SHP TURBI ES A D THEIR SELECTIO

Dr. R.P. Saini

Associate Professor
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

1.0 I TRODUCTIO

The cost of a hydro turbine by itself forms only small percentage of hydro power plant.
However, choice of turbine on one hand affects the civil engineering cost and on the other by
virtue of its maximum efficiency and part load efficiency affects the performance and output of
hydro power plant. Thus its over all effect on cost effective performance of a hydro power plant
cannot be ignored and the choice of machine must be made with due care. For small hydro
projects, to reduce cost and time taken for design and manufacture, standardization of turbines
and generators have been widely accepted as industry practice today.

2.0 TURBI ES FOR SMALL HYDRO STATIO S

Various types of turbines suitable for small scale hydro are given below with general
range of application.

Types of Suitable for Remarks

Turbines
Head in m Flow in cumec

Water Wheels - - Simple technology low efficiency, suitable for low head and small
flow, locally manufactured

Cross flow 1-200 0.3-9

Turgo 40-300 1-8

Pelton 45-1000 0.06-3

Francis 8-200 0.3-6 Relatively poor part load efficiency. Economical above about 60
kW rating.

Kaplan (vertical) 1.1-70 3-70 Generally uneconomical for heads below 4 meters, high runaway
speed

Axial flow
(a) Stra-flow 2-50 3-20
(b) S-Type 2-20 3.5-30
(c) Bulb 1.25-25 3-70

2.1 Water Wheel

 The traditional water wheel consists of a wooden turbine with straight wooden blades,
fitted inclined to a thick vertical wooden shaft tapering at both ends. The water chute consists of
an open channel either made from wooden planks or carved from a large tree trunk. The wooden
shaft of the turbine is supported as a stone pivot through a steel pin and held in the sliding
bearing at the top. The top grinding wheel rests on the lower stone and is rotated by turbine shaft
through a straight slot coupling.

2.2 Cross Flow Turbine

The turbine is an impulse type with two stage velocity compounding. The main
characteristics of the cross flow runner is that water is directed through a rectangular jet into a
cylindrical runner and passes from the periphery towards the centre and then after crossing the
open centre moves outwards. Thus the water passes crosses physically the runner and hence the
name. These turbines are particularly suitable for low head applications especially where flow is
fluctuating. The guide vanes provides can obviate the necessity of inlet valve for low head. As
the blades are curved radially, there is no axial thrust thereby eliminating the necessity of thrust
bearings. The peak efficiency of cross flow turbines is however less than Pelton, Turgo and
Francis Turbines.

2.3 Turgo Impulse

It is high capacity, medium head, free jet impulse turbine where a free jet impinges on
the runner cup at one side and is discharged at the other end falling by gravity to tail race. The
specific speed is higher than Pelton wheel and for a given head and output, the speed is more
than double that of Pelton wheel. The Turgo impulse wheel finds application between the ranges
for reaction turbine and high head single jet Pelton wheel. The axial loading in Turgo wheel on
bearings is high.

2.4 Pelton Turbines

It is a high head, free jet impulse turbine. For small hydro applications, the turbine has
one jet developing 40 to 2660 kW and two jets developing 80 to 5000 kW output. The
generating units are available both in horizontal and vertical configurations.

The runner of a Pelton turbine consists of a disc to which are attached a number of
buckets around the periphery. The buckets are generally bowl shaped with a central dividing
wall extending radialy outward from the axis of runner shaft. The buckets are either cast
integrally with the disc or welded or bolted to the disc periphery. The runner is enclosed within a
housing into which the jets enter. The power output of the runner is controlled by adjusting the
opening of the jet nozzle by the movement of a spear shaped needle. The movement of the spear
is controlled by the governor. A jet deflector is provided just outside the nozzle tip to deflect the
jet from the buckets when sudden load rejections are required.

2.5 Reaction Turbines

The various types of turbines categorised as Reaction Turbines are :

- Francis
- Propeller

2.5.1 Francis turbine

 Francis turbines are suitable for a wide range of flows. These are usually available for
operation at heads of 5 meters and above. The hydraulic characteristics of the runner of the
Francis turbines are such that operating speeds are lower than comparable propeller turbines. For
this reasons, the physical size of the Francis turbine is bigger than the propeller turbine for same
operating conditions. The efficiency of the Francis turbine lies in between the propeller and the
Kaplan turbines.

The Francis turbine can have both vertical and horizontal setting. Generally the vertical
units are cheaper than the horizontal units especially when the throat diameter of the turbine is
about 1200 mm. For low head applications, Francis turbines can have open flume setting.

2.5.2 Propeller turbines

The propeller turbines can be sub-divided into the following 4 types depending upon the
controllability of wicket gates and runner blade angle :

(1) Fixed wicket gate - Fixed runner blade

(2) Moveable wicket gate - fixed runner blade - Propeller
(3) Fixed wicket gate - Moveable Runner blade - Semi Kaplan
(4) Moveable wicket gate - Moveable Runner blade - Kaplan

Depending upon the layout and general arrangement of the turbine-generator, the above
types of turbines are further termed as :

- S-type turbine (Tube Turbine)

- Bulb turbine
- Stra flow turbine

3.0 SELECTIO OF TURBI ES

Maximum net head on the turbine is one of the basic selection criteria of the type of
turbine.

In overlapping head ranges, analysis in terms of operation requirements and costs could
be compared to arrive at the most suitable type of turbine.

As a thumb rule for high heads (say H> 300 m), Pelton turbines is used and for low
head (H< 25 m), one or the other variant of axial flow turbine is used. In the gap between these
two machines and over lapping with Pelton on one side and axial flow on the other, Francis
turbines are extensively use. Scientifically, we may say that Pelton wheel is used when specific
N P
speed Ns = 1.25 1is below 50, Francis when specific speed lies between 80 and 300 and axial
H
flow turbines when specific speed is between 300 and 1000. Cross flow turbine which is now
being used in mini/micro hydro plants has specific speed say from 30 to 200 and hence overlaps
with Pelton on one side and for quite good range with Francis.

Where as the above stated thumb rule is not valid for mini/micro range, the scientific
selection based on specific speed is still valid. Pelton wheels for as low heads as 40 m have been
used successfully in mini hydro plants.
 When two types of machines are hydraulically suitable for use on given location, the
turbine which has lower specific energy cost has to be chosen. The number of factors that will
have to be considered in such a case may be enumerated as follows :

(a) The size of machine and hence its cost increases with increase in specific speed.

(b) The runner with high specific speed are more prone to cavitation and hence excavation
cost for cavitation prevention will increase with specific speed. Also the material used
for construction of runner for prevention of damage due to cavitation will be relatively
costlier.

(c) The part load efficiency of a turbine decreases with increase in specific speed. However,
when double regulation of speed (as is done in case of Kaplan turbines), part load
efficiency is nearby as good as that of Pelton wheel. This improvement in part load
efficiency is obviously costly. For axial turbines speed regulating by change in runner
blade position is more effective as compared to guide blade position change. Turbines
with such an arrangement are called semi Kaplan turbines and are widely used in
mini/micro hydel plants. The improvement in part load efficiency in this way is
obviously costly.

In addition to above consideration it has to be kept in mind that there is some amount of
flexibility regarding selection of speed and power generated by each machine at the site. In case
of low speed arrangement will have to be provided for increasing speed to match the speed of
generation. Power generated by each machine depends upon the number of machines required to
utilise the available hydropower. The specific speed of a turbine is linked to these two
parameters. Thus there is certain amount of flexibility for fixing suitable specific speed and
hence the type of machine.

4.0 GATES, VALVES A D THEIR SELECTIO

Gates and valves are hydraulic control equipment and their purpose is to control the flow
of water.

4.1 Gates

Gates can be classified according to;

(i) Water head (ii) Purpose (iii) Shape

(iv) method of movement, and (v) Materials

On the basis of water head the gates may be classified as below;

(a) Low head gates – suitable for water head upto about 15 meters.

(b) Medium head gates – suitable for water head from 15 to 30 meters.

(c) High head gates – suitable for water head of 30 meters and above.

On the basis of purpose and location where the gates are used they may be classified as;

(a) Barrage gates (b) Spillway gates (c) Bye-pass gates

(d) Draft tube gates (e) Intake gates (f) Penstock gates
(g) Sluice gates (h) Outlet gates (i) Bulkhead gates
(j) Emergency gates.

Items upto (d) generally belong to the category of low head gates, while (e) and (f)
belong to medium head gates, and (g) and (h) are high head gates.

Bulkhead gates are generally used fro temporary requirements where closure is required
for some construction or repair purposes. In the bulkhead gates the operational requirement is
not necessary. The emergency gates are made to be used for using in emergency when the main
gate is jammed. Such a gate would require operational facility.

According to their shapes and mode of operation the gates may be classified as below;

(a) Falshboards (b) Needle (c) Stoplogs

(d) Vertical lift gate (e) Radial gate (f) Flap gate
(g) Fish belly gate (h) Sector or drum gate (i) Rolling gate
(j) Bear trap gate (k) Tilting gate (l) Ring gate
(m) Cylinder gate

The vertical lift gates can be moved differently and thus their movement has given rise
to the following types of gates;

(a) Sliding types (b) Fixed wheel gates (c) Roller gates
(d) Caterpillar gates.

The main materials that have been generally used fro the gates are the following;

(a) Timber (b) Steel (c) Reinforced concrete

(i) Vertical Lift Gates

Vertical lift gates are rectangular in shape and are supported by guides in which gates
move vertically in their own plan.

(ii) Radial Gates

Radial gates are also known as sector gates or tainter gates. These gates are widely used.
As the name indicates, the face of the gate is a sector or segment of a cylinder (circle) supported
on steel framework, which is pivoted on trunnions set on the downstream end.

(iii) Tilting Gates

These gates can be used both on the spillway as well as on the canal also. These gates
are automatic gates, which operates with the help of floats.

(iv) Rolling Gates

The rolling gate consists of a cylindrical beam made of steel, which spans between piers
having an inclined rack.
(v) Drum Gates

These gates are useful when the debris tr4ash, and ice, large in amount, are to be passed
without fully opening the gates.

4.2 Selection of gates

There is no particular process for the selection of gates. Selection of gates depends upon
a number of factors. The choice would depend upon the resources, head under which it is used,
location i.e. wheather it is used at intake, bypass or outlet, operating condition, relative economy
etc. Besides these factors other factors are also there, hence standard set of rules can not be given
to fix the type of gate most adaptable to given condition.

a. Spillway Gates – These gates belong to category of low head gates.

b. Bypass Gates – Bypass gates are low head gates. The requirement of bypass gates is
that it should be able to operate under slight change of level of water in the channel.

c. Draft Tube Gates – Draft tube gates are also come under the low head gages.

d. Intake Gates – The location of intake gates are vary so much that they may come
under the category of low, medium or high head gates.

5.0 VALVES

Valves may be necessary in pressure conduits to;

Regulate the flow.

Completely stop the flow.

Affect energy dissipation under special circumstance.

(i) Sluice Valve

Sluice valves are the most frequently used control devices in pipelines.

(ii) Butterfly Valve

The butterfly valve consists of a circular plate, which can rotate about a central axis
perpendicular to pipe axis.

(iii) Spherical Valve

Spherical valves are structurally more study than the butterfly valves.
(iv) eedle Valve

Sluice from the dam, sometimes, need regulating valves. The most poplar type is the
needle valve.

(v) Howell Bunger Valve

The Howell-Bunger valve is similar in concept with needle valve energy dissipation at
high-pressure outlets.