organised into departments that were run
by prefects and state schools (lycées) were created to educate an elite of civil servants.

Napoleon also sought a vast European empire under French authority. He began his conquest
of Europe in 1805 thanks to his large army (Grande Armée) and the use of new military tactics
that enabled him to defeat several coalitions of European countries in successive battles:
Austerlitz, Jena, etc. The French troops seemed unstoppable. The only exception was the
United Kingdom, which defeated Napoleon’s fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) and resisted

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the economic blockade he had established in 1806. Napoleon set up governments made up of
family members and French generals in conquered countries. They all spread the ideas of the
revolution, established constitutions, and implemented the Napoleonic Code. In 1808, the
French invaded Spain and Joseph Bonaparte, one of the emperor’s brothers, was made king.
The Napoleonic military campaigns sparked two types or reaction in the countries occupied by
the French: on the one hand, the abolishment of absolute monarchies and the suppression of
manorial rights had the support of European liberals. On the other hand, invasion by a foreign
army, the indiscriminate violence by its soldiers and the submission to French interests caused
strong anti-French sentiment in Spain, Poland, Germany or Italy.

In 1811, the Napoleonic Empire had reached its zenith. However, after the failure of the
Grande Armée in Russia (1812) and the revolt in Spain marked the decline of the Napoleonic
Empire. A coalition of European powers (UK, Austria, Prussia, Russia) entered Paris. Napoleon
was exiled on the island of Elba and the French monarchy was restored by Louis XVIII. The
following year Napoleon escaped and regained the throne for one hundred days. Nevertheless,
he was defeated for the last time by the Allies at Waterloo (1815). Napoleon abdicated and
was sent into exile on the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

5. THE LEGACY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD

The FR is one of the most significant events in the history of humanity and marked the
beginning of the late modern period. It established the basis of modern democracies:

-People as citizens with rights recognised by the state, popular sovereignty (right to
vote and choose the rulers), constitution as the fundamental law that establishes the
rights and duties, equality before the law and an independent justice system.

-The political clubs born during the FR were the precursors of modern political parties.
The classification of political parties as left or right came from the French National
Assembly, when more moderate deputies tended to sit on the seats on the right and
the more radical ones on the left.

-On an economic level, the FR and the Napoleonic Code involved the liberalisation of
the economy, which enabled the development of capitalism and the bourgeoisie.
Guilds, which hindered the growth of production, were abolished, and freedom of
trade and contract was implemented. Internal customs that charged taxes on goods
were ended and a new decimal system of measurement, the decimal metric system
(litre, gram, metre), was introduced to make the exchange of goods easier. However,
trade unions were prohibited.

-Regarding the culture and ideology, the revolutionaries were in favour of a secular
State, with no official religion, and they promoted religious freedom. For the first time,
compulsory education for all citizens was considered, although it was never put into
practice. Finally, to make art and culture accessible to all citizens, the first public
museums were created, such as the Louvre in Paris, which was inaugurated in 1793.

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6. THE BOURBON RESTORATION

In 1815 the powers that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna with two
objectives: restoring the Ancient Regime and redrawing the political map of Europe. The
organiser, Austrian Chancellor Metternich, wanted to stop the spread of liberal ideas and
restore absolutism in Europe. After reinstating absolute monarchs on their thrones, the four
great powers (Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria) reshaped the European map to their
advantage and reassured the legitimacy of the absolutism and the denial of national
sovereignty. In addition, the Holy Alliance Treaty stipulated that the absolute monarchs would
unite against any threat of liberal revolution. France was forced to return to its borders of
1791 and the Napoleonic Empire was divided up among the victors. The new boundaries were
established without consulting nations, that were separated or joined against their will.

Although absolutism was temporarily restored, the Restoration could not contain the
expansion of new ideas represented by liberalism and nationalism. Liberalism defended
individual liberty expressed by the rights of the citizens, equality before the law and the
suppression of privileges, constitutional regimes based on national sovereignty and separation
of powers. Liberal ideology spread extensively among the bourgeoisie. Nationalism was the
idea that the fundamental framework for public life was the community with common traits,
especially language and culture. Its objective was for each nation to have its own State. The
nationalist ideology spread to territories under foreign power (Greece) and to those who
aspired to form a unified State (Italy, German).

7. THE LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The spread of liberalism gave rise to a new wave of revolutions. In 19 th century, many
European peoples lived under the rule of an empire or were fragmented into various states.
For this reason, the rise of liberalism was accompanied by an expansion of nationalism, which
advocated for independent nations.

-The revolutions of 1820 were concentrated in the Mediterranean area. Liberals in

Spain, Portugal, Naples or Piedmont rose up against absolutist regimes. Some
monarchs initially accepted the constitutions, but in the end, they imposed absolutism.
A particular case was of the Greeks, who wanted independence from the Ottoman
Empire. The Greeks had to pay high taxes, they were excluded from state
administration jobs, and they felt dominated by a group of people with a different
religion and culture. In 1822, the Greeks declared independence, but it was not
recognised by the Turks, and resulted in a war. The European liberals supported the
Greeks, whom they considered the cradle of European culture. In 1830, with the help
of French and British military intervention, the Greeks defeated the Ottoman Empire
and Greece gained its independence.

