ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

The electromagnetic theory deals with the study of electric and magnetic phenomena
caused by charges at rest and in motion. Electrostatics, magnetostatics, electromagnetic
induction, and electromagnetic wave propagation are all examples of electromagnetic
phenomena.

 Del Operator
The del (or nabla) operator is a vector differential operator that can be applied to any scalar
or vector field. It is represented by 𝛁.
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁=(𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒛 )
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

where i, j, and k are the unit vectors along the x, y, and z coordinate directions respectively.
The del operator can act in different ways.
For example,
 When it acts on the scalar function ɸ, the resultant 𝛁ɸ is called the gradient of a scalar
function ɸ.
 When it acts on a vector function A⃗ via the dot product, the resultant 𝛁. 𝐴⃗ is called the
divergence of a vector A⃗.
 When it acts on a vector function A⃗ via the cross product, the resultant 𝛁 × A⃗ is called
the curl of a vector A⃗.
 Gradient of Scalar field:
Let ɸ(x,y,z) be a Scalar function in a region of space(Scalar field). The Gradient of the Scalar
function is defined as,
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
grad ɸ = 𝛁ɸ = ( 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒛 )ɸ
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ
= 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Note: The gradient of a scalar function is a vector, whose magnitude is equal to the rate of change
of scalar function ɸ along normal to the level surface.
 For example, the rate of change of electric potential V in a region of space (i.e.
scalar field ) gives an Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) at that point.
 𝝏𝑽
𝑬⃗ = -(𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒛 ) (or)
𝝏𝒚

𝑬⃗= - 𝛁V
The -ve sign indicates that the Electric field is directed in the direction of decreasing
potential.

 Divergence of a vector field:

The divergence of vector field 𝐴⃗ at a point ‘p’ is defined as the outward flux of the vector field
per unit volume.
Let ∇𝑣 be infinitesimal volume surrounding a point ‘p’, then
divergence of vector field 𝐴⃗ at ‘p’ is,
∯ 𝐀 ⃗. 𝐝𝐬⃗
𝐝𝐢𝐯 A⃗ = lim
∆v→0 ∆𝐯

The divergence of vector 𝐴⃗ in Cartesian co-ordinates is expressed as,

div 𝐴⃗ = 𝛁. 𝐴⃗ = + +

Note: The divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.

 Physical significance of divergence:

The divergence of the vector field A⃗ at a given point is a measure of how much the field
diverges or emanates from that point.

For example, the divergence of fluid velocity 𝑣⃗ at a point (∇. 𝑣⃗) represents the quantity of fluid
flowing out per second per unit volume at that point.

 If (∇. 𝑣⃗) at a point is –ve, it means that fluid is flowing towards that point. (i.e sink for the
fluid).
 If (∇. 𝑣⃗) is + ve, then the fluid is flowing outwards. (i.e. source for the fluid at that point)
 If (∇. 𝑣⃗) = 0 at a point, then fluid entering towards the point is equal to the fluid leaving the
point. (i.e. no source and sink at that point).
 If 𝛁. 𝐴⃗ = 0, then 𝐴⃗ is called a solenoidal field.
 Curl of a vector field:
If 𝐴⃗ is a vector field at a point ‘p’ and ‘∆s’ ia an infinitesimal area around ‘p’ then curl 𝑨⃗ is
defined as

∮ [𝑨.⃗ 𝒅𝒍⃗]𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 𝐀 ⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆s→0 ∆𝒔

 In the Cartesian coordinate system, curl 𝑨⃗ is expressed as,

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
∂ ∂ ∂
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 𝐀⃗ = 𝛁 × 𝐀⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
A A A

𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝑨𝒙 𝝏𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝑨𝒙

=𝒊 − −𝒋 − +𝒌( − )
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

 Curl of a vector field is another vector whose direction is normal to the area around point
‘p’ when the area is oriented to make the circulation maximum.
 The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is that it provides the maximum value
of circulation/curl of the field per unit area, as the area shrinks to zero at the given point.
 For example, when current is passed through a straight conductor, the magnetic field curls
around the conductor in the same way as curl 𝑯⃗.
 If ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0, then the vector field has no circulation or turning effect at the point. Such
fields (whose ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0 ), are called conservative or irrotational vector fields.

Gauss Divergence Theorem:

Gauss’s divergence theorem helps us to transform a volume integral into a surface integral and
vice versa. It states that the volume integral of the divergence of a vector field 𝐴⃗ over the
volume (V) is equal to the surface integral of a vector field 𝐴⃗ enclosed by the closed surface.

