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CHAPTER THREE might affect their economic and political
THE ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE AND THE interests in Ethiopia.
EMERGENCE OF AUTOCRACY 1906-1935  These imperialist powers were in vigorous
competition for larger spheres of influence in
3.1. Internal Power Struggle and Foreign the Horn of Africa.
Intervention in the Early Twentieth Century The combination of all these factors led to the
signing of an agreement known as The Tripartite

The Problem of Succession and the Tripartite Treaty.

 The treaty was signed between Britain, France
Treaty
and Italy in December 1906.
 The Empire of Ethiopia entered the twentieth
Despite the deterioration of his health, the
century centralized, victorious over colonial
Emperor took some steps to solve the internal
aggression and politically stable.
and external problems of his country.
 However, internal peace and stability lasted only
1. He wrote a letter to the signatories of the
for a short Period.
Tripartite Treaty
 It was disturbed by internal power struggle and
 In which he underlined the need to maintain
the revival of foreign threats.
the unity and independence of his country.
 In 1906 Menelik suffered a stroke and his
2. He established a Council of Ministers in
personal control thereafter was somewhat
October 1907.
weakened and was not able to give effective
 The introduction of the ministerial system
leadership.
for the first time in the history of the
 In the same year Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael,
country was thus partly a response to
a cousin of the Emperor and his right hand man
foreign pressures.
died.
 Yet the minsterial system remained to be
 This person was expected to become Menelik’s
more symbolic than real.
successor.
 The same old palace officials were given
 Consequently, power struggle in the palace and
new titles to perform more or less the
political instability in the empire began.
same tasks they were in charge of in the
 The attention of the neighboring imperialist
traditional administrative system.
powers, which had colonial territories adjacent
3. In May 1909, the emperor officially announced
to Ethiopia.
Lij Iyasu as his heir.
 Britain, France and Italy partly worried by the
 The prince was a grandson of Menelik
opening of the German Legation in Addis Ababa
from his daughter Princess Shewaregad
in 1905, became more anxious about Ethiopia’s
and Ras Mikael (formerly Imam
internal development.
Mohammed Ali) who was the ruler of
 They worried about the political empire
Southern Wollo.
uncertainty following the death of Menelik that

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 The heir was, however, a minor of about  She, indeed, overshadowed the power of the
12 years of age and could not exercise regent and the Council.
power by himself.  She arranged series of political marriages
 Thus Menelik appointed a Shoan among her relatives and important political
aristocrat, Ras Bitwadad Tesemma figures, families and local dynasties.
Nadaw as regent to Lij Iyasu.  She appointed her close allies and relatives to
high ranking positions,
Power Struggle between Empress Taytu and  While she dismissed or demoted her political
the Shoan Nobility opponents including members of the Council of
 The Empress had no child of her own to succeed Ministers.
to the throne.  Eventually, Taytu's measures threatened the
 She was worried about her political future political supremacy of the Shoan nobility.
following the death of Menelik.  The latter could not tolerate Taytu's and her
 She feared that the accession to power of a relatives' monoply of power.
ruler with no blood or marriage ties to her might
affect her and her family's role in the future The father of Lij Iyasu, Ras Mikael, allied
politics of the country. with the Shoan nobility, in order to defend the
Empress come up with her own choice for position of his son.
imperial succession aimed at guaranteeing the  Ras Mikael was already in conflict with Ras
continuity of her political influence. Wolle, Taytu's brother in northern Wollo.
 She preferred Princess Zewditu, the daughter  While opposition against the growing
of Menelik by another woman, to Lij Iyasu. political power of the Empress was
 Zewditu was married to Taytu's nephew, Ras underway,
Gugsa Wolle Bitul.  She tried to dissolve the Council of
 Thus, Taytu was resistant to the selection of Lij Ministers.
Iyasu as this would evidently erode her political  This attempt united her opponents and
significance. speeded up her downfall.
 The office of regency was given to Ras  In March 1910, Empress Taytu was removed
Tesemma. from government duties, and was told to
 Using her position as the wife of the Emperor, limit herself to taking care of her dying
 Empress Taytu hurried to build a power group husband. Menelik died in December 1913.
centred on her blood and marital relations.  Tayitu was then exiled to Entoto where she
 Menelik was still alive and Ras Tesemma and stayed until her death in 1918.
members of the Council were respectful to  The removal of Empress Taytu from political
Taytu. dominance was immediately followed by
 This enabled the Empress to exercise great political rearrangements.
power.

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The Challenge of Iyasu  The Quragna system, by which an
 This time the struggle was between the old accused and the accuser were chained
nobility and palace guards of Emperor Menelik together until justice was given.
on the one hand and Lij Iyasu on the other.  Iyasu established a modern municipal police
 It began following the death of Ras Bitwoded  Consisting of former soldiers that
Tesemma in April 1911. served as Italian colonial troops in Libya
 To begin with, the Shoan nobility did not fully  They were nicknamed as Trunbulle from
support Lij Iyasu, as he was the son of non- the name of the capital of Libya, Tripoli.
Shoan regional ruler, Ras Mikael of Wollo.  He also formed a separate department of
 They welcomed his selection half-heartedly education that had formerly been attached to
because; it was the wish of Menelik. the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 They were also hopeful that their own man,  He introduced an auditing system meant to
Tesemma would protect their interests. protect public property.
 But the death of the regent gave rise to new  He followed a more liberal policy towards
tensions. Ethiopian Muslims.
 Iyasu refused to accept any other regent to  He encouraged the building of mosques.
replace Tesemma, and publicly declared that he  He established marriage ties with local
could lead the country by himself. Muslim dynasties.
 Muslims were shown positive gestures
and, indeed, there rights better
The brief reign of Iyasu (1913 - 1916) respected under Lij Iyasu's rule.
 It was heavily strained by internal problems and
external pressure. Lij Iyasu strong internal and external
 Iyasu had introduced a range of positive opposition’s
reforms to his credit.  Internal opposition came mainly from the old
Shoan officials of Menelik.
Lij Iyasu introduced several modern reforms  In their struggle to overthrow Iyasu, his
 He modified the traditional methods of tithe opponents made advantageous use of his
(Asrat) collection. personal weaknesses, polygamous marriages, and
 Formerly, the amount of the tax to be lack of attention to government affairs in the
paid had been determined by an official capital.
before harvesting.  His marriages with Muslims were interpreted as
 He also outlawed:- his abandonment of Christianity and an attempt
 The traditions of Lebashay, It was at weakening the Orthodox Church.
method of criminal detection, and

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against British and Italian colonialism in
The root causes of the internal opposition to Somaliland.
Lij Iyasu were  Both of these were seen as great offences to
 His attitude towards the old nobility of the interests of the three colonial powers.
Menelik and his political measures that were  These powers eventually formed a unity with
seen as threats to Shoan political supremacy the internal enemies of Lij Iyasu in the move to
 Lij Iyasu had no respect for the old depose him.
officials.  Iyasu was on his usual visit to Harar and Jigiga
 He dismissed many old Shoan noblemen and regions while his opponents decided to depose
replaced them with his young friends and him.
relatives.
Of all his measures, the one that was The Excommunication and deposed of Lij Iyasu
considered to be the most serious political  The Shoan nobility appealed to Abune
threat to the Shoan establishment was the Matheos to excommunicate Lij Iyasu

coronation of his father Ras Mikael.  Whom they charged, above all, with a pro-

 In 1914, Ras Mikael was made Negus of Muslim policy.

Wollo and Tigrai.  The bishop was persuaded to support their

 The provinces of Gojjam and Begemider cause, and on 27 September, 1916 Iyasu was

were added to him later in 1915. officially deposed.

 Lij Iyasu thus, made his father the king of  On hearing the coup Iyasu headed to the

the Northern provinces. capital to avert the coup.

 The more Iyasu promoted his friends and  The army of his opponents met Iyasu and his

relatives to key positions, the more the old men at Mieso, near Chiro (Asebe Tafari) town.

officials of Menelik lost their former  Lij Iyasu was defeated and fled to Wollo, and

economic and political privileges.  Then became a fugitive for five years until he

 Consequently, they united in opposition was captured in Tigrai in 1921.

against Iyasu.  He was in detention at Fiche up to 1921 and

The method he used in his foreign policy then transferred to Garamulata in Hararge,
 Where he stayed in detention until his death
 Which provoked external powers, namely
in 1936.
Britain, France and Italy
The attempt of Negus Mikael to restore his
Two policies of Iyasu antagonized these
powers. son power
 He led a huge army from Wollo to the
1. Iyasu was strengthening friendly relations with
capital. On 27 October, 1916
Germany and Ottoman Turkey.
 His northern troops met the army of the
2. Iyasu's moral and material support to the
central government at the battle of Segele
Somali nationalist Sayyid Mohammed Abdile
near Sheno town in shoa.
Hassan, who had waged a war of resistance

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 He was defeated and captured.  But her heir and regent, Ras Tafari,
 He died in prison two years later. exercised extensive powers.
 The administration of Wollo fell directly  Thus the period has often been referred to
under the central government. as the diarchy.
 The bloody coup against Lij Iyasu, ended up At the beginning, the diarchy appeared to be a
with the restoration of Shoan political period of political stability characterized by
supremacy.  The unity of Shoan forces was strengthened
The coup makers chose their new leaders from  The Council of Minsters mainly consisted of
among the family of Menelik. the old Shoan nobility.
 They proclaimed Zewditu, the daughter of  The War Minster, Fitawrari Habte Giorigis
Emperor Menelik, Empress. Dinagde was appointed Chairman of the
 The empress was crowned on February 11, Council.
1917.  Nonetheless, the diarchy was not free from
 To avoid possible problems of succession, political crisis.
they nominated the son of Ras Mekonnen,  This was the outcome of a persistent power
Ras Tafari, as heir to the throne, struggle between two political groups
 But shortly afterwards he also assumed the
power of a regent. The traditionalists and the progressives
 A woman took the imperial crown for the 1. The traditionalists consisted of
first time in Ethiopian history.  The old nobility, represented by the
 The new arrangement was made so that the Empress Zewditu .
ruler would work in harmony with the newly  The traditionalists defended the old order
re-organized Council of Ministers. of religious, social, economic and political
 For the Shoan nobility Zewditu was a system.
suitable choice.  They were above all opposed to the growing
 She was politically less ambitious; and as a power of Ras Tafari.
daughter of Menelik,  This group was also opposed to
 She could maintain their interests. modernization,
 Extensive diplomatic relations and foreign
investments in Ethiopia.
The Diarchy (1916-1930) 2. The Council the progressives consisted of
 The term diarchy in Ethiopian politics refers to  The commercial strata,
the period of dual rule between 1916 and 1930.  The young and the educated
Two centers of power existed during this period.  The enlightened nobility rallied around Ras
Tafari.
 These were Zewditu and Ras Tafari.  Ras Tafari and the group around him were
 Zewditu was the empress, the prime-movers of progressive ideas.

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Measures taken by Ras Teferi and his group  These intellectuals called for the
 Ras Tafari realized the importance of recruiting development of their country through the
domestic and foreign allies and the need to expansion of modern education.
eliminate internal challenges to his power.  They also insisted the expansion of
 He dismissed the members of the Council of veterinary services, health services,
Ministers in 1918.  The expansion of infrastructure, abolition of
 Only the War Minister, Fitawrari Habte the gebbar system and slavery, etc.
Giorgis remained in power.  A news paper named Berhanena Selam served
 The ministers were removed through as a forum of their critics.
underground agitation against their
corruption and Ras Tafari patronized the idea of the
 The public demonstration of the Mehal intellectuals and made many reforms.
Sefari, 1. Modern education was expanded young
The Mehal Sefari and their roles Ethiopians were sent abroad for further
 Those who encamped at the center education.
 A generic name for the specialized  He established printing press, and
regiments of the imperial troops  He welcomed foreign investors and
 Who were soldiers and civil servants missionaries.
closely attached to the palace. 2. In 1923, he won Ethiopia's admission to the
 They were regular Army corps League of Nations.
 They were Army of the center  As a precondition to her membership, an
 They reflected a mix of traditional anti - slave trade decree was issued in the
methods of fighting combined with the country in the same year.
modernization reforms instituted by  The next year, a decree on the gradual
Emperor Haile Selassie. eradication of domestic slavery was issued.
 The Council of Ministers was replaced by a new  It was, indeed, the first serious and
council known as the Crown Council consistent attempt to put an end to
slavery and slave trade.
The Crown Council  However, both practices continued up to
 They were staffed mainly by Tafari's the 1930s.
favourites and allies. 3. In 1924, Ras Tafari and some of the nobility
 The Crown council was only an advisory body. made an extensive tour in Europe.
The young educated allies of Tafari criticized  This gave Tafari a wider exposure to
 They criticized feudal order, heavy taxation, western civilization.
corruption, slavery.  He earned sympathy and popularity in
many countries.

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 Europeans saw bright prospects for  He continued to get her support and was
investment in Ethiopia under the made governor of Begemidir from 1918-1930.
leadership of Ras Tafari.
4. In 1926, the deaths of Fitawrari Habte Giorgis The causes of their Conflict
and Abune Matheos removed serious obstacles  The conflict between Ras Gugsa and Negus
to Ras Tafari and his allies. Tafari had personal, political and economic
 Ras Tafari took over the lands and causes.
troops of the late War Minister and  Naturally Ras Gugsa had to defend the power
farther strengthened his power. of Zewditu, as his own fate was closely
5. In 1927, Ras Tafari obtained the unconditional related to her stay in power.
surrender of one of the powerful opponents to  Ras Tafari's plan to centralize the customs
his power, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, of the Metemma trade was the source of
 He was a veteran of Adwa and a governor their economic conflict.
of Sidamo. The battle of Anchim
 He was then made a prisoner;  The army of Ras Gugsa was defeated at the
 But he later died fighting against battle of Anchim, in Begemidir, on 31 March
Fascist Italy in 1937. 1930 by the imperial army.
6. Similarly in 1928, Ras Tafari succeeded to get  Gugsa himself died in the battle.
the submission of Dejazmach Abba Wuqaw,  Two days later Empress Zewditu died,
 The commander of palace guards,  Tafari was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I on
 Who rebelled in defence of Zewditu 2 November 1930.
 Abba Wuqaw was sentenced to death  The Dual rule thus came to an end.
though this was later changed to life  It was replaced by a monarchy headed by Haile
imprisonment. Selassie as an undisputed autocrat.
Meanwhile, the supporters of Ras Tafari and
above all the Mehal Sefari demanded that the 3.2. Emergence of Autocracy in Ethiopia
heir should be crowned Negus. (1930 - 1935)
 The empress conceded to this demand and  The term autocracy refers to a political system
crowned him in October 1928 with a ceremony in which power has virtually concentrated in the
attended by foreign diplomats. hands of one ruler.
The last confrontation of Ras Tafari  The government of Emperor Haile Selassie was
 Ras Tafari was with the ex-husband of an autocratic state.
Empress Zewditu Ras Gugsa Wolle,  Haile Selassie built his government with a highly
 He was the governor of Begemidir (1918-30). centralized system of rule.
 Though divorced from Zewditu at her  He exercised unlimited power.
coronation,

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 The coronation of Ras Tafari Negus by 1928 and The Constitution gave extensive powers to the
Emperor in 1930 marked the beginning of Haile emperor. He was empowered to:
Selassie's autocracy.  appoint and dismiss civil and military officials,
 declare or end wars,
The emperor introduced many changes and  establish a parliament which he could convene
reforms aimed at laying the foundation for an or disband at his own will,
autocratic rule.  decide on the size of the army and command
it,
i. The Constitution of 1931  Issue decrees and sign treaties in the
 The first written constitution of Ethiopia was absence of Parliament.
introduced in 1931. (A constitution is a  The Constitution reserved the imperial throne
document that contains basic laws and principles only for the family of Haile Selassie I and his
by which a country is governed). descendants.
 The 1931 Constitution served as a legal basis of The Parliament then established had two
the incipient autocratic state. houses
1. The Chamber of Senate and
According to one of the Emperor's speeches of 2. The Chamber of Deputies.
the time, the reasons for its introduction were  Members of the Parliament were not elected
the need for: through universal adult suffrage.
 regulating the relations between the  The masses of the Ethiopian peoples were not
monarchy and the nobility, given the right to vote in elections.
 establishing friendly relations with foreign  The Senators were appointed by the emperor
powers, and from among the nobility, princes, judges,
 Keep 'fair rule' and guarantee 'justice' for ministers and other high-ranking civil and
the people. military officials.
Internal and external factors behind the need  The Deputies were nominated by the nobility
for the Constitution and local chiefs.
 Internally, the Emperor wanted to resolve the  The Constitution stated that this was to
challenge of regional forces to the central continue until the Ethiopian peoples were able to
government and the problem of succession. elect members of Parliament.
 Externally, he wanted to demonstrate his  The 1931 Constitution greatly reduced the
interest to modernize the country. The concern political power of the hereditary nobility of
for fair justice for people, however, was more provinces.
of a white-wash of the Constitution than a  However, it still respected their economic
genuine conviction. privileges, such as the rights over tributary
lands.

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 They were not allowed to sign treaties with  It also aimed at establishing complete control
foreigners, and import arms and decorations over human and material resources of all
without the permission of the Emperor. provinces in the empire.
 The nobility had the obligation of defending the  To this end, local hereditary chiefs were
throne and the Constitution. dismissed one after the other and replaced by
loyal appointed officials.
The Constitution also consisted of the rights The process of building a strong monarchical
and duties of citizens. authority in the modern period begun from as
 Ethiopians were granted the right of free far back as the 19th century
movement,  A more direct control over Wollo was
 Security of private property, established following the defeat of Negus
 Appointment to civil and military posts and Michael in 1916.
due process of law to those accused of  After the defeat of Ras Gugsa in 1930
crimes before any punishment. Begemidir came under the direct control of
 Conversely, all Ethiopian citizens had the the central monarchy.
obligation of paying government taxes and  The local dynasties of Gojjam and Jimma
tributes and of giving military service when lost their autonomy in 1932 and 1933,
the need arises. respectively.
Civil rights, however, remained on paper.  The only region that was allowed to continue
 The Ethiopian masses were not really to be ruled by descendants of local
represented in the Parliament set up. hereditary chiefs was Tigrai.
 The dominant feudal mode of production  It was governed by the grandsons of
continued to be highly exploitative. Emperor Yohannis IV, Ras Seyoum
 The only beneficiary of the Constitution was Mengesha and Ras Gugsa Araya.
the ruling class.  Emperor Haile Selassie tried his best
 Most of all the Constitution was chiefly to win the loyalty of the Tigrean
aimed at legitimizing the autocratic rule of princes through political marriages.
Haile Selassie. Bureaucracy and consolidation of power
 The expansion of modern education in Addis
ii. Administration Ababa and the provinces.
 The emergent autocratic state adopted a policy  Graduates from local schools, and foreign
of monarchical control over the provinces. educated Ethiopians were Appointed to
 The objective of this policy was to eliminate the different:-
possibility of regional challenges to the central  administrative,
government.  financial,
 diplomatic and
 Military posts.

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 Other than Ethiopians, a number of The land tax and the income from goods tax
foreign advisors were also employed were centralized.
in different ministries. ¶ Traditional customs posts were reduced in
number.
iii. Economy ¶ The government established its own customs
 To revitalize the economy, the incipient posts, at which its own officials were in
autocratic state centralized the financial charge.
resources. ¶ Rules and regulations were set for the
 Reforms were introduced in the collection of collection of taxes.
the two major sources of ¶ Customs officials were regulated and
A. State income-land tax and supervised by the central administration of
B. Tax on goods. customs and commerce.
 Under the new state, land sale became a
common practice. iv. Military Reforms
In the southern provinces, the process of land ¶ The elimination of regional forces, one after
sale farther reduced peasants to landless the other, helped Emperor Haile Selassie to
tenants. embark upon the creation of a national army.
¶ The tenants had to pay rent for ¶ The army could serve the autocratic state
cultivating the land which formerly as a major force of control over its own
belonged to them. people.
¶ They had no right on the land, and ¶ The state also reorganized military training.
eviction from land was common in these In 1930, the Ethiopian government began the
regions. training of
¶ The government also encouraged ¶ The Imperial Bodyguard by Belgian officers.
settlement on uncultivated lands through ¶ Their main unit was stationed in Addis
exemption from tax for some years. Ababa, but sub-units were also formed in
¶ This gradually increased the size of the provinces.
lands that paid taxes. ¶ The troops of the Imperial Bodyguard were
Finally in 1935, the government began the the most privileged ground troops in the
practice of collecting fixed taxes country.
¶ In cash at the rate of 30 Maria Theresa In 1934, the first modern military academy
Thalers per gasha (40 hectares of land) opened
¶ Tributes in kind and labor gradually changed ¶ The training of officers was opened at
to cash payment. Holeta Gennet,
¶ On the way to Ambo, the province in Shoa.
¶ The trainees were recruited from schools to
be trained for three years.

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¶ Instructors of the officers' school came ¶ This contributed to the expansion of Addis
from Sweden. Ababa.
¶ However, the outbreak of the Italo - ¶ The Completion of the construction of the
Ethiopian War in 1935 soon forced the Djibouti - Addis Ababa railway, in 1917,
closure of this school. contributed to urban development.
 In addition to this, few young Ethiopians were ¶ In the provinces crossed by the railway line,
sent to Europe for advanced military training. a number of stations like Dire Dawa, Miesso,
Adama, Modjo and Bishoftu grew into big
3.3. Socio-Economic Developments 1906 -1935 commercial centers.
 One significant development was urbanization. The introduction of the railway also brought
¶ The process had already begun in the last about the revival of external trade through
quarter of the 19th century. Djibouti.
¶ During that period, the expanding army of ¶ Railway became an important channel for the
Emperor Menelik established many garrison introduction of foreign technology, ideas and
centers in the newly conquered and culture.
incorporated regions. ¶ It also facilitated transportation and
¶ These garrison centers gradually evolved efficient administration in the regions along
into Ketemas, (towns). the railway.
¶ These later grew into provincial towns. ¶ The European powers which had colonies
The foundation of Addis Ababa adjacent to Ethiopia were all interested in
¶ Addis Ababa was founded in 1886. maintaining and expanding commercial
¶ The site was Empress Taytu's choice. relations with the country.
¶ The expansion and development of Addis ¶ Ethiopia's external trade was dominated by
Ababa was, however, a post-Adwa foreign merchants consisting of Indians,
phenomenon. Greeks, Armenians, and Syrians.
¶ Different factors contributed to the ¶ Some members of the ruling class began to
development of Addis Ababa as permanent involve in business undertakings such as
capital. money lending, hotel, taxi transport, cinema,
¶ The relative peace and internal stability banking, etc.
that followed the Adwa victory, encouraged ¶ These members of the ruling class saw
settlement of different social classes in the changes in their way of life.
capital. ¶ They adopted a new mode of consumption,
¶ Job seekers and foreign nationals, diplomats leisure and easy life.
and merchants were settled. ¶ This was accompanied by privatization and
¶ As the result of this settlement churches, sale of land, cash payment of taxes and
markets and different modern institutions tributes, and accumulation of capital. The
were established.

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new transformation worsened the condition
of the peasantry more than ever.
To ensure the efficient administration of the
vast Ethiopian empire emphasis was first given to
¶ The import of modern communications
technology.
¶ Telephone, telegraph and postal services
were introduced before the close of the
19th century.
¶ These were followed by the introduction of
the motor car in 1904.
¶ The railway and the airplane were
introduced in 1917 and 1929 respectively.
¶ Bank of Abyssinia was introduced 1905;
Menelik II School was opened in 1908;
¶ Menelik II hospital was established in 1910
and different small scale industries and
public services were introduced.

“One child, one teacher, one book, one pen can change the world” (Malala Yousafzai) Page 12