-The revolutions of 1830 began in France with the ousting of Charles XI, who signed the
July Ordinances, dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and reducing the number of
people with the right to vote. This action sparked an insurrection in Paris, forcing
Charles X to abandon the throne in favour of the constitutional monarchy of Louis-
Philippe, Duke of Orléans. However, once power was taken, the new king limited rights
and freedoms, excluding commoners from politics and power. For his part, Belgium
achieved independence from Holland. Belgium was made part of the Kingdom of the

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 Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna, but the spread of liberal ideas helped the
Belgian revolution. An armed conflict followed Belgium’s declaration of independence,
that it finally ended when the Netherlands recognised Belgium’s independence, the
new state became a liberal monarchy ruled by Leopold I. In 1831 a revolt also broke
out in Poland but was harshly suppressed by the tsarist army.

-The revolutions of 1848 were more extensive and radical. Revolutionaries set up
barricades and demanded popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage and social
equality. These demands terrified the bourgeoisie, who implemented a conservative
liberalism. The revolutions began in France, where Louis-Phillipe was ousted from
power by a popular uprising. The French Second Republic was proclaimed, establishing
universal male suffrage, press freedom, the abolition of the death penalty and the
recognition of certain rights for workers. In the Austrian Empire, the revolt forced
chancellor Metternich to resign. There were also nationalist uprisings in Hungary,
Bohemia, northern Italy and the German Confederation.

Although these revolutions failed, democratic reforms and many nationalist aspirations were
consolidated in the second half of the century. Many countries adopted liberalism and wrote
constitutions. Serfdom was abolished in almost all European countries. However, the
bourgeoisie took control, but commoners did not achieve the deeper political and social
transformations they had hoped for. These revolutions demonstrated the importance of
workers as a political force, and they began to organise themselves.

8. NATIONALISM. THE BIRTH OF NEW STATES

Nationalist movements spread across Europe in the 19 th century. They defended the right of
nations to exercise their sovereignty and create their own state. In other words, members of
the same national community must be grouped within given geographical borders.
Nationalism divided pluri-national empires and unified fragmented nations. In addition,
independent nationalist movements spread throughout countries ruled by a foreign power. As
a result, the majority of the Spanish colonies in America became independent in 1825. For his
part, in the early 19th century, Italy was divided into several states and Austria had annexed
Lombardy-Veneta, an important Italian region. As for Germany, it was divided into 36 states, in
which Prussia and Austria were competing for power.

-In Italy the process of unification was directed by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.
Central figures were Victor Emmanuel II and PM Cavour, along with the revolutionary
Garibaldi. Unification was carried out in several stages. First, V. Emmanuel II
incorporated Lombardy, also the duchies of central Italy. Meanwhile Garibaldi
conquered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in the south. The Kingdom of Italy was founded
in 1861. Complete unity was finally achieved with the annexation of Venice in 1866
and the conquest of the Papal States in 1870. The newly unified state established its
capital in Rome.

-In 1834, Prussia created a customs union (Zollverein) that united most Germanic
states. In 1848, Germany’s first freely elected parliament met and offered the crown of
Germany to the king of Prussia, who refused it. Short after, William I of Prussia and
Chancellor Bismarck aimed to unify Germany and exclude Austria. The process was
carried out in three stages. First, Prussia declared war on Denmark in 1864,

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 incorporating Schlesweig and Holstein; then defeated Austrian in Sadowa (1866),
allowing the northern German states to unify; and finally beating France in Sedan
(1870), incorporating Alsace and Lorraine. These three victories made the unification
of Germany possible: in 1871, Wilhelm I was proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German
Empire (Reich). The new State established universal male suffrage and a federal
political system.

9. THE NEW ART OF THE BOURGEOISIE

The new bourgeoisie society also revolutionised artistic tastes. The old principles that art was
based on were questioned and new alternatives came to take their place. Contemporary art
began at this time as artists discarded the old ways of previous periods. The artists developed a
desire to be original. The new artistic styles were Romanticism, Realism and Modernism.

-Romanticism spread throughout Europe in the first decades of the 19th century as a
reaction against Neoclassicism. This movement brought a new aesthetic and
celebrated a love of freedom and the glorification of the individual. It promoted
emotion over the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Romantic sculpture aspired to
express movement and feelings, using dynamic forms, and giving much importance to
gestures and facial expressions.

-Romanticism was displaced by Realism in the second half of the 19th century for a
number of reasons: the social inequalities, the spread of poverty, child labour and the
exploitation of workers… In addition, the advancement of science put forward the idea
that observation was the only way of understanding reality. Artists made a big effort to
describe reality and painters such as Courbet, Daumier and Millet reflected the daily
lives and social problems of industrialisation.

-Modernism emerged in the late 19th century and was basically an architectural
movement, although painting and sculpture also played a part. Painters decided to
capture symbolic themes. The movement was decorative and inspired by forms found
in nature. Women were a recurring theme. Notable artists included Klimt, Mucha, or
Gaudi.