∭ 𝛁. 𝐴⃗ dv = ∮ 𝑨⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗
s
Stoke’s Theorem:

Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field 𝐴⃗, around a closed path, L is

equal to the surface integral of the curl of 𝐴⃗ over the open surface S bounded by L.
It provides a way of relating a line integral to a surface integral in cases where the curl of a
vector 𝐴⃗ exists in a vector field.

𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗

 Electric Flux (ɸ) and Flux density (D):

The number of electric lines of force crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field is
called electric flux.
Electric flux (ɸ) is a scalar quantity, useful in solving certain electrostatic problems.
If an amount of Electric flux (dɸ) crosses a small area ‘ds’, normal to the surface, then the
electric flux density (D) at that point is,
𝒅ɸ
𝑫⃗ = 𝒏
𝒅𝒔
where 𝑛 is a unit vector normal to the surface area ‘ds’.

 Electric flux density (𝑫⃗) is a vector field.

Let a charge of volume charge density (𝜌 ) be enclosed by surface ‘S’, as shown in the
figure.

The electric flux density (D) may vary in magnitude and direction from point to point on
the surface ‘S’.

At the surface element ‘ds’, if 𝐷⃗ makes an angle ‘𝜃′ with the normal, then electric flux
crossing ‘ds’ is given by,
 dɸ = D ds 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗

where 𝑑𝑠⃗ is the vector surface element of magnitude ‘ds’ and direction along 𝑛.

The total Electric flux through any closed surface ‘s’ is given by,

ɸ =∫ 𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗
S

 Relation between Electric flux density (𝑫⃗) and Electric field (𝑬⃗):

Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) at a point due to a charge configuration is a function of permittivity (𝜀) of the
medium, whereas Electric flux density (D) is independent of the medium.

In general, for an Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) in a medium of permittivity 𝜀, the flux density (𝐷⃗)is,

𝐷⃗ = 𝜀 𝐸⃗
or

𝐷⃗ = 𝜀 𝜀 𝐸⃗

Where, 𝜀 → Dielectric constant (or) relative permittivity of the medium.

 Note: Unlike 𝐸⃗ , 𝐷⃗ is not directly measurable. But, both 𝐸⃗ and 𝐷⃗ vector fields have exactly
the same form.

 Gauss law in Electrostatics :

Gauss’s law of electrostatics states that “The total electric flux out of the closed surface is equal
to the net charge within the surface”.
This can be written in integral form as,

𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ = 𝐐
S

(or)
𝐐
∮ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ = 𝛆

( ‘𝜀’ is the permittivity of the medium. 𝐷⃗ = 𝜀 𝐸⃗ )

 Gauss law in differential form:
Gauss law in Electrostatics in integral form is given by,

∮ 𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ = 𝑸 → ①
S
where Q is the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.
If ‘𝜌’ is the volume charge density (i.e charge per unit volume), then the charge enclosed
in an elemental volume ‘dv’ is 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯. Then the total charge inside the closed volume will be,

𝑸= 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯 →②

From eqn ① 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ② , the Gauss law is modified as

∮ 𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗= ∭ 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯 →③
S

Now according to the divergence theorem,

∮ 𝑫⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ = ∭ 𝛁. 𝑫⃗ dv →④
S
∴ From eqn. ③ and ④, we get

∭ 𝛁. 𝑫⃗ dv = ∭ 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯

This equation holds good for any volume. Hence,

𝛁. 𝑫⃗ = 𝝆

This is the statement of Gauss law in differential form.

In terms of 𝐸⃗ , Gauss law is

𝝆
𝛁. 𝑬⃗ =
𝜺

𝝆
Note: 𝛁. 𝑫⃗ = 𝝆 or 𝛁. 𝑬⃗ = This is one of the Maxwell’s equation for static fields.
𝜺
 Current and current density (J):
Current density is defined as current per unit area of the cross-section of an imaginary plane held
normal to the direction of the current.
𝒅𝑰
J=( )
𝒅𝒔

The total current through the given surface ‘s’ is obtained by,
I =∬ 𝐽⃗.𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∬ 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

Note: Current density is a vector quantity.

 Equation of Continuity:
The divergence of current density (𝐽⃗) at that point (∇. 𝐽⃗) is equal to the quantity of charge
flowing out per second per unit volume, through the small closed surface surrounding that point.
By the law of Conservation of charges, (∇. 𝐽⃗) must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge density
(𝜌) at that point.

i.e ∇. 𝐽⃗ = -

or

∇. 𝐽⃗+ =0

This equation is known as the Equation of continuity.

