SOC

PRELIM
NOTES
2024
PRELIMINARY OUTCOMES
● Identifies and applies social and cultural concepts
● Describes personal, social and cultural identity
● Identifies and describes interactions within and between social and cultural groups
● Identifies the features of social and cultural literacy and how it develops
● Explains continuity and change and their implications for societies and cultures
● Differentiates between social and cultural research methods
● Selective, organises and considers information from a variety of courses for usefulness, validity
and bias
● Plans and conducts ethical, social and cultural research.
● Uses appropriate course language and concepts suitable for different audiences and contexts
● Communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms

FUNDAMENTAL COURSE CONCEPTS

Persons - Every person is a unique individual who develops in a social and environmental setting in
which he or she is influenced by, and interacts with, other persons and groups. Communication, the
sharing of values and beliefs, and cooperation are major interactions. The identity achieved by each
individual is the result of interactions at the micro, meso and macro levels of society.

Society - Society is made up of people, groups, networks, institutions, organisations and systems.
These aspects of society may include local, national, regional and international patterns of relationships
and organisation. People belong to informal and formal groups, and within and between these groups
there are patterns of interactions that contribute to unique cultures.

Culture - Culture refers to the shared knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that give each society its
coherence, identity and distinctive way of life. Culture is demonstrated by the beliefs, customs, values,
norms, rules, laws, governance, arts, technologies and artefacts that people generate and use as they
interpret meaning from their world and solve present and future problems. Culture is dynamic and
undergoes change, and is therefore not static.

Environment - Every society is located in a particular physical setting and interacts with its
environment. The attitudes and values that people have regarding their environment greatly affect
interactions between persons, society, culture and the environment. Unique culture is generated from
interactions with the immediate environment. Different locations and their environments – including
urban, rural, coastal, inland and isolated – present societies and their cultures with both opportunities
and constraints.

Time - Every person, society, culture, and environment is located in a period and changes with time.
Time can be examined as past, present and future. Our perceptions of time are drawn from past events
and these influence our ideas about the present. These perceptions need not, however, determine
possible ideas of a future. The concept of time is best studied in context – last century, this century, and
pre-and post-events – or as a particular decade. Time is studied about continuity and change.

Additional Course Concepts

Power - Power is the ability or capacity to influence or persuade others to a point of view or action to
which they may not always agree. Exercising power is important in initiating or preventing change.
Authority - Authority is linked to power and the right to make decisions and to determine, adjudicate or
settle issues and disputes in society. Authority is best understood as the legitimate use of power. The
use of authority is important in the process of decision-making and in initiating change and maintaining
continuity.

Gender - Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between females and males. Social life
– including family life, roles, work, behaviour and other activities – is organised around the dimensions
of this difference. Gender also refers to the cultural ideals, identities and stereotypes of masculinity and
femininity and the sexual division of labour in institutions and organisations. Gender reflects the value
society places on these social constructs, which are particular and unique to a society.

Identity - Identity refers to the sense of self and can be viewed from a personal, social and cultural
level. Identity is formed over some time and is the result of interactions at the micro, meso and macro
levels of society. An identity has dimensions or layers that create a sense of inclusion in a group or
culture. Contributing factors to one’s identity may be gender, sexuality, family, class, ethnicity, beliefs,
social status, group membership and national pride.

Technologies - The term ‘technologies’ refers to all the tools that we use to assist our interactions in
society. Technologies can lead to innovation and can initiate change in micro, meso and macro
operations in society. The value placed on technology at any level of society influences the rate of
change in society and culture. Technologies are constantly changing and adapting and their impact
varies over time. Communication-based technologies facilitate the interaction between the micro, meso
and macro levels of society.

Globalisation - Globalisation is the process of integration and sharing of goods, capital, labour,
services, knowledge, leisure, sport, ideas and culture between countries. Globalisation is evidenced in
the emergence of global patterns of consumption and consumerism; the growth of transnational
corporations; global sport; the spread of world tourism; and the growth of global military and economic
systems. Globalisation is assisted by technologies and media integration, resulting in an increasing
consciousness of the world as a single place.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RESEARCH

Quantitative methods enable the collection of very specific data from a sample of the relevant
population. The findings may then be extrapolated for the whole population under study. With a
quantitative method, information is collected by counting and is able to be collated into percentages
and then represented by tables and graphs. While the ease of collating data gathered through
quantitative methods has its advantages for the researcher, it must be remembered that quantitative
methods:
• do not allow the researcher to interact closely or personally with those being questioned; the process
is impersonal and as objective as possible
• rely heavily on the researcher’s ability to develop a non-biased set of research questions or items to
record data within the selected sample.
Researchers collect data that can be measured, counted or quantified, resulting in a statistical report.
The focus of quantitative research is WHAT and HOW MANY.
 • Large and randomly selected sample of respondents who represent the particular population of
interest
• Structured data collection instrument, with closed-ended or rating-scale questions
• Quantities and trends identified; comparisons can be made
• Researcher is not necessarily known to the participants
• Participant characteristics can be hidden from the research
• Lack of direct contact with the sample assists detachment of the researcher; however, care still needs
to be taken in the construction of the instrument to ensure that the researcher is aware of potential bias
that may be built into the questions
• Quantifies the findings in numerical data, tables, graphs and diagrams

Qualitative methods rely on the researcher’s interpretive skills to understand the often complex and
detailed data gathered.
Qualitative research is useful:
• for studies at the individual or small group level
• for finding out, in-depth, how and what people are thinking and feeling.
Analysis of qualitative data can be more challenging than analysis of the numbers collected through a
quantitative method. Qualitative methods Researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of an
issue by way of open-ended questioning, non-statistical research techniques, or value-based
observations. A qualitative investigation focuses on WHY and HOW.

Interactive process
● Participants’ characteristics may be known to the researcher
● Narrative report with a conceptual description of behaviour, values, attitudes and beliefs
● Contains direct quotations from research participants
● Invaluable for the exploration of subjective experiences
● Relies heavily on the researcher’s interpretive skills to understand the complexities of the
findings
● Direct quotations from documents and participants can be utilised
● Usually a small sample and not randomly selected

Quantitative Methods of Qualitative Methods of Research

Research

- A questionnaire - A questionnaire with open-ended questions gathers opinions and therefore

with is qualitative.
closed-ended
questions or - Content analysis as a qualitative method is used to analyse and interpret
rating scale themes, words and images from documents, film, art, music and other
questions where cultural artefacts and media. After coding the responses, the researcher
the findings can analyses interprets and makes qualitative judgements about the meanings
be counted and of the content.
observed as
statistics – the - Interviews with open-ended questions are qualitative.
data collected
can be - Focus group entails the collection of data from an in-depth planned
quantified. discussion of a defined topic held by a small group of people brought
together by a moderator.
- Content analysis
 is used in - Secondary research involves accessing data already produced by other
quantitative researchers. The researcher makes a subjective judgement about what
research to material is useful and what is not for the research process. Summaries and
detect and count, syntheses are made of the research findings.
and the data
collected in this - Personal reflection is using and evaluating personal experiences and values
way can be to demonstrate analysis and interpretation of data in the context of the
quantified. research focus.

- Statistical - Participant observation is where the researcher is immersed in the action

analysis being observed and his or her role as researcher is not obvious.
examines Non-participant observation is where the researcher observes the
statistics to make interactions taking place without actively engaging in them. The researcher
generalisations draws meaning from what is being observed, rather than simply counting
and extrapolate specific actions as in a quantitative observational study. Both participant and
trends. non-participant observation can be covert or overt.
Observation that
detects and - The case study involves the in-depth study of a cultural group, which can be
counts and any group of individuals who share a common social experience and/or
where the data location. A case study is considered a methodology when it combines two
collected can be or more research methods, such as ‘observation, interview and
quantified. documentary evidence’, to gather the data.
Ethical Research
Social and cultural researchers are expected to conduct research ethically. Following the principles of
ethical research is important because:
● this promotes trust that the information collected will be used responsibly and will be treated
with respect and confidentiality
● If the respondents feel comfortable with the ethical research process, they are much more
likely to offer replies to questions and therefore genuine knowledge can be gained by the
researcher. In practice, ethical research means that:
● any prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and any
possible risks involved in the research and must give their consent to participate
● Participants are not put in awkward situations or asked to talk about sensitive topics that may
make them feel uncomfortable
● the ethical researcher is open and honest with participants about the topic and scope of the
project and the nature of the participation or information expected from them
● The protection of participants’ rights to confidentiality and privacy is ensured
● the researcher anticipates any negative effects on the research participants (including the
researcher), such as personal danger, police intervention, social embarrassment or harassment
– the researcher needs to prevent these
● the researcher is mindful of the special needs of any vulnerable groups, such as children
● there is nothing covert associated with the research

Process of Research
1. Decide on the topic to be researched. This may require some preliminary reading on the part
of the researcher to gather ideas. Curiosity or personal interest may inspire the topic choice.
2. Develop a focus question or hypothesis. The researcher may break this focus question or
hypothesis into sub-questions and list them in logical order so that the research process can
develop coherently.
3. Gather background information from all appropriate sources.
 4. Design the research. Choose research methods that best support finding answers to the
research question or sub-questions. One sub-question may require a different method from
another. For example, background reading and information gathering would require the
method of ‘secondary research’. Gathering information from a section of the population could
require a questionnaire. For example, researching how many times the mass media cover a
gender-specific sporting event would require the method of ‘content analysis’.
5. Develop the research methods to be used. The researcher needs to be aware of any biases
that might exist and take care to be as detached as possible.
6. Apply the research methods ethically.
7. Once gathered, the information needs to be compiled and organised into manageable
amounts so that the researcher can make sense of the findings.
8. These findings then need to be analysed and synthesised. Effective analysis of information
(data) gathered through the research methods used is a critical step in any research process. It
is not enough simply to state what has been found; the researcher must reflect on what the
findings mean and how they relate to the research topic. Conclusions need to be drawn and
any suggestions, new theories, recommendations or implications arising from the conclusions
need to be established.
9. Writing up the researcher’s conclusions is a critical part of the research process. How the
researcher chooses to compile the findings and the analysis of these findings will depend on
the nature of the topic and the individual preference of the researcher. Whatever format the
researcher chooses, effective communication for the appropriate audience is the key to the
success of this final stage of the research process. Consistent with ethical research practices,
the researcher must acknowledge all sources of information gathered during the research
process. This requires noting all bibliographical details of all reference materials used –
including books, internet articles, personal interviews and other sources – in a comprehensive
reference list. It is highly recommended that the researcher compile these bibliographical
details as the materials are consulted so that the information is readily available at the end of
the process. Any information for which bibliographical details cannot be provided in the
reference list should not be included in the final copy of the research report.
10. The writing-up process may take two or more drafts before the researcher is satisfied with
the final product. Careful editing of language and construction is important so that the
researcher’s conclusions are made clear. Even if the report is delivered in an oral format, the
writing-up process is necessary.

Social and Cultural Literacy

- Personal experience refers to the knowledge gained from reflecting on individual experiences.
- Public knowledge refers to general knowledge and the knowledge available to everyone. The
term also refers to all the knowledge found in the public domain that is the work or research of
other people.

● Micro-level interactions are personal and occur between individuals and their families, peers
and individuals in the community.
● Meso-level interactions occur between the micro and the macro levels of society. Meso-level
structures are groups in the community, village, school, workplace, local interest club, branch,
organisation and state. The meso level is also known as the middle level.
● Macro-level interactions are impersonal and relate to large institutions, the media, law and
government and are evident at a national and international level. A social and culturally literate
person:
 1. Has a sense of personal, social and cultural identity and understands that culture underpins
one’s behaviour, beliefs and values
2. Is interested in, observes and asks questions about the micro, meso and macro levels of
society
3. Empathise with and appreciate the diverse beliefs and values of different societies and
cultures
4. Researchers effectively and ethically, show critical discernment towards information and the
media
5. Communicates effectively with individuals and groups and works cooperatively in a
cross-cultural setting
6. Applied skills to achieve social inclusion and is aware of discrimination and prejudice
7. Avoids making judgments of others’ cultures based on their cultural values
8. Has a sense of social responsibility and displays efforts to engage critically with social issues
and takes considered action for the welfare, dignity social justice and human rights at the local,
national and global levels (think micro, meso and macro)
9. Is aware and sensitive to major national and global issues such as poverty, disease and
conflict, including armed conflict.
10. Considers the impact of globalisation technologies and rapid changes as well as continuity and
its implications for the future

Topic 1: The Social and Cultural World

1. Social and cultural literacy: The idea that people should possess a body of knowledge,
understanding and skills that allow them to share, communicate effectively and respect
themselves and others
2. Community: An established social structure with an implied sense of relationship and identity.
They can form through shared values, and through space and time by utilising communication
technologies.
3. Continuity and change: Continuity refers to the consistency of cultural elements of society
over time (e.g. traditions and social structures that bring stability to the society). Change refers
to the alterations of cultural elements in a society (occur at micro, meso and macro levels).
Mostly occurs through modernisation.
4. Social constructs: Are created by human beings as an aspect of social life.
5. Citizenship: Being a member of a country and having certain rights and responsibilities as a
result (e.g. right to a passport and serving jury duty).
6. Socialisation: The process by which humans become functioning members of society through
agents of socialisation which shape them to conform to societal needs and expectations.
7. Micro/meso/macro: aspects of the social and cultural world with individual, group institutional,
and government levels
8. Social structure: The arrangement of institutions and people in society. Often forn clear and
distinct patterns that are quite stable. Can be influenced by social change.

An overview of the multicultural and hybrid nature of societies and cultures

 ● Multiculturalism refers to an approach to cultural diversity. It is the right of individuals within
society to celebrate and practise their cultural heritage, tradition and language free from
discrimination.
● Respect and understanding underpin this.
● Cultural diversity positively impacts society. - Societies with different social and cultural
features are seen as hybrid.
● A society that shares the same language, values, traditions, and a strong sense of group and
national identity with little to no ethnic diversity is seen as a homogenous society.
● Australia’s Multicultural Engagement: - On 16th Feb 2011, Australia launched the ‘People of
Australia’
● Acknowledges the changing nature of multicultural Australia, engaging with the first Australians
as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
● Understanding different Indigenous peoples highlights the significance of a multicultural
society and rich heritage and diversity, away from the ‘white’ idea of what Australia was -
European invader's use of paternalism forced many Indigenous (and other ethnic people)
people to assimilate into their values, and thus affected the cultural diversity of Australia
● Australia’s Multicultural History: - The 19th-century gold rush caused many migrants to settle in
Australia in hopes of gaining wealth.
● Created a hybrid society, but many people were against this. - In 1901, the Immigration
Restriction Act (the White Australia Policy) was placed, only allowing Anglo emigrants to come -
It was removed in 1973

Persons and their interactions with individuals, groups and the community within the contents of
the micro-level, meso-level and macro-level society
● Personal Experience: The knowledge gained from reflecting on individual experiences
● Public Knowledge: General knowledge and the knowledge available to everyone. The term
also refers to all the knowledge found in the public domain that is the work of research of other
people.

Society as a construct that develops through time:

● Society is comprised of the interactions of its members at the micro, meso and macro levels
● Society influences the ways its members interact
● How interactions between members of society cause a change like society over time
● How individual behaviour towards others is socially constructed and influenced by social
expectation

- A social construct is a human-made social concept that is embedded in society, mostly based
on the society’s cultural and traditional values.
- They come out of shared experiences of society, not objective existence.
- They vary depending on social norms and cultural traditions and may also evolve.

E.g. 1 - Adolescence The transitional stage between childhood and adulthood. It is considered a social
construct as it has evolved. It is seen as a period for self-expression, development of self-identity and
sense of self. Stereotypes in Western contexts include being more independent, unpredictable and
immature. However, these differ for those living in Japan, where they see adolescence as a growth
stage for children being free of life’s ‘burdens’ before they look after their family again. Before
adolescence in a Western context was seen as a period to get married, work and have children [1800s]
E.g. 2 - Gender Different representations of men and women based on expectations relating to identity
and personality. Can also relate to cultural ideas and stereotypes. One can look at the division of labour
in institutions and organisations. E.g. Generations and Age groups in society have been categorised as
having specific traits and behaviours based on when they were born. E.g. Manners and Etiquette
govern our social behaviour. They are often expected and when not followed social disapproval will
occur. Like saying please and thank you. In Australia, we say please and thank you quite often in
speech, whereas in France, it is only said once in speech.

Groups and Institutions of Society - how they shape and are shaped by individuals

Family
● A fundamental unit of socialisation, and is a key part of shaping our identity (across cultures,
societies and environments)
● Some people define family as the structure of roles (parents, child) and others emphasise the
importance of relationships between people
● Sociologists define family in various ways to allow one to consider their feelings towards the
topic and generate their definition
● In 1950’s Australia, the typical family was nuclear; man doing dad things, woman doing mum
things and 2-3 kids
● Now it has changed greatly

School
● The first institution outside the family that influences our socialisation process
● Informal education (preschool) and formal education (primary and secondary) teach academic
knowledge, life skills and cultural norms
● Schooling systems vary depending on the country. Developing countries (or nations with poor
wealth) may only provide basic educational needs and others may place higher value on
schooling, educational processes and teachers [thus can link to legal processes such as
mandatory schooling hours].
● Schooling can also vary within a nation depending on socioeconomic status and location.
● Various kinds of schooling have developed - Schools are the biggest agents of conformity,
which conditions students and provides them to be well fit into society
● They also allow for effective cultural transmission of knowledge across societies and cultures
and provide an increased opportunity for the exposure of opinions, knowledge, experiences
and new ideas

Peers
● Peers and schools often connect.
● From an early age, we are exposed to different peers (through preschool or childcare) and are
roughly divided based on age
● As we grow older this separation becomes less and less apparent, whether it's due to siblings
(or with older peers in general), work or social interest.
● Peers have a strong role in forming our identity and understanding of our place in society, this
is seen in adolescence which theorists often pin as the time of self-identification growth
● Peers expose individuals to a range of attitudes, values and behaviour different to one’s family
- this can then conflict with the family unit
● Interacting with different peer groups assists us in developing our knowledge of social
structures and networks between people and connecting it to their shared cultural experiences
 ● Membership in networks is quite fluid

Work
● Provides formal social networks outside the home -
● Our perceived status and value in society are determined by ‘what we do’ thus it forms a sense
of belonging and identity -
● Influences where and how we live and provides an income that influences what one can afford
(leisure and sporting activities) -
● Changes in time-related to work:
- More women in the workforce
- Increased earnings for women
- Rapid growth in part-time employment - Increased opportunity and diversity in workforce sectors
- Shift from manufacturing to the services sector
- More post-school qualifications
- Perception of work, and ‘work-life’ balance
- People mocking between different jobs, industries and sectors more frequently
- Advancements in technology
- Forces of globalisation
● There is still a stigma against unemployment and the types of jobs people work - Inequality to
paid employment is still prevalent

Government
- Political system by which a society is organised
- Types: democracy, monarchy, commonwealth, republic, tyrannical
- They reflect social values and attitudes during a particular point in time
- Individuals can influence change through their citizenship, voting and dissent
- Australia; constitutional monarchy on three levels

Media
- Media refers to a whole range of sources; newspapers, social media, news, radio, etc. -

Advantages:
- Increased representation of minority groups which can promote social inclusion and change
- Access to a variety of media outlets
- Innovative technologies promote increased accessibility
- Large volumes of content can be created and stored

Disadvantages
- Potential to become increasingly desensitised to what is seen
- People believe misinformation/ fake news
- Imbalance of power between media agencies, governments and society
- Increased potential for conflict through censorship of media
- Opportunities for interactions across the micro, meso and macro levels through communication
technologies and social media

The Legal System

- Laws reflect the values, ideals of morality and ethics that exist in a country and attempt to define
acceptable codes of behaviour
- They are officially recognised and are binding, and if breached punishments will occur
- Due to British colonisation, many aspects of the law have been written to exclude women, ATSI
people, disabled people, etc and can still be seen today
- In Australia, the justice system is seeing more and more activism and justice for disadvantaged groups

Topic 2: Personal and Social Identity

1. Class Members of a community who occupy a similar position in the economic system of a
production. The different social classes experience wide variations in wealth, status,
materialistic possessions, education, power and authority. Divisions of society are split into a
series of social classes (social stratification) where social mobility is possible. The most
common classes; are the upper class, middle class, lower middle class and working class.
2. Ethnicity An individual’s identification with or sense of belonging to an ethnic group. Based
upon perceived common origins that people share such as specific ancestry and culture
that mark them as different from others.
3. Kinship Established relationships between individuals and groups based on socially
recognised biological relationships or martial links.
4. Life stages and Life Course Life courses can be defined into age categories (life
stages) which people are normally expected to pass from birth to death.
5. Rights and Responsibilities Rights are the social, civil and political rights of
individuals, They include human rights. Responsibilities are obligations, things that are
the individual's duty to fulfil or ways in which they are expected to behave in society.
6. Roles and Status Status refers to the position a person occupies in a setting. We all
occupy several statuses and in turn play roles that may be associated with them. A
role is a set of norms, values, behaviours and personality characteristics that are
attached to a status.
7. The Self and Self Concept An individual's self-concept is composed of their identity,
attitudes, beliefs and values that an individual may hold about themselves and by
which the individual defines themselves as a specific objective identity: the self.
8. Social Construct A socially constructed aspect of life. Social constructionists argue
that society is actively and creatively produced by human beings rather than being
merely given or taken for granted.
9. Socialisation The process by which individuals learn to become functioning members
of society by internalising the roles, norms and values of that society. Socialisation
occurs as a result of the individual’s interaction with the agents of socialisation,
through which he or she learns to perform social roles.

● The development of personality, self-awareness and self-concept

● Personality refers to the characteristics set of behaviours, perceptions and emotional patterns
that evolve from both biological and environmental factors
● Labelling an individual's personality attempts to explain their approach (behaviours and
actions) to a social setting
● Aspects that can develop one’s personality:
- Expectancies: The cognitive view of personality development; What an individual expects to
happen has a great influence on their personality.
 - Self-efficacy: An individual’s ability to follow through and produce the specific behaviour they
would like to perform.
- - Self-concept refers to the various ways in which individuals adopt identities, beliefs, ideas,
values and attitudes about themselves. The individual becomes themselves as a specific
object. identity. An individual's self-concept encompasses their self-image, self-esteem and
ideal self.

● The development of identity and the social self

● Identity implies sameness and continuity
● There is a clear concept of identity rather than an idea that is used to reference one's sense of
self and an individual’s sense of feelings and perceptions about themselves.
● Includes gender, national and class identity.

● The role of socialisation and the influence of agents of socialisation on the development of personal
and social identity

Kinship is the main organisation factor in human society and refers to how individuals establish
relationships between themselves and groups.
● All societies have used kinship to classify people as well as form distinct social groups
● A biological relationship is not always required for status and a place within the kinship system

Family
● Refers to an intimate group of people related through bonds of blood, sexual mating or legal
ties.
● It is the primary agent of socialisation for most people and is considered of great importance
for an individual’s socialisation process
● There are multiple structures of family in today’s society; nuclear, blended, step,
multi-generational, de facto and split - Family can influence the way they adopt gender roles,
talk, use manners, engage in traditions and the culture of the family, and learn the moral codes
of the family unit.
● The trends in contemporary family relationships such as divorce, decline in marriage, increase
in de facto relationships, marriage at old ages, same-sex relationships, declining rates of
fertility, older age of childbearing and an increase in children living in households with one or
more non-biological parents.
● Thus the idea of kinship becomes more fluid, complex and intricate. This impacts an
individual’s personal and social identity as they are exposed to a variety of different
relationships and perspectives.
● THEORY: Birth Order Theory - The idea that the position of birth in the family can impact key
aspects of personality and behaviour

Ethnicity and Culture

● Ethnicity refers to how individuals consider themselves or are considered by others to share
common features and characteristics that differentiate them from other groups in society. -
● Note: Race refers to only the biological features of that person (Asian, Brown, Black, White, etc)
● Culture refers to a learnt way of life that is shared by a group of people.
● Ethnic groups may look similar however this agent of socialisation solely refers to how groups
and individuals share similar characteristics such as their religious beliefs, traditions, customs
and language.
 ● Ethnicity and culture are used interchangeably when discussing an individual’s experience of a
shared sense of belonging or common origin.
● Seen through immigration where many people have migrated from their homelands and
remained grouped although in different locations, remaining connected through their shared
experiences and cultural beliefs,

Gender
● Socially constructed characteristics that distinguish between what it means to be masculine or
feminine
● The concept of gender impacts one’s social and personal identity starting from birth to an older
age.
● A significant way that children learn prescribed gender roles is through play -
● Boys are given more ‘active’ toys that promote motor skills, aggression and solitary play
● Girls are given toys that foster a sense of role play, sociality and nurturing such as dolls and
dress-up.
● Studies have shown this is reinforced by parents who typically respect positively
gender-normative behaviours which they praise when the child chooses to play with
gender-appropriate toys. Thus when cross toys are available, children feel more compelled to
play with toys associated with positive feedback. - Such characteristics differ greatly between
societies. The concept of men wearing dresses in Western cultures is considered feminine but
in many other Middle Eastern, Asian and African cultures, dresses or skirts (such as sarongs,
robes and gowns) can be considered masculine. For example, in Fijian culture, men
traditionally wear skirts made out of hibiscus or grass. In Scottish culture, men wear kilts as a
symbol of masculinity -
● Many people also choose not to conform to the gender binary and may prefer to use pronouns
that fall outside such binary.

Sexuality -
● Refers to one’s romantic and sexual attraction to a particular sex
● Can be categorised: heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, pansexuality -
Australia is considered a heteronormative society however this is slowly changing - “When did
you know you were gay?” as opposed to “When did you know you were straight?”
● Sexuality can be recognised and portrayed through macro media - TV shows and films
● An individual’s awareness of sexuality occurs between middle childhood and early
adolescence.
● Historically, religion has been one of the strongest influences in setting the norm for sexual
behaviour in most societies; now media and peers take a strong role
● Each society approaches sexuality differently (polygamy, bigamy, consent) however have found
some values (disapproval of incest) tend to be shared

Beliefs
● Beliefs or belief systems can be religious or non-religious
● Religious beliefs have an element of transcendence and are believed to shape every aspect of
one’s life
● Belief systems (ideologies) tend to explain aspects of life rather than all of life
● These beliefs affect an individual’s development as they form the foundation of their morals,
ethics and values.
● This affects the way they perceive the world as well as the relationships they form
● These beliefs can be forced upon by others (e.g. family) or brought upon themselves.
Location, Class and Status
● Location, where you live and the associated environment provide experiences for you that
generally are normalised - E.g. in Australia we are taught how to swim from a young age (Swim
School) and how to protect our homes from a bushfire
● Individuals are not always aware of the impact of the location on their personal and social
identity
● Language can be seen as integral to the location of a place and often it can be specific to
countries and cultures
● In many Western countries, the predominant language used is English however each specific
location has their own jargon and slang - E.g. Bloke, Bikkie, Arvo, Tucker, Thongs, Mozzie, Snag
and Barbie

Peers
● Refer to those who are of similar age group to an individual or those who share a very similar
social status and experience
● The network of an individual;s peers can be derived from several places in the meso and micro
spheres (sporting teams, church, employment, socicalist interest groups or school friends)
● Impact of peer groups have increased over time particularly through the use of social media
● Adolescents today spend considerable amounts of time with one another outside home and
family as a result of increased transportation and locations for meeting
● In peer groups, individual learn to conform and adhere to the accepted ways of a group by
adopting the language and interest of the group
● Peer groups have a strong presence in mainstream media and the adoption of language and
social cues (‘Cap’, ‘Legit’, ‘Lit’ )
● Adolescents imitate their peers and conform to this group as there can be meaningful rewards
associated with this aspect of social life
● Notion of fitting in, acceptance in a social group and ideal f belonging to a group of people
who are similar in their approach to life and world view
● Peer groups also include punishments such as exclusion from social groups

School
● Education systems are responsible for socialising young people with values and skills that are
desired in a society
● Schools impact on an individual can be subconscious
● Schools prepare students for adults life (e.g. time management, social skills)
● Socialises young people for the expectations that are evident in the occupations they will
participate in beyond graduating
● Cultural elements of each school also impact an individual (private, local, etc)
● Each school has its own values, mission, crest and cultural values.

Media including contemporary communication technologies -

● Technology and media increased our ability to communicate with others across long distances
and various media outlets also change the way we perceive and interact with each other
● For example, 2020 SBS report the average australia teenager spends 1200 hours a year on
social media
● Media shaping the personal and social identity of individual by creating emphasis on issues
that they perceived as important
 ● October 2020, Victorian premier announced the easing of lockdown structions during the
Covid-19 virus in the state and thus was celebrated in the media
● At the same time, the Victorian government has cut down culturally significant trees sacred to
the Djab Wurrung people, in order to develop a highway

● The ‘nature versus nurture’ debate

Nature : biological components that comprise a human (genetic and hereditary factors)
● Physical appearance
● Personality characteristics
● Race
● Sexuality

Nurture : environment in which an individual lives their life (socioeconomic status, education
opportunities, parenting styles )
● Socioeconomic status
● Education opportunities
● Parenting styles
● Influence of media and laws
● Family
● Peers
● School

Relevant theories!!! (most are for nurture side of debate)

● Social learning theory: theory of learning process and social behaviour that proposes that new
behaviours are acquired by observing and imitating the behaviours of others. Considers how
environmental factors influence human learning and behaviour.
● Behaviourism: argues that our behaviour is learnt from the environment. John Watson, the
founder of behaviourism, said that if you gave him a dozen healthy babies, he could take any
one of them at random and train him or her to become any type of person—that he could
mould people’s interests, motivations, emotions, abilities, and traits into whatever he chose.
● Behavioural learning theory: states that behaviours are learned from the environment, and
says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behaviour.
● Observational learning: process of learning by watching the behaviours of others. The targeted
behaviour is watched, memorised, and then mimicked. We continually learn and develop our
behaviours and identity through observation.

● ‘Adolescence’ as a social construct and its validity for different cultures

● Concept that is specifically distinct in western and modern cultures
● It is the stage between childhood and adulthood
● It is accompanied by puberty

In a Western Context:
● Between ages 12-19
● Individuals form a new identity
● Can involved belonging to a peer group, developing interests in certain areas which then lays
foundation for behaviours and interests in adulthood
● Problems that arise with adolescence
 1. Conflict with parents
2. Extreme mood swings
3. Prone to taking risks
4. Increased engagement with social media

● There is no ritual passing to adulthood, or coming of age festival was held in many other
cultures
● There are ‘maccas drive throughs’, attending a school formal, first kisses or a 16/18 birthday
though it is not a strict societal expectations and are informal
● Thus adolescence is not typically a universal experience as it is experienced differently in
different societies and cultures across the world

AMISH EXAMPLE

In Japan:
● Adolescence is seen as a time of positivity in comparison to western cultures
● There are less negative attributes associated with adolescence
● It is seen as the stage between childhood and adulthood where a child is most free in their
lives as they start to purchase commodities
● Rebelling against parents and family is often not common as a strong parental child
relationship is mostly sought after

● Theories that offer an explanation or understanding of the development of the physical and social
self:

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

● Deals with how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use knowledge
● According to Piaget, children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by
distinctive changes in how they think. How children think about themselves, others, and the
world around them plays an important role in the formation of personality.
1. Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
2. Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
3. Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
4. Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)
● Cognitive theorist Jean Piaget describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the
individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and egocentric thoughts decrease.
This allows an individual to think and reason with a wider perspective. This stage of cognitive
development, termed by Piaget as the formal operational stage, marks a movement from an
ability to think and reason from concrete visible events to an ability to think hypothetically and
entertain what-if possibilities about the world.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

● Holds that moral reasoning, a necessary condition for ethical behaviour, has 6 developmental
stages- with each being more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than before
● Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning:
● Preconventional (children) : not yet adopted/internalised society’s conventions regarding what
is right or wrong. Focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring
● Conventional (adolescents and adults): judging morality of action by comparing them to
societal views and expectations. Rigid adherence to rules and conventions
 ● Postconventional: growing realisation that individuals are separate entities from society & that
your own perspective may take precedence over society. Individuals disobey rules inconsistent
with their own ethical principles.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

- Based on what is known as the epigenetic principle
➔ suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger
community

1. Hope (trust vs mistrust) → 0-1 years

● Existential question: can I trust the world??
● Centred on infants basic needs being met by parent/caregiver → interaction leads to either trust
or mistrust
● If parents expose their child to warmth, security, and affection then the infant’s view of the
world will be one of trust. If they experience neglect or abuse, they will instead learn mistrust
and view the world as a dangerous and undependable place

2. Will (autonomy vs shame/doubt) → 1-3 years

● Existential question: is it okay to be me???
● If caregivers encourage self sufficient behaviour the child will develop autonomy +
independent
● If caregivers demand too much, refuse to let child perform tasks they are capable of, or ridicule
them when they try to be self-sufficient, the child will develop shape and learn to doubt their
abilities

3. Purpose (initiative vs guilt) → 3-5 years

● Existential question: is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act???
● When preschoolers develop courage and independence! ➢ They learn to take initiative, build
leadership, and achieve their goals

4. Competence (industry vs inferiority) → 6-11 years

● Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things???
● Children stop having fun :( they aim to be productive and learn new skills instead of playing
● Focuses on the capacity to learn, create and obtain new skills and knowledge.
● Critical for development of self confidence! If they are encouraged and praised for their
accomplishments, they will become diligent and persevering (putting work before pleasure)
● However, if children are not encouraged, and instead experience inadequacy and inferiority
among peers which is not alleviated, this results in lack of self-belief, competence and
self-esteem

5. Fidelity (identity vs cohesion) → adolescence

● Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be???
● Curiosity about the roles they will play in adulthood
● Identity crisis → a critical part of development in which an adolescent or youth develops a
sense of self. It involves the integration of the physical self, personality, potential roles and
occupations. It is HEAVILY influenced by culture and historical trends.
● An adolescent grapples with questions of identity, while at the same time navigating with social
interactions and the process of ‘fitting in’ or belonging to a particular group
 ● When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured
to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future or societal pressure, they may develop a weak
sense of self and experience role confusion . They will be unsure of their identity and confused
about the future

● Transitions through the life course:

Theory of Generations - Karl Mannheim
● Suggest that people are influenced by the socio-historical environment of their youth
● Gives rise to social cohorts that influence events that shape future generations
● Defines generations as a group of individuals of similar ages whose members have
experienced a noteworthy event within a set period of time
● Examples:
- Effect of great depression in the US on young people's attitude towards work and politics
- Naxi regime in Germany impact on young Germans political attitudes
- Coming of age during second wave feminist movement effect on feminist identity
- Effects of Chinese Cultural Revolution on youth political activism
- Same-sex marriage
● Results in collective mentalities that mirror a dominant view of the world, and reflect similar
attitudes and values, thus providing a basis for shared action

Topic 3: Intercultural Communication

● Acculturation - the process of contacts between cultures and also the outcomes of such
contacts. occurs when members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviours of
another group. It may involve direct social interaction or exposure to other cultures through
mass media.
● Cultural relativism
- idea that concepts are socially constructed and vary across cultures. Therefore, individuals and
groups must always view other cultures objectively and not judge them using the values and
norms of their own culture as a measure of right or wrong.
● Cultural transmission
- such as traditions, values, language, symbols, cultural traits, beliefs and normative behaviour
- across and between generations in society
● Cultural diversity - appears as a society becomes larger and more complex, immigrant groups
join the dominant culture, and subcultures form within the society. The more complex the
society, the more likely it is that its culture will become internally varied and diverse. Cultural
diversity implies a two-way sharing of ideas, customs and values among the various cultural
groups that comprise the society.
● Cultural heritage - practices, traditions, customs and knowledge that define who we are
socially and personally. Cultural heritage is an expression of the values that help us to
understand our past, make sense of the present, and express a continuity of culture for the
future. Cultural heritage can be analysed at the micro, meso and macro levels in society

Content:
● How culture determines the ways individuals encode messages, what mediums they choose for
transmitting them, and the ways messages are interpreted
 ● The way we communicate is influenced by our culture and this may affect how our messages
are understood
● Low context (clear and simple) versus high context (messaged are more nuanced)
● Application first (starting information with a fact/opinion) versus principle first (explaining the
theory before the fact/opinion)
● Negative feedback being provided directly and bluntly versus being more diplomatic
● Confrontational (disagreement and debate are seen as a sportive aspect of life) versus
non-confrontational

Verbal Communication
● Verbal communication is the use of sounds and words in linguistic form to express yourself and
to communicate.
● Effective verbal communication requires both a speaker (or writer) to transmit the message,
and a listener (or reader) to ‘decode’ the message.
● There are four key types of verbal communication:
- intrapersonal communication: extremely private and restricted to us, such as writing in a diary
- interpersonal communication: between two individuals; is the most common type of
one-on-one conversation
- small-group communication: where family groups or classroom discussions share information
- public communication: a form of communication which is usually one- way and is used to
influence and inform.

Non-Verbal Communication
● Non-verbal communication is also referred to as the silent form of communication, or the
manual language.
● The use of non-verbal communication adds emphasis to verbal messages, making them more
interesting and appealing to the person being spoken to

● The role of communication in maintaining social relationships and social control

● Social control refers to the way in which people’s behaviours are regulated in a particular social
setting
● Regulation and enforcement of norms through political and social mechanisms
● Institutions attempt to regulate social behaviour to gain conformity on an individual or group
level.
● Purpose of social control is to maintain social order, an arrangement of practices and
behaviours on which society’s members base their daily lives
● Individuals, groups and institutions communicate both verbally and non-verbally and employ
formal and informal sanctions to maintain social order and social control. This can be shown in
either an active or passive form, and always relates to societal beliefs and values.
● Over time these can change, but the fundamental principles of that society traditionally remain
unchanged.

● The individual’s rights and responsibilities in relation to communication, communication

technologies and citizenship
● People who have different communication and language skills are prevented from fully
participating in cultural transmission and the continuation of their cultural heritage
● Communication disability affects a person’s ability to speak, hear, listen, understand, read,
write, and use their voice and social skills
● The impact of changing communication technologies
● Communication can be a one-way or a two-way process, and cultural differences can make the
ability to encode, transmit and decode the message more challenging.
● The way we communicate is influenced by our culture, and this may affect how our messages
are understood. For example, an Italian person may speak in a very animated manner, with lots
of facial expressions and hand gestures, while a Japanese person might strive for a neutral
expression and use indirect phrases. This can lead to misunderstanding, as the Italian might
see the Japanese as unenthusiastic or uncommitted, while the Japanese might see the Italian
as overly assertive and even aggressive
● The level of technology available can expand the available communication mediums

INTERGENERATIONAL COMMUNICATION
● Occur between members of the same generational group
● These groupings can reflect eras of social change and technological advancements as
generation-shaping trends influence each grouping they will need to develop and share similar
values and beliefs
● With many changes occurring within society in recent decades, whether through the expansion
of technology r the increased freedom to challenge cultural norms, the social experiences
occurring for young people today are dramatic and have resulted in the more rapid social
change than in the past

Language Usage
● Plays an essential role i the communication process as it connects to culture
● Many countries have developed their own internet slang and the internet has become a
median or old and new languages
● A change includes now using a mixture of vowel-free abbreviations and acronyms that came
about during the Millennial era of texting
● Another change are words being created such as ‘googling
● Emoticons (and emoji icons) has also been very prominent during the increasing speed of
communication [ :) , :( , etc ]
● Then emoticons evolved into emoticons allowing for more detail into one’s expression, with not
only faces but animals, objects, places and weather
● Non verbal communication is the stem for effective communication [allowing for one to express
sarcasm, tone, etc], and emojis allow for that when facial expression is not seen
● University of Santiago in Chile in 2017, found that the use of emojis created greater positive
social presence in the text messages ○ The brain showed signs of activated emotional
processing when reading emojis, influencing the receiver socio-cognitive neutral levels

Cross-Generational Interaction
● ● The extended family unit have emerged new communication technology
● Older generational members are taking on the technological challenge to remain connected
with their distant family (grandparents -> children and grandchildren)
● There is a positive effect on the health and wellbeing of all generations involved
● Due to natural ageing processes, many older adults suffer from various physical difficulties
making traditional visits harder
● For others, demands of work, life and family make it harder for traditional interactions
● The decline of a traditional family (divorce, seperation) and the decreasing status elders lead to
people feeling alone and isolated which technology makes easier for one to connect
 ● Although, some people may get annoyed with older generations struggle to to adapt to
emerging technological changes, especially when answering calls and texts

Social Interactions
● People benefit from technology when connecting with friend groups
● We feel apart of communities which would have been impossible only decades earlier due to
physical distance of personal disabilities
● However many social problems have also arisen
● Internet trolling : when a person uses the internet to intentionally upset people y posting
inflammatory and deliberate upsetting messages; it has heightened with the rise of social
media
● Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) in 2012 study by Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, found
chemicals in the brains similar to those of other addictions such as alcoholism. This issue also
includes internet users, online games and mobile phones.

Cross-Cultural Interaction
● There have been great interactions between humans after moving out of village settlements
● The rise of technology have been diverse societies link with globalisation and rhus has
increased out awareness and experiences with a diverse range of cultures and languages
● We can be immersed in other's social and cultural traditions using technology without leaving
our own meso bubble; we can do this through interest or even work
● A study by the University of Auckland in NZ, concluded that egalitarianism has developed
amongst western english speakers. Over the years inclusion of other indegnous or migrant
cultural groups were seen as tokenism rather than the true acceptance of multiculturalism.
● Japan has seen changes in the way children act with their parents due to the influence of
Western culture and media. The western acceptance of ‘talking back’ had result conflict in
Japan, which was seen as a lack of courtesy and respect towards elders

Globalisation
● Cultural globalisation refers to the sharing of ideas and values around the world
● Evolving technologies, popular culture and travel have all improved intercultural
communication
● Global expansion has removed cultural barriers and has provided common threads of
understanding developing closer interaction and respect for cultural diversity
● It has also made a difference in business and economics.
➔ Coca Cola- It has become one of the most recognised brands in the world and is sold in over
200 countries and is recognised by 84% of the world population. They are a big user of
television, billboards and the internet (Twitter Facebook, Youtube and Instagram)
● Technology has enabled people to reach ot past their physical limitation
● They have maintained their cultural heritage, supported diversity and has created a growing
understanding and respect for cultural values and customs

