EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss’s law constitutes one of the fundamental laws of Electromagnetism. It forms one of the
four Maxwell’s equations that govern the entire electromagnetics. Karl Friedrich Gauss, a
German mathematician, developed this law known by his name.
Gauss’s law is an alternative statement of Coulomb’s law. By Coulomb’s law we can calculate
E for a given charge. But Gauss’s law enables us to determine E if symmetrical charge
distribution is given or to determine charge if E is known. But whether the charge distribution
is symmetric or not, Gauss’s law always holds.

• Electric Displacement / Flux ()

The Electric field strength E depends not only upon the magnitude and position of the charge
Q, but also upon the dielectric constant of the medium in which the field is measured.
However, another electrical quantity, electric displacement or electric flux (denoted
by the symbol ) associated with the charge Q is independent of the medium involved.

An understanding of what is meant by electric displacement can be gained by recalling

Faraday's experiments.

(i) Faraday did the experiment with two concentric metallic spheres.
(ii) A sphere with charge Q (+ve) was placed within, but not touching, a larger hollow sphere.
[Two hemispheres were clamped together around the charged inner sphere with insulating
material (or dielectric material, or simply dielectric) between them.]
(iii) The inner surface of outer sphere gets –ve charge due to induction (repulsion of +ve charge
from this surface). The outer surface of outer sphere gets +ve charge.
(iv) The outer sphere was discharged by connecting it to ground/earth for a moment.
(v) The outer sphere was separated carefully, using tools made of insulating material in order
not to disturb the induced charge on it.
(vi) The negative induced charge on the outer sphere (two hemispheres) was then measured.

Observation: This charge was found to be equal (and of opposite sign) to the charge on the
inner sphere for all sizes and shapes of the spheres and for all types of dielectric media between
the spheres.

Conclusion: It can be said that there was some kind of electric displacement or flow of flux
from the charge on the inner sphere through the medium to the outer sphere (physically no
movement of charge because of insulating dielectric in between). The amount of this
displacement depends only upon the magnitude of the inducing charge, independent of the
medium.
This flow of displacement or flow of flux is referred to as electric displacement or
electric flux or simply displacement. The displacement  is equal to the charge that
produces it (inducing charge), that is
=Q Coulombs
Class Note by Santanu Das 1
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

• Electric Displacement Density / Flux Density (D)

The electric displacement per unit area or electric displacement density D at any point on a
spherical surface of radius r centered at the isolated charge Q will be
 Q
D= = Coulomb/sq m
4r 2
4r 2
The displacement per unit area D at any point depends upon the direction of the area.
Displacement density D is therefore a vector quantity. Its direction is that direction of the
normal to the surface clement which makes the displacement through that element of area dS
a maximum.

For the case of displacement from an isolated charge, this direction is along the radial from the
charge. This is the same as the direction of E.
Q
Therefore, D= rˆ [ r̂ → unit vector along radial direction]
4r 2
Q
Since E = rˆ , hence, D = E
4r 2

Illustration
d1 = Total amount of flux passing through the elemental area dS (surface is vertical to radius
vector) of a disk at P point
= 5 coulomb or 5 flux lines (say)
= Amount of flux lines per unit area  dS = D  dS

[The no. of flux lines is proportional to the amount of the charge induced in the disk or the flux
passing though the disk. In this illustration, proportionality constant = 1, assumed]
d 1
Thus, D = an This is the right (Fixed) value of D at the position of the disk.
dS

d2 = Amount of flux = Amount of flux lines passing through the inclined dS = 3
Here, d1 > d2 even though dS is the same in both cases.
d 2
So, d2  D  dS or D But d2 = D  dS cos  = D . dS
dS

 = Angle between the vertical surface & inclined surface or between D & normal ( n̂ ) to dS.
Thus, the amount of electric displacement or flux depends on the orientation of the disk.
It becomes maximum at a particular position when the surface is vertical to the D (or E) field,
or D and the direction of dS are in the same direction.
[If D were a Scalar quantity, then for all orientations of the area, the amount of flux passing
through that would be the same always.]
Class Note by Santanu Das 2
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

GAUSS’S LAW
Statement : The total displacement or electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by that surface.

Ψ = ∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = Q
S

If there are a number of charges within the volume enclosed by a surface, the total displacement
through the surface will be equal to the sum of all the charges taking algebraic sign into account.

Thus  = Qenc Qenc = enclosed charge

If the charges are continuously distributed throughout the volume with a charge density v
(coulomb per cubic meter), the total displacement through the surface is

 =  V dV
V

• Vector statement of Gauss’s Law

∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∫ ρv dv
S v

In words, the net outward displacement through a closed surface is equal to the charge
contained in the volume enclosed by that surface.

• Application of Divergence Theorem

Gauss’s Law : ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∫v ρv dV

By applying the Divergence Theorem (converts closed surface integral to volume integral or
vice-versa where the volume is enclosed by a closed surface)

∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∫ ∇. 𝐃 dV
S v

Hence,  V
 . D dV =  V dV
V

Since this expression is true for any volume, however small, it is true for an incremental
volume. Therefore, the integrands may be equated.

Therefore,  . D = v

This equation states that the divergence of the electric flux density at a point is equal to the
volume charge density at that point.

Q = ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∫v ρv dV → Integral form of Gauss’s law

 . D = v → Differential or Point form of Gauss’s law

These are Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential forms.

Class Note by Santanu Das 3
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

• Physical Meaning of Divergence of a Vector

 . D → Net outward flux per unit volume at a point

[around which the volume V approaches (shrinks to) zero]

Net outward flow = leaving flux – entering flux =  +  –  = 

 . D = Positive → Point is a source of flux (or of D); there is a positive charge.

 . D = Negative → Point is a sink of flux (or of D); there is a negative charge.

 . D = Zero → (i) The amount of flux entering any incremental volume is equal to
the amount of flux leaving it.
(ii) Point is neither a source (origin) nor a sink (end) of flux (or D).
(iii) There is neither a positive charge nor a negative charge.
(iv) The point is charge free.
(v) Fluxes have not been generated within the element. Source or
sink of flux is somewhere else, outside the volume.

Net outward flow = leaving flux – entering flux

=–=0

So, Divergence of any vector determines the Source or Sink of that vector (or corresponding
flux) at a point. Divergence of a vector signifies the starting or stopping of the vector or flux.
The flux lines (or D lines) always start (originate) at +ve charges and terminate (end) on –ve
charges. +ve charges are thus regarded as Source and –ve charges as Sinks of electric flux lines
(or D lines).
If D is known everywhere, taking the divergence of D enables us to find the sources
(+ve charge regions) & sinks (–ve charge regions) responsible for electric flux & hence for D.
Class Note by Santanu Das 4
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

Applications of GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss’s law is applied only when there are
▪ uniform and symmetrical charge-distribution
and
▪ symmetrical Gaussian surface.

While using Gauss’s law we should have the idea about the direction of D.
By using this law, we cannot find the direction of D, only magnitude is found.

The usefulness of Gauss’s law depends on our ability to evaluate ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∮S D cos θ dS

For this, we construct a symmetrical closed surface, called GAUSSIAN SURFACE near the
symmetrical charge-distribution, on which the magnitude of the field D
and the angle () between D & the direction of surface
have constant value.

Then (D cos ) can be taken out of the integral sign and we need to evaluate only the surface
integral ∮S dS.
Thus, symmetry is crucial for the application of Gauss’s law.

For non-uniform and unsymmetrical charge distribution it is difficult to have the idea of the
direction of D. D is not constant on the Gaussian surface.  is different from point to point on
the Gaussian surface.
For non-symmetrical shape of Gaussian surface, D is not normal or tangential to the
surface and not constant in magnitude on the Gaussian surface and we cannot pull (D cos) out
of the integral sign.

When Gauss’s law applies, it is the fastest method.

However, we cannot use the law to determine D or E when the charge distribution is not
symmetric; we must resort to Coulomb’s law to determine E or D in that case.

Procedure : The procedure for applying Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field -
• know whether symmetry exists,
• once symmetric charge distribution exists, construct a mathematical closed surface,
known as a Gaussian surface

This surface is chosen such that

(i) D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian surface;
(ii) the magnitude of D is constant on the Gaussian surface.

When D is normal to the surface, D . dS = D dS because D is constant on the surface. Hence,

D can be easily taken out of the integral sign and we need to evaluate only the surface integral.
When D is tangential to the surface, D.dS = 0.

Some standard charge-configuration which can be handled by Gauss’s law are:

(i) a point charge (ii) an infinite line of uniform charge
(iii) an infinite sheet of uniform surface charge
(iv) a spherical distribution of uniform charge

Class Note by Santanu Das 5

 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

A. Point Charge Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin.

To determine D at a point P, draw a spherical surface containing P (centered at the origin /

charge). This will satisfy symmetry conditions. This is Gaussian surface. D is everywhere
constant on this surface and normal to this surface.

Fig. Gaussian surface about a point charge

Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D = Dr ar, applying Gauss's law
( = Qenclosed) gives
Q = ∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∮ Dr 𝐚𝐫 . dS𝐚𝐫 = ∮ Dr dS = Dr ∮ dS = Dr 4πr 2

Here,  = 00 between D and dS and ∮ dS is the surface area of the Gaussian surface.

Q
Therefore, D= ar → the same as that obtained from Coulomb’s law
4r 2
1
Note that here D
r2

B. Infinite Line of Uniform Charge

Suppose an infinite line of uniform charge L C/m lies along the z-axis. To determine D at a
point P, we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy symmetry condition as shown
in Figure. D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface; that is, D = D a

Fig. Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge

Class Note by Santanu Das 6
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

If we apply Gauss's law ( = Qenclosed) to an arbitrary length L of the line

ρL L = Q = ∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∫ Dρ 𝐚𝛒 . dS𝐚𝛒 + ∫ Dρ 𝐚𝛒 . dS(±𝐚𝐳 ) = Dρ ∫ dS = Dρ 2πρL

𝐶𝑦𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑝+𝐵𝑜𝑡 𝐶𝑦𝑙
where  dS = 2L is the surface area of the Gaussian surface.
Cyl

Note that 
Top + Bot
D . dS evaluated on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder is zero

since D is tangential to those surfaces.

L
Thus, D= aρ → the same as that obtained by Coulomb’s law.
2

Here, D or E is inversely proportional to 

C. Infinite Sheet (thin) of Uniform Charge

Consider an infinite sheet of uniform charge S C/m2 lying on the z = 0 plane. To determine D
at point P, we choose a rectangular box (or a cylindrical box) of cross-sectional area A as a
Gaussian surface that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two of its faces parallel
to the sheet.

Fig. Gaussian surface about an infinite sheet of charge

From symmetry as D is normal to the end faces and away from the plane, D = Dz ( az), and
applying Gauss's law ( = Qenc) gives

ρS ∫ dS = Q = ∮ 𝐃 . d𝐒 = Dz [∫ dS + ∫ dS]
top bottom

Note that D.dS evaluated on the sides of the box is zero as D (parallel on the sides) has no
components along ax & ay. The sides / curved cylindrical surface does not contribute to the flux

If the top and bottom area of the box each has area A, the above equation becomes
S
SA = Dz(A+A) and thus D= ( a z )
2
D S
or E= = (a z ) → the same as that derived by Coulomb’s law
 2
Here, D or E is independent of the distance of the point of measurement from the sheet.
Class Note by Santanu Das 7
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

Such an infinite sheet cannot exist physically. But we get the same results for real (not
infinite) sheet of charge, if we consider only points (i) around midpoint, not near the edges, (ii)
whose distance from the sheet is very small compared to the dimensions of the sheet (then from
that point, the distance of the edges may be assumed to be very large as the solid angle from
that point becomes  2 or 2-D angle  1800).

D. Uniformly Charged Sphere (Non-conducting)

Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge V C/m3 throughout the volume (for
conducting sphere charges reside only on the surface, not inside). To determine D everywhere,
we construct Gaussian surfaces for cases r  a and r  a separately.
Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface is an
appropriate Gaussian surface.

Fig. Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged sphere when; (a) r  a and (b) r  a

For r  a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius r, as shown in Fig.(a), is
4 3
Q enc =  V dV =  V  dV =  V r
3

and Ψ = ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = ∮𝑆 Dr 𝐚𝐫 . dS𝐚𝐫 = Dr ∮S dS = Dr 4πr 2

4 3 4
Hence,  = Qenc gives D r 4r 2 = V r where v = Q /( a 3 )
3 3
r Q
or D = V ar = rar 0<ra
3 4a 3
Under this circumstance, D varies as r
For r  a, the Gaussian surface is shown in Figure(b). The charge enclosed by the surface is the
entire charge (Q) in this case, that is,
4
Q enc =  V dV = V  dV = V a 3
3

while Ψ = ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = Dr ∮S dS = Dr 4πr 2

4 3
Hence,  = Qenc gives D r 4r 2 = a V = Q
3

a3 Q
or D=  a = ar ra
3r 2 V r
4r 2
D or E is inversely proportional to r2
Class Note by Santanu Das 8
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

Thus, D everywhere is given by

r Q
 3 Var = 4a 3 r ar 0ra
D= 3
a  a = Q a ra
 3r 2 V r 4r 2 r
And |D| is as sketched in Figure

Q a3 a3 Q Q
[ Note: For r  a, v = and D = 2 v ar = 2 ar = ar
4 3 3r 3r 4 a 3 4r 2
a
3 3
where Q is the total charge spread throughout the volume.

If Q amount of charges are confined to the centre of a sphere (like a point charge),
Q
D can be written as D = ar
4r 2
Hence, D or E at an external point due to a uniformly charged sphere is the same as that if the
entire charge on the sphere is concentrated at its center. ]

E. Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell

A spherical shell is a hollow sphere of small thickness. Let R be the radius of shell.
Let Q be the charge, uniformly distributed over the shell.

Case (i) At an External point

Apply Gauss's law ( = Qenc), Q = ∮S 𝐃 . d𝐒 = D 4πr 2

Q
Hence, D= ar outside r  R
4r 2
Case (ii) At a point on the surface of the Charged Spherical Shell
Q
D= ar (Since r = R)
4R 2
Case (iii) At a point inside the charged spherical shell

Since the Gaussian surfaces lying inside the shell encloses no charge, the field according to
Gauss's law at this point will be zero,
D=0 inside r< R
Class Note by Santanu Das 9
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

F. Uniformly Charged Conducting / Metallic Sphere

For a conducting / metallic sphere, charges reside only on the surface, not inside.
For this reason, this case is the same as that for uniformly charged spherical shell.

G. Field of Two thin Sheets of Uniform Charge

Let us consider two plane parallel infinite sheets of charge with equal and opposite charge
densities +S and –S. The field due to a sheet is independent of the distance from the sheet of
charge. Let the fields due to positive and negative charges on the sheets be E2 and E1
respectively.

• Field at an Outside Point Let P1 be situated outside the two sheets as shown.

Since E1 and E2 are independent of the distance from the sheet, their direction is opposite to
each other & magnitudes are equal; hence the resultant field at P1 is zero.

The same result is obtained if point P1 is taken on the Gaussian surface which includes both
sheets. The net charge enclosed in the Gaussian surface is SA – SA = 0, where A is the area
of cross-section of Gaussian surface.

• Field at point P2 in between the Two Sheets

The field due to the two sheets will have the same magnitude i.e., S/2 as given in earlier
problem and in the same direction. Therefore, the resultant field intensity at P2 is equal to
S S S
E = E1 + E 2 = + =
2 2 
The field at P2 is twice the field due to a single sheet of charge.
Class Note by Santanu Das 10