 Magnetic field intensity (𝑯⃗) and Magnetic flux density(𝑩⃗)

The source for magnetic field is current elements (I . dl). The magnetic field at a point can be
described by two vectors, magnetic field intensity (𝐻⃗ ) and magnetic flux density (𝐵⃗).
 Magnetic field intensity (𝐻⃗ ) depends only on the source (i.e current element or
moving charges) and it is independent of the medium, whereas magnetic flux
density (𝐵⃗) depends on the medium at that point.
 The two vectors 𝐵⃗ and 𝐻⃗ are related by
 𝐵⃗ =𝜇 𝐻⃗

OR
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇 𝜇 𝐻⃗

where , 𝜇 → permeability of the medium.

𝜇 → permeability of vacuum. 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 𝐻𝑚

𝜇 → Relative permeability of the medium

 ‘H’ is expressed in units of Am-1 whereas ‘B’ is expressed in tesla (T).

 Biot-Savart’s Law:
This law gives the magnetic field intensity at a point due to a current element. Let I be the
current in a conductor XY. Let ‘p’ be a point at a distance of ‘r’ from a differential element of the
conductor of length ‘dl’.

According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at ‘p’ due o ‘dl’ is given by

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑘

where, 𝜃 is the angle between the current element and the line joining the point to the element, and

k is the proportionality constant, given by 𝑘 = .

∴ 𝑑𝐻 = .

This field acts perpendicular to the plane containing the element and the point ‘p’.

In vector form, Biot-Savart law is written as,

𝐼 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟̂
𝑑𝐻⃗ =
4𝜋𝑟
 where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed from the element towards ‘p’.

 𝑑𝐻⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝑟⃗.

⃗×⃗


 Ampere’s law (Integral form):

This law states that, “the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic field
around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by the loop”.

i.e ∮ 𝐻⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼

or ∮ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 𝐼

Note: The closed loop to which Ampere’s law is applied is called the Ampere loop.

 Ampere’s law (Differential form):

Ampere’s law in integral form is given by

𝐻⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼

Let us now consider a rectangular path ABCD of the infinitesimal size of the area (Δ𝑠 ) in a plane
parallel to XY-plane. Area of the loop = Δ𝑠 = (Δx)(Δy). If Jz is the current density along Z-
direction, then the current through the loop is Iz = Jz(Δ𝑠 ) = Jz (Δx)(Δy).

Therefore from Ampere’s law,

∮ 𝐻⃗ ∙ (𝑑𝑙)⃗ = 𝐽 (𝛥𝑠 )

∮ ⃗∙ ⃗
Or =𝐽
Δ

The assumption that the magnetic field does not vary along the line
segment is more valid if we consider the limits Δx 0 and Δy 0.
 ⃗∙ ⃗
∴ lim ∮ =𝐽 ---------- (1)
(Δ )(Δ )→ Δ

As per vector calculus, LHS term of (1) represents curl of H, which is vector field acting normal
to 𝛥𝑠 (i.e. along Z-direction).

∴ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ =𝐽 𝑘

𝑘 is unit vector along Z-direction.

Here, [∇ × 𝐻] represents that the curl is in a plane parallel to xy-plane.

Similarly, it can be extended to the planes parallel o yz and zx planes as,

∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽 𝚤̂

∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽 𝚥̂

Here, [∇ × 𝐻] , [∇ × 𝐻] and [∇ × 𝐻] are the components of ∇ × 𝐻⃗ around the point ‘p’.

∴ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽 𝚤̂ + 𝐽 𝚥̂ + 𝐽 𝑘

Or 𝛁 × 𝑯⃗ = 𝑱⃗ ------------ (2)

where 𝐽⃗ is the current density vector having components 𝐽 , 𝐽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 along the 3 co-ordinates.
Equation (2) is represents Ampere’s law in differential form.

 Note: 𝛁 × 𝑯⃗ = 𝑱⃗ is one of the Maxwell’s equations for static fields.

 Gauss law in magnetism:

The magnetic field pattern in a region can be visualized in terms of magnetic flux lines.

Magnetic flux through a surface is defined as

𝜑 = ∫ 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ where, B  magnetic flux density.

S
It should be noted that, magnetic flux lines are closed curves, with no starting point or
termination point (This is in contrast with lines of electric flux, which originate on +ve charge and
terminate on –ve charge).
 If we consider a closed surface, then, all of the magnetic flux entering the closed surface is
equal to the flux leaving the closed surface.
Thus, “the total magnetic flux over any closed surface is equal to zero”.
i.e. 𝜑 = ∫ 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ = 0
S
This is known as Gauss law in magnetostatics.
Now, as per vector calculus,
∫ 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗
∇ ∙ 𝐵⃗ = lim
(Δ )→ Δv

∴ 𝛁. 𝑩⃗ = 𝟎

 Note: This equation, ∇. 𝐵⃗ = 0 is one of the Maxwell’s equations.

 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

It states that “the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through it”.

𝑑𝜑
𝑒= −
𝑑𝑡

-ve sign indicates that the induced emf opposes the change in flux.

{ If 𝐸⃗ is the electric field, then (𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ ) gives the work done to move unit +ve charge (+1C) through
dl. The total work done to move +1C from a to b is equal to pd or emf between a and b. ∴ 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =

∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ . In a closed loop, 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ }

The induced emf in a closed loop is given by

𝑒= 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗

∴ ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ----------- (1)

The magnetic flux 𝜑 through an area ‘S’ enclosed by the loop is,

S
 𝜑= 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗

Where B is magnetic flux density

𝑑𝜑 𝑑
∴ = 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
S
⃗
=∫ . 𝒅𝒔⃗ ----------- (2)
S

From (1) and (2) we get,

⃗
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ∫ . 𝒅𝒔⃗ ---------- (3)
S
Equation (3) is Faraday’s law in integral form.

Now, by Stokes theorem,

𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∇ × 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
S

Therefore equation (3) can be written as

𝜕𝐵⃗
∇ × 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = − . 𝒅𝒔⃗
𝜕𝑡
S S
⃗
or ∮ 𝛻 × 𝐸⃗ + ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0

⃗
Since, ‘ds’ ≠ 0, ∇ × 𝐸⃗ + =0

𝝏𝑩⃗
Or 𝛁 × 𝑬⃗ = − -------------(4)
𝝏𝒕

Equation (4) represents the Faraday’s law in differential form.

⃗
 Note: This equation, ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − is one of the Maxwell’s equations.
 Inconsistency or anomaly in Ampere's law:

Ampere's law in differential form is

∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗

Taking divergence on both sides,

∇ ∙ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗

But, as per the rules of vector analysis, the divergence of curl of a vector field is zero.

∴ ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0

this condition holds good for circuits with current flow under static conditions.

In the circuit shown in the figure, the charge flow into the surface is equal to the charge out flow,
i. e. ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0 which means there is no net charge within the surface.

But this relation ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0 fails where the fields and currents are
varying with time.

Consider an AC circuit with a capacitor. Consider a

closed surface which encloses only one plate of the
capacitor. Here, current flow into the closed surface is
not accompanied by a simultaneous current outflow.
(Charges pile up on the capacitor plate). Thus the
condition ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = 0 fails. In other words, there is an
inconsistency in Ampere's law for time varying fields.
 Displacement current (Maxwell-Ampere's law):

In order to make Ampere's law work under time varying field conditions, Maxwell
suggested the following:

We have from Gauss law in electrostatics,

∇ ∙ 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌

where 𝐷⃗ --> Electric flux density and 𝜌--> charge density

Let 𝐷⃗ be varying with time.

Differentiating with time we have,

∇ ∙ 𝐷⃗ =

Or
⃗
∇∙ = --------------> (1)

But, from the equations of continuity, we have

∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = - ---------------> (2)

From (1) and (2) we have,

𝜕𝐷⃗
∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = −∇ ∙
𝜕𝑡

or,
𝜕𝐷⃗
∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ + = 0
𝜕𝑡

⃗
Thus, for time varying field, 𝐽⃗ must be replaced by 𝐽⃗ + .

The quantity 𝐷⃗ has the dimension of 𝐽⃗ and is called as displacement current density.

Therefore, Ampere's law can be written as,

 𝝏𝑫⃗
𝛁 × 𝑯⃗ = 𝑱⃗ +
𝝏𝒕

This equation is known as Maxwell-Ampere's law.

The right hand side term in the above equation is the total current density consisting of conduction
current and displacement current density generated due to time variation of electric flux density
D⃗ vector field.

⃗
 Note: Displacement current density is 𝐽⃗ = .

Hence, displacement current is 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽⃗ . 𝒅𝒔⃗

S

𝜕𝐷⃗
∴ 𝐼 = . 𝒅𝒔⃗
𝜕𝑡
S
 Displacement current in vacuum or in a dielectric is not a current in the sense of any motion
of charges. But it is associated with itself a magnetic field, similar to that of conduction
current.

 Maxwell’s equations:

The differential forms of Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields are given below:

1) ∇ ∙ 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss law in electrostatics)

⃗
2) ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − (Faraday’s law)

3) ∇. 𝐵⃗ = 0 (Gauss law in magnetism)

⃗
4) ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + (Ampere’s law)
In case of static fields, the time dependent factors in equations (2) and (3) vanish.

The modified Maxwell’s equations for static fields are given below:

1) ∇ ∙ 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss law in electrostatics)

2) ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = 0 (Faraday’s law)

3) ∇. 𝐵⃗ = 0 (Gauss law in magnetism)

4) ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ (Ampere’s law)

 Note: A static electric field 𝐸⃗ can exist in the absence of magnetic field 𝐻⃗ . For example, a
capacitor with static charge produce only 𝐸⃗ but not 𝐻⃗ . Likewise, a conductor with constant
current 'I' has magnetic field 𝐻⃗ without an electric field 𝐸⃗ . However, when fields are time
variable, 𝐻⃗ can’t exist without 𝐸⃗ and vice versa. i.e. time variable 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻⃗ fields can’t
exist independently.

 Electromagnetic waves:

From Maxwell’s equations, it follows that a time varying magnetic field 𝐻⃗ gives rise to an
electric field 𝐸⃗ that varies both in space and time. Similarly, a time varying electric field gives rise
⃗
to magnetic field that varies in space and time. Moreover, from ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − and
⃗
∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + , it follows that 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻⃗ must be normal to each other. Thus, no conductor, a loop

of a wire or any other medium is necessary. 𝐸⃗ arises directly from time varying 𝐻⃗ and vice versa.
These variations propagate as a wave in a direction perpendicular to both 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻⃗ known as
electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic wave equation in differential form:

From Maxwell’s equations, we have,

𝜕𝐷⃗
∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ +
𝜕𝑡
and
𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝑑𝑡
But, we know that D = εE and B = µH.

∴ ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ ----------- (1)
⃗
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −µ ----------- (2)

In order to get the wave equation in terms of electric field vector (𝐸⃗ ), we must obtain an
equation relating the spatial coordinates of 𝐸⃗ to its time coordinate. This is done by eliminating 𝐻⃗
between the two equations (1) and (2). This is done in the following way:
Take curl for both sides of (2).

∇ × ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 ∇ × 𝐻⃗ --------- (3)

As per vector analysis,

∇ × ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = ∇ ∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗ − ∇ 𝐸⃗

Or, ∇ × ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = ∇ − ∇ 𝐸⃗ --------- (4)

( From Maxwell’s equation, ∇ ∙ 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌 (or) ∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗ = )

From eq. (3) and (4), we get

∇ − ∇ 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 ∇ × 𝐻⃗ ----------(5)

From eq. (1) and (5),

𝜌 𝜕 𝜕𝐸⃗
∇ − ∇ 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝐽⃗ + 𝜀
𝜀 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⃗ ⃗
Or, ∇ − ∇ 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 − 𝜇𝜀
⃗
Or, ∇ 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝜀 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇 +∇ -------- (6)
The LHS of eq. (6) is in the characteristic form of wave equation in terms of 𝐸⃗ , for medium with
constant 𝜇 & 𝜀 values ( homogeneous and isotropic medium).
If we consider a region, where there are no charges and currents (the sources of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻⃗ ), then 𝜌 =
0 and 𝐽⃗ = 0.
Then eq. (6) becomes,
𝜕 𝐸⃗
∇ 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝜀 =0
𝜕𝑡
⃗
Or, ∇ 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝜀

Also, wave propagating along X-direction must be independent of y and z. Then,

𝝏𝟐 𝑬⃗ 𝝏𝟐 𝑬⃗
= 𝝁𝜺 ----------- (7)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Eq. (7) represents a plane EM wave propagating along X-direction.
But the classical wave equation in one dimension in differential form is,
𝝏𝟐 𝒚⃗ 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚⃗
= --------------(8)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Comparing eq. (7) and (8), we get the velocity of EM waves as
𝟏
𝐯=
√𝛍𝛆
In vacuum, 𝜇 = 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 Hm-1 and 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 8.852 × 10 𝐹𝑚 .
𝟏
∴𝐯= = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ms-1
𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎

This is same as velocity of light in vacuum.

 Note: Equation (7) gives the variation of electric field (𝑬⃗) in space and time. The associated
magnetic field variation is invariably there in the perpendicular plane.