● Examine ONE of the following theories and identify its strengths and weaknesses:
Communication Accommodation Theory
● Was conceptualised in the 1970s by professor of linguistic and psychology, Howard Giles
 ● Suggests we actively and consciously adjust our communication and accommodate different
social groups (different cultures, generations, genders, abilities)
● We do this by making accommodations or allowances when interacting with others
● We are actively exercising our knowledge and demonstrating the characteristics of social and
cultural literacy in order to cooperate and improve
● “When people interact they adjust their speech, their vocal patterns and their gestures, to
accommodate to others”
● Individuals adjust their verbal and non-verbal communication to better understand others in an
intercultural setting by emphasising or minimising social difference
● Convergent accommodations occur when people adjust their speech to conform to the
individuals they are interacting with in order to reduce differences
● Divergent accomodations occur when people deviate in their speech, and a difference in
culture is emphasised
● Accommodations such as empathy, respect, non-verbal cues of reassurance,
increasing/decreasing the speed of talking, avoiding/maintaining eye contact

STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS

➢ Easy to understand, accessible to different ➢ It is broad and uses a general approach to

groups examine multiple complex cultures, which is
➢ Can be broken down into convergence and open to interpretation
divergence & evaluated for validity ➢ it assumes that both parties are
➢ Recognises the richness of sociocultural communication rationally and without bias ➢ its
encounters -- historical relationship between reliability is questionable as cultural nuances are
individuals and groups too complex to be accommodated. For example,
➢ it recognises the value of both verbal and collectivist cultures share strong beliefs about
non-verbal or emotional expressions loyalty to the group, and individualist cultures
(reassurance, care, warmth, eye contact, tonal value personal identity
adjustment) in accommodating differences ➢ the theory is complex and all aspects would
➢ Recognises that communication between be hard to test with the one intercultural
cultures is dynamic, influenced by all experience it does not highlight the correlation
participants, and their values and identities are between accomodation and stereotypes, and
vital knowledge the potential negative impacts
➢ it does not consider the role of verbal and
non-verbalcommunication in the social
experience

Cross-cultural Adaptation Theory

● Proposed by Dr. Young Yun Kim, a professor in the Department Of Communication at the
University of Oklahoma, Norman, in 1995
● Refers to the processes of internal changes individuals make to be able to function in an
unfamiliar or different culture.
● Recognises the processes of socialisation, acculturation (cultural modification of an individual,
group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture), and assimilation, as
well as culture shock that individuals experience (long-term and extensive successful
experiences of cross-cultural adaptation can lead to an individual's assimilation into the host
society's mainstream culture)
 ● Enculturation: process by which people learn the dynamics of their surrounding culture and
acquire values and norms appropriate or necessary to that culture and its worldviews.
● Deculturation : unlearning of the original culture

Highlights:
- Communication competence and attitude of the host are central to the adaptation process
- the ability to communication within the norms and values of the host culture
- Individuals need to concentrate on acquisition of new communication practices/norms
- Adaptation to a host culture leads to a gradual transformation of personal identity
- Can lead to further individuation (Carl Jung) as individuals perspectives morph

STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS

● Recognition that adaptation is ● An oversimplification has been identified

fundamental to human existence and for a stressful and long adaptation
promotes social and cultural cohesion process
through cultural diversity ● The viability of this theory rests on the
● It has an emphasis on the adaptation of reality and the experience of many
personal identity reshaping from an variables such as personality, emotions
internal perspective to one of a more and historical response to stress and
inter-perspective identity anxiety
● It recognises the significance of the ● There is a lack of emphasis on the
processes of socialisation and importance of communal values, cultural
enculturation in the gradual reshaping of habits and psychological barriers in a
an identity cohesive society that may impact
● It offers reasons for the array of resistance to the adaptation
emotions and behaviours when an ● It does not consider the role and
individual feels stressed in a new evaluation of technologies such as
cultural environment social media in the adaptation process
● It lacks depth in the role of
communication between the individual
and the host environment in the
adaptation process
● It lacks depth in the explanation for the
emotions one feels when stressed in a
new cultural setting
● Bias may exist due to the personal
nature of the data gathered

Extremism and hate speech

● the role of communication in maintaining social relationships and social control

● the individual’s rights and responsibilities about communication, communication
technologies and citizenship
● the impact of changing communication technologies on:
- intra-generational interaction
- language usage
- cross-generational interaction
- social interaction
 - cross-cultural interaction
- Globalisation

How does this relate to Society and Culture Concepts?

Fundamental course concepts such as persons, society, culture, environment, and time are deeply
intertwined with the changes in communication practices. Power and authority are observed in how
digital platforms can control the flow of information, shaping public discourse. Gender and identity are
also affected, as online spaces provide avenues for self-expression and community building.

Additional related depth study concepts like acculturation, continuity and change, and cultural diversity
are evident in how different cultures adapt to and integrate new communication methods. Stereotypes
and values are challenged and reinforced in online environments, contributing to the ongoing
discourse about cultural heritage and cultural relativism.

TikTok has given rise to many online viral trends. The platform’s features allows users, referred to as
creators, to produce creative and technically-impressive content that regularly inspires others to
respond to, add to or recreate content, often through the platform’s Duet and Stitch video editing
functions. Dance trends, comedy and instructional videos, testimonial-style videos featuring someone
speaking about their life and open-ended questions inviting responses are wildly popular on TikTok.

It’s clear that TikTok is popular, but interest in the app also extends to those interested in using the
platform to promote, support or encourage hatred and extremism. In a 2021 Transparency Report,,
TikTok said it removed over300,000 videos in the first three months of 2021 for spreading “violent
extremism”. The platform’s Community Guidelines prohibit videos or content that “threaten or incite
violence” or videos that “promote dangerous individuals or organizations”. Yet those figures represent
just 0.5% of the total 61 million videos removed from TikTok in the same period, the highest proportion
related to “minor safety” (36.8%). Despite taking up a smaller proportion of removed content, hate and
extremism remain a significant concern on the app.

How is this related to Society and Culture?

Communication in Social Relationships and Social Control

Strengthening Bonds
Social media platforms like messaging apps have become essential for maintaining relationships
across distances, fostering connection and reinforcing social ties.

Algorithmic Influence
These platforms can also enable social control, as their algorithms prioritize certain content and
behaviours, potentially influencing how users interact and express themselves.

Blurring Boundaries
The line between personal communication and algorithmic influence has become increasingly blurred,
raising questions about the extent to which our social interactions are shaped by technology.

The impact of changing communication technologies is evident across several areas:

 ● Intra-generational interaction: The preference for real-time communication among younger
generations showcases the shift towards more immediate, digital forms of interaction.
● Language usage: The rise of internet slang and emojis demonstrates the evolution of
language, with these new forms of expression becoming commonplace in digital
communication.
● Cross-generational interaction: A communication gap appears between older and younger
generations due to varying levels of comfort with new technologies.
● Social interaction: Social media’s role in shaping modern social interactions underscores its
influence in both creating and maintaining connections.
● Cross-cultural interaction: The global reach of communication technologies facilitates
cross-cultural exchanges, fostering greater understanding and collaboration.
● Globalisation: The integration of global communication platforms illustrates how
interconnected the world has become, impacting everything from culture to business.

Verbal and non-verbal communication

Verbal communication is a medium that is simply the noise we make with our voice when
communicating. There were two parts - the ‘text’ which are the words themselves and the vocal
paralanguage which includes tone which includes tone, pitch, volume accent etc.

Nonverbal communication - a medium for communication that entails using cues via body language to
convey message content. Facial expressions, body gestures, eye contact and a sense of personal
space are some forms of nonverbal communication

Body language is the conscious and unconscious movements communicating attitudes, feelings and
emotions. These give a very clear message to receivers. Body language has a clear cultural context
and varies broadly between cultures. What is appropriate and acceptable in one culture can be seen as
appropriate and acceptable in one culture can be seen as inappropriate in another

Social relationships and social control

Social order
- We often believe we have complete freedom and control over our actions
- However, institutions are constantly teaching us to conform to social norms on an individual
and group level

What is social control?

- The way behaviour is regulated in a particular social system, this can be as reward or
punishment
- Its easier to govern people when there is large scale conformity through compliance to an
overarching system
- individuals , groups and institutions communicate to maintain social control and relationships
- verbally and non verbally
- Employ formal/non formal punishments

Formal and non formal control

- Formal control tends to be affected and enforced on a macro level by the state, usually
through laws
 - Informal control mechanisms can be based on less obvious things such as shame, ridicule,
exclusion and disapproval

Forms of social control

- Micro: disapproving looks towards others doing the ‘wrong thing’ or reinforcing good
behaviour witha smile or comment
- Meso: a promotion at work, written letter of warning in the workplace, suspension/expulsion
from schoo
- Macro: serious formal punishments enforced by government

Individual Rights and Responsibilities

● In relation to communication, technology and citizens

Communication in relation to rights and responsibilities

- Communication rights are those rights that enable all people everywhere to express
themselves individually and collectively by all means of communication in order to improve
their lives
- Communication rights are vital to full participation in society and are therefore universal human
rights belonging to every man woman and child
- Communication rights encompass freedom of expressions, freedom to seek, receive and
import information and knowledge
- But they add to these freedoms both for individuals and communities, the concepts of
accessibility, participation and cultural diversity
- Communication rights include democratisation of the media, protection of traditional means of
communication, linguistic rights and rights to enjoy the fruits of human creativity
- Communication is an essential right
- It represents on essential human need
- Enabling people to communicate results in the existence and prosperity of community groups
and other institutions
- Communication enables people to be what and who they want to be and strengthens human
dignity
- Therefore the protection of communication rights represents an essential part of the general
topics of human rights

News and noise

- News is a commodity, it is made

- news/noise = differentiate between the two
- News programs tweak stories
- Patterns are harder to identify because the information is now so fragmented
- Rise of alternate information
- Moral panic focuses excessive attention on specific issues and whether or not they are
warranted
- Therefore big stories can be submerged under noise: the events that affect our lived long term
are rarely in the headlines

Rights and Responsibilities:

The study examines the responsibility of users to engage ethically with communication technologies,
referencing the spread of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. It emphasises the right to free
speech but also the responsibility to verify information before sharing, showcasing how digital
platforms require a balance between these rights and responsibilities.

EXTREMISM AND HATE SPEECH

- Interest in TikTok has also extended to those who are using the platform to promote, support or
encourage hatred and extremism
- Over 300,000 videos were removed for spreading violent extremism
- Despite taking up a smaller proportion of removed content, hate and extremism remain a
significant concern on the app
- Social media has become essential for maintaining long-distance relationships, fostering
connection
- These platforms can also enable social control, as they promote and prioritise certain content
that influences viewers
- The line between personal communication and algorithmic influence has become increasingly
blurred
- The study examines the responsibility of users to engage ethically with communication
technologies, referencing the spread of misinformation during the covid 19 pandemic.
- It emphasises the right to free speech and responsibility to verify information beofre sharing

Question: Explain how online communication sometimes makes it easier for people to spread
harmful messages

Online communication can make it easier to spread harmful messages because it allows people to hide
behind anonymity, making them feel more comfortable saying things they wouldn't say in person.
Messages can be spread fast due to comments and shares. Lack of face-to-face interaction also means
that people might not fully consider how they are affecting others.

Social Conformity & Nonconformity Study Notes

Related depth study concepts
● Deindividuation: The loss of one’s individuality when in a group.
● Stereotype: The preconceived view of the characteristics of a group held by non-members.
● world view: A particular philosophy of life that is characterised by an organised and accepted
set of ideas that attempt to explain the social, cultural, physical and psychological world.
● social cognition: The storing, processing and applying of information about other people and
social situations.
● social cohesion: The degree to which individuals in a society feel bound to support the values,
beliefs and norms of the society.
● Deviance: Behaviour that violates expected rules and norms.
● Self-concept: Composed of the various identities, attitudes, beliefs and values that an
individual holds about themselves.
● Values: Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and behaviour.

The nature of social conformity and nonconformity

● factors that influence conformity and obedience in individuals

Conformity
● Age - Young people want to be ‘cool’ & establish an identity
 ● Size of group
- The larger the group = more likely to conform as it easier for people to break away from
smaller groups as less peer pressure
- E.g. in the Asch study, a group is asked questions & the group except 1 (the participant)
manipulates the situations by saying the wrong answer, then the participant is asked for their
answer. 76% of the participants conformed to peer pressure. Some conformed normatively
(they knew it was the wrong answer, but they didn’t want to be ridiculed by the group) while
others conformed informatively (they changed their answer because they believed the group
was correct)

● Self-concept
- Higher self-esteem/self-awareness = more likely to resist conforming

● Gender
- Expectations of gender roles

● Difficulty of task
- More likely to conform if they are unclear about how to respond

● Culture
- People are more likely to conform if it is within their own culture
- Collectivist cultures (e.g. Japan) are more likely to conform

● Attractiveness of group
- E.g. similar beliefs, status

Obedience
● Sanctions (rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to values & norms)
- Positive sanction -> encourages the upholding of social norms (e.g. parents praise their
children for good behaviour)
- Negative sanction -> a punishment or threat to enforce conformity (e.g. car being towed away if
parked in a ‘No Parking’ zone)

● Authority figures (someone who has more knowledge or higher status)

- E.g. in the Milgram Experiment, participants had to ‘shock’ a confederate whenever they
answered a question wrong. 65% of participants continued to shock the confederate due to
their obedience to the ‘teacher’

● responses to social influence: acquiescence, internalisation and identification

Acquiescence
A process in which individuals/groups agree to or allow something to happen by remaining silent and
not questioning.
● A change in behaviour but not necessarily attitude
● Usually because of peer pressure
● E.g. a researcher conducts a focus group & one of the group members agree w/ the rest of the
group to avoid conflict

Internalisation
The process by which social norms become a part of an individual’s personality, thereby conditioning
the individual to conform to society’s expectations.
● Conforming publicly & privately
● Changes their behaviour & beliefs
● E.g. socialisation in adolescence -> adolescents often adopt the values of groups they belong
to align their behaviour & beliefs w/ the group
Identification
The desire to be a certain person by following the behaviours of that identity.
● Acting in response to social pressure, while sometimes privately disagreeing
● Changes their behaviour & beliefs only when a group is present
● deindividuation: the impact of personal anonymity of individuals in groups
● Deindividuation is a state in which individuals can lose their individuality & self-awareness
when in a group
● Adopts the identity of the group
● E.g. destructive flash mobs in NYC
- groups of people who cause chaos, harm & cost businesses a lot of money
- teens gather together, suppress their individual morals & values, & conform to the behaviours
of the group

● E.g. Stanford Prison Experiment

- participants were given the role of a prisoner or guard & were given props to ‘dehumanise’
them (e.g. guards were given batons & prisoners were given chains)
- the guards were given the task to ensure order in the prison
- eventually, the prisoners got restless & a riot broke out, where the guards (who saw
themselves in a position of authority) punished them
- shows how group norms influence behaviour

● how nonconformity determines the boundary between ‘appropriate’ and ‘inappropriate’

behaviours and attitudes
● Nonconformity serves to define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour
● Punishment serves as a warning to others that certain behaviours won’t be tolerated by society
● Conforming to social values & norms indicates appropriate behaviour
● E.g. in American society, the norm is to work hard at school & achieve academically
- This behaviour is considered to be appropriate and is positively sanctioned by certificates or
scholarships
- However, in some subcultures, such as gangs, nonconformity is preferred, where achieving
good grades can be considered inappropriate behaviour & may be negatively sanctioned by
exclusion from the gang

● the social costs and benefits of nonconformity for both individuals and the wider society

Individuals
Costs Benefits
Social exclusion Identity can be expressed freely
Confusion about identity Independence
Can erode trust Celebration of diverse individuals in society - E.g. LGBT people

Recognition of individuals to make social change - E.g. Rosa Parks

Empowerment

Wider Society
Costs Benefits
May stimulate more deviance
Causes society to define, adjust or reaffirm social norms
- E.g. vandalism
Precursor for change
Structural violence
- E.g. Martin Luther King & the civil rights movement
Disruption of social order & control
Challenges status quo
(time-consuming)
Flow on effect to others (increase
of groups deviating) Celebrates differences within society - E.g. Gay Mardi Gras
- E.g. Australians travelling to Syria Parade
to fight w/ Islamic State militants
Creativity, innovation & entrepreneurism - E.g. Einstein
developed a new method of physics not previously thought of
that paved the way for future innovations

● the impact of agenda setting, including the role of the media, on attitude formation in
individuals and groups
● Agenda setting is the media’s ability to manipulate public perception of issues by
concentrating on just a few key issues or topics
● The Agenda Setting Function Theory suggests that the media uses various techniques to
create a version of reality due to their agenda

Impact on attitude formation:

● Simplifying or over-exaggerating issues
● Reinforcing public opinions to satisfy their demands rather than providing new perspectives
● Dehumanising certain groups (especially nonconformists)
● E.g. the Sudanese issue is not presented in Australian media even though it is a massive
humanitarian crisis
● Encourages individuals to believe certain issues are important
- E.g. the agenda that the labour & liberal parties try to set before federal elections impacts the
formation of individual & group political attitudes
- E.g. the U.S. presence in the Gulf War was majorly supported by the public until the media
broadcasted the ‘Highway of Death’ destruction which changed their attitudes
- the ways the ideologies, values and behaviours of the Amish may influence others and lead to
social change
● The Amish challenge the materialistic nature of modern society
- E.g. could influence dietary habits in wider society as they reject fast food, are health
conscious, have a balanced diet & very low obesity rates
● Can inspire others to value peace, simplicity, love & discipline
- E.g. not using electricity as it is believed that this access could lead to many temptations that
deteriorate church & family life
- E.g. Amish farmers model self-sufficiency to others as they till their own land, not affected by
factors, such as economic downturns, that have a significant impact on wider society

Focus study - the historical and social development of the Amish

● Group of religious dissenters originating in the 16th century

- adhered to the literal teachings of the Bible, disciplined & distinct from the larger world
● Became the Amish in the 17th century under Ammann
- suspicion of the world & government, belief in separateness from violence
● Settled in Pennsylvania in the 18th century
● Now located in 30 American states & population is increasing

The role of status, authority, power, privilege and responsibility within the Amish

Status: Men
● Head of the household
● Make important religious & social decisions
- E.g. manage the household finances
● Farming & businesses are passed down through the male line
● Amish children are expected to look up to their parents
Authority: Bible, Council of Elders (Bishops & Ministers)
● All teachings are based off the Bible
● Bishops are the spiritual leader & the main link to God & the Ordnung (the unwritten set of
rules & regulations that guide everyday life) – received authority from God
● Ministers hold authority in delivering the word of God on Sundays

Power: Bible, Ordnung

● E.g. the Amish separate themselves from society to follow the Biblical message in Romans to
not conform to the world
● E.g. the Amish don’t take photographs as it says in the teaching in Exodus that it would be
making an idol of themselves

Privilege: Everyone
● Everyone is equal
● No one is looked down upon for their occupation or wealth

Responsibility: Everyone
● All members have a responsibility to obey the guidelines of the ordnung
- E.g. dress code -> men wear solid coloured collared shirts, trousers & hats while women wear
modest caps, dresses, aprons, stockings & no decorations
● Amish parents have a responsibility to instil values in their children that focus on putting God &
the community above the individual
● how the concepts of cohesion and community operate to define the Amish’s identity
● Cohesion operates within Amish communities by preserving simplicity of life & centring on the
teachings of the Bible & instructions from the ordnung
● Believe that the needs of the community far outweigh the individual, playing a significant role
in maintaining the Amish group identity
● From a young age, children are instilled w/ the values of modesty, simplicity, hard work &
gendered divisions of labour to ensure the group identity of the Amish
- E.g. boys work w/ their fathers & girls assist their mothers w/ taking care of the home
● Create a ‘social shield’ to preserve cohesion & bind Amish community
- E.g. Amish clothes are a visual expression of Amish group identity
- E.g. speaking Pennsylvania Dutch separates their culture from mainstream American culture
● ways in which the Amish influences its individual members in order to achieve group cohesion:
- the role of group values and norms
- peer pressure

The Role of Group Values & Norms

● Group values are founded on the Bible & the community is at the heart of life & faith
- E.g. ‘barn raising’ obeys the Bible passage ‘You shall love your neighbour as yourself’ & brings
the community together, renewing their cultural identity as one
● Amish are taught from a young age to obey authority figures & the ordnung
- E.g. obey parents, teachers, elders
- E.g. obey the ordnung through riding horse & buggys, wearing traditional & modest clothing,
not using TV or electricity
● Strict gender roles
- E.g. Women obey the husband, do household chores & teach the children the Amish values &
norms
● Prevent individuality & favour modesty & simplicity
- E.g. men wear plain coloured clothing, trousers, coats & hats
● Maintaining the integrity of the community & avoiding influences that undermine the simplicity
of Amish life
- E.g. strict limits on technology -> horse-drawn buggies, no telephones or electricity as it would
connect them to the outside world & might damage their way of life

Peer Pressure
 ● Courting process
- Pressure from peers to conform to Church’s disapproval of close physical intimacy before
marriage
● Rumspringa (‘running around’)
- Amish rite of passage where youth experiment w/ wider society before their baptism
- Peer groups encourage returning to the community & are pressured to conform to group
identity bound by their belief system
- Peer influence is evident as 90% of youth commit to the Amish faith after rumspringa
- attitudes of the Amish to nonconformity and the role of sanctions within the Amish
● Those who nonconform to the ordnung may be shunned which is founded in the Bible
● Shunning is the use of social exclusion to enforce social rules
● It is used as a sanction to bring the member back into the community & conform to the group
● Amish who are shunned aren’t allowed to eat at the same table as their peers, their family is
expected to shun them & members are forbidden from receiving anything from them
● If the shunned person repents, they may be allowed to re-enter the community
● positive and negative interactions with the wider society

Positive
● Interact w/ tourists by taking advantage of increased opportunities
- E.g. women make arts, crafts & quilts to sell to tourists to supplement their income
● Benefit from mainstream America’s economy
- E.g. Amish buggy rides for tourists, sell produce to non-Amish at farmers markets

Negative
● In the 1970s, the government took the Amish to court as they took their children out of school
before the legal leaving age
- Overturned by the court as it would hinder their community as it goes against their values &
freedom as children leave school to attend to their duties & roles perceptions of the Amish by
the wider society and the implications of these perceptions
● Suspicious due to their German heritage in WWI & their opposition to war
- Implication: Amish boys were put in camps & beaten up
● Strange as they don’t conform to American society
- Implication: In the 80s, a group of Americans threw rocks at an Amish buggy & killed a baby
- Implication: Arson attacks have destroyed barns & killed animals
● Fascination w/ Amish culture
- Implication: Greater tourist attention where wider society can better understand the Amish way
of life & break down stereotypes
- Implication: Reality TV shows, such as ‘Breaking Amish’, attempt to reveal how the Amish really
are, but the Amish say it is 90% fiction as the media tries to show how they are like wider
society which goes against their community

The near future (5 to 10 years)

● determine current trends for interactions between the Amish and the wider society
● Maintaining the traditional lifestyle has become a challenge because land has become scarcer
& too expensive for the Amish to purchase so they have been relying on sources of income
other than farming
● Vendors at farmers markets
● Over ½ Amish households’ primary income is from non-farming sources
- 50% of men work in factories (e.g. at Jayco vehicle factory, Amish & non-Amish work side by
side)
● Amish have started to use technology to promote their businesses
- F&N Woodworking works with a non-Amish sales team that uses modern technology without
sacrificing their own values system
● evaluate the impact and implications for the Amish of:
- likely changes
- probable continuities
Likely Changes
● Land available to support their agricultural lifestyle that underpins Amish communities is
shrinking
- Impact: some communities are forced to move to new areas (from Pennsylvania to Texas,
Maine, etc)
- Implication: many struggle to maintain traditions as social values within family are established
through manual labour in their community
- Implication: moving to other communities can make it easier for young people to engage in
risky behaviour from outside influences (e.g. drug or alcohol use)
- Impact: Amish forced to search for work outside the family home
- Implication: working with non-Amish in factories, for example, may challenge Amish work ethic
& values traditionally taught on the family farm

Probable Continuities
● Despite less land, technologies & economic pressures, Amish traditional lifestyle will continue
- Impact: obedience to God & ordnung will unite the Amish rather than agriculture
- Implication: the Amish will maintain their identity

Predict how the Amish may interact with and influence society in the near future
● Become part of American popular culture
- E.g. representations of the Amish in popular films like ‘Witness’
● Business
- E.g. technology has allowed information about Amish businesses & products to be accessed
by non-Amish online
- E.g. Amish will sell items like handmade furniture & quilts to wider society
● Working together in the workforce
- more Amish will work for non-Amish employers in jobs like factories
● Values
- Amish values of simplicity & harmony will benefit wider society in business who are caught up
in the rush & digital intensity of modern society
- E.g. the 2006 Amish school shooting can teach wider society about forgiveness as the Amish
visited & comforted the shooter’s family, gave forgiveness to the shooter & set up a charitable
fund for the shooter’s family

A key similarity between Amish and Australian cultures is the influence of family and community in
adolescent decision-making. In both societies, family plays a central role in guiding decisions related to
education and future paths. Amish adolescents, for example, undergo Rumspringa, where family and
religious values strongly shape their final decision to remain in the Amish faith. Similarly, Australian
families guide adolescents in educational and career choices, often emphasizing the importance of
pursuing higher education or vocational training, with family support being crucial.

However, a key difference is the level of autonomy adolescents have in each culture. In Australia,
adolescents are generally encouraged to make more independent decisions as they mature, with
parents offering guidance rather than control. Australian teens can choose their own hobbies, career
paths, and lifestyles. By contrast, Amish adolescents face stricter family and community expectations.
Their decisions are heavily influenced by religious traditions, with less freedom to deviate from
community norms such as abstaining from modern technology.