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CURATED VOICES

Caste and Education in India:

Linkages, Promises, and Obstacles
Prachi Paliwal
SPRF.IN
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. ABSTRACT 03

2. INTRODUCTION 04

3. CURRENT STATUS OF EDUCATION IN

MARGINALISED GROUPS 04

4. REASONS BEHIND THE DISMAL STATUS

OF EDUCATION 05

5. IMPACT OF CURRENT GOVERNMENT SCHEMES:

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS 06

6. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 08

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 10

8. ANNEXURE 12

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 July 2021 CURATED VOICES

Caste and
Education
in India:
Linkages,
Promises,
and Obstacles
Prachi Paliwal

ABSTRACT
Backward castes face
many challenges in The status of education among backward castes in contemporary
accessing educational India reveals deep-rooted inequalities which manifest themselves
institutes owing to in various ways. Backward castes face many challenges in
many reasons such accessing educational institutes owing to many reasons such as
as low accessibility low accessibility to institutions, discrimination in the admission
to institutions, process, unfair treatment in classes, undue peer pressure based on
discrimination in the caste identities, societal pressures and so on. This mistreatment of
admission process, marginalised individuals translates into the slow social progress of the
unfair treatment in community over the years. Government policies that aim to reduce
classes, undue peer inequality often do not reach intended beneficiaries due to ineffective
pressure based on implementation, complicated procedures, and lack of awareness,
caste identities, among other reasons. As highlighted in a study by the World Bank, a
societal pressures and new approach to policymaking could be explored as a way forward to
so on. make policies more comprehensive, targeted, and sustainable (World
Bank 2017).
4 | SOCIAL & POLITICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION CURATED VOICES

INTRODUCTION
Caste plays an essential role in everyday life of many individuals in India. Given
the lucid framework and its interpretation in different forms across states and
regions, evaluating caste identities combined with gender, sub-castes, and
economic backgrounds reveal a new lens to policymaking. The World Bank
(2017) analysed the everyday impact of caste (Varna) and sub-castes (Jatis),
finding that although welfare policies are made at a macro level, local dynamics
and on-ground realities such as caste, gender, and geography considerably
impact an individual’s accessibility to resources. The Hindu society’s odious caste
structure is aptly captured by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s metaphor of caste being “a
multi-layered tower with no staircase and no entrance. Everybody had to die in
the storey they were born in” (Ambedkar and Roy 2014).

With caste superstructures in place, education becomes the only ‘ladder’ that
can help break this rigid social order and allow movement across ‘levels.’
Therefore, access to education is one of the most powerful ways to combat caste
stratification. This paper assesses the current status of education in scheduled
castes and marginalised classes on different parameters such as enrolment
ratio, dropout ratio, and education at different stages. It evaluates the underlying
reasons for these disparities, examines the impact of select government policies
and advocates for a new approach to policymaking and implementation that may
be more impactful.

CURRENT STATUS OF EDUCATION IN

MARGINALISED GROUPS
Through the latest National Policy on Education [NEP], India launched a series
of government schemes across elementary, secondary, and higher education
to increase access to education within all demographic groups. NEP schemes
promise a special focus on students from disadvantaged backgrounds by offering
scholarships or ensuring infrastructural support. However, the current enrolment
ratio captures a different reality (Table 1 below).

Table 1: GER [Gross Enrolment Ratio] in school education for different gender and social groups (2015-16)1

Level Male Female SC ST All

Primary (I-V) 97.9% 100.7% 110.9% 106.7% 99.2%
Upper Primary (VI-VIII) 88.7% 97.6% 102.4% 96.7% 92.8%
Secondary (IX-X) 79.2% 81% 85.3% 74.5% 80%
Senior Secondary (XI-XII) 56% 56.4% 56.8% 43.1% 56.2%

Source: Educational Statistics at Glance 2018, Ministry of Human Resource Development; PRS Legislative Research.

1
GER greater than 100% means children outside the class’ target age group also enrolled, thereby
studying in a lower class than what is appropriate for their age.
CURATED VOICES CASTE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA: LINKAGES, PROMISES, AND OBSTACLES I5

A move from primary to higher education charts a decline in the GER for all
groups. However, the drop is particularly stark for Scheduled Castes [SC] and
Scheduled Tribes [ST] communities. The annual average dropout rate of SCs
escalated from 4.9% at the primary level to 6.6% at the upper primary level to
21.8% at the secondary level during 2017-18. The annual average dropout of ST
went from 3.7% at the primary level to 6.1% at the upper primary level to 22.3%
at the secondary level (Rajya Sabha 2020). PRS Legislative Research (2020)
finds that the reason for dropping out from school was primarily engagement in
domestic activities for girls and engagement in economic activities for boys.

These differences become even more evident in state-level data, especially for
states such as Bihar and Jharkhand, which are among the worst-performing
states (Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment 2018).

REASONS BEHIND THE DISMAL STATUS OF

EDUCATION
Several factors such as a family’s income level, proximity to educational
institutes, perceived importance of education, cultural norms, discrimination
within institutes are some of the reasons that affect education enrolment in
marginalised groups. Even those who break systemic confines and access the
labour market with educational qualifications have lower chances of getting
selected for jobs than individuals from dominant castes. This is evidenced in
Kishore’s (2016) study that applied for jobs under different names, thereby
revealing caste identities. The research discovered that chances for Dalits or
Muslims being called for an interview were lower than for upper-caste Hindus.
The rejections mentioned above arrived despite availing complete education;
however, as discussed above, many reasons hinder SC/ST access to education.

The following section offers a deeper look into some of the factors influencing the
accessibility to education for marginalised communities.

1. Income Inequality

Income levels and access to resources go hand in hand. Families with higher
income levels often secure a better education. The Hindu Dominant Castes
[HDCs] boast four times more wealth than Scheduled Castes. HDCs hold
approximately 41% of the total wealth in the country, almost twice their population
size of 22.28%. Whereas SCs and STs own a mere 11.3% combined compared
to their population, which is over 27% (Agarwal 2019).

A steep disparity in the economic status of marginalised groups dictates that their
household’s expenditure tilts towards more immediate needs and returns rather
than long-term investments such as education. This vicious cycle results in a
large number of poorly educated individuals from marginalised communities.

2. Stereotyping

Karla Hoff and Priyanka Pandey from the World Bank (2016) conducted an
experiment to assess the effect of making caste identity salient on the intellectual
6 | SOCIAL & POLITICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION CURATED VOICES

performance of boys. In the experiment, students in a six-person session

generally unknown to each other were taught how to solve mazes and were
rewarded financially (in private) for the number of mazes that solved (which
was never publicly revealed). The control condition of the experiment, in which
each student’s caste was not revealed, demonstrated that boys from backward
castes solve mazes just as well as high-caste boys. However, publicly revealing
the boys’ caste identities reduced the performance of the backward caste boys.
Everything else equal, low-caste boys solved 23% fewer mazes than high-caste
boys if they were in a mixed-caste setting where caste identities were revealed.
This is an example of stereotype threat, suggesting that stereotyping a social
identity as mentally deficient influences their performances and self-image. Often
teachers and their peers imply that children from SC/ST communities are inferior,
thereby adversely impacting their academic performance(ibid).

3. Physical Abuse

Attacks against SC/STs rose from 44,000 in 2018 to 49,000 in 2019 (National
Crime Records Bureau 2021). According to a 2017 report by the International
Dalit Solidarity Network [IDSN], cases of violence in schools disproportionately
report sexual abuse of children belonging to marginalised communities. In a
case in Rajasthan, a principal beat 11 Dalit children for drinking water from
the common water pot, which, according to the principal, polluted the water for
everyone. Such instances discourage parents from marginalised communities
from sending their children to schools, which results in high dropout rates
(Mruthunjaya 2019).

4. Discrimination during Admissions

Discrimination during admissions to educational institutes further pushes

marginalised castes to the fringes. The National Commission for Backward
Classes’ [NCBC] look into grievances of Other Backward Classes [OBC] revealed
that they had received 15 complaints regarding discrimination in OBC admissions
to Central Universities and NEET admissions (Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment 2021). For all the uproar about reservations, many educational
institutions don’t even endeavour fully filling reserved seats. The enrollment rate
for SC and ST students between 2011 and 2018 was 13.45% and 4.8%, even
though the constitution mandates at least 15% and 7.5% (Sharma, Rampal
2019).

IMPACT OF CURRENT GOVERNMENT SCHEMES: A

CRITICAL ANALYSIS
To alleviate the barriers mentioned above, aside from affirmative action for
adequate representation of the marginalised classes, the Indian government
launched numerous schemes over time to improve the caste-rooted economic,
social, and education plight.

The government has put in place several welfare schemes to help SC, ST, and
OBC students get access to better education. Some such measures include
providing financial support, constructing special hostels, financial assistance
CURATED VOICES CASTE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA: LINKAGES, PROMISES, AND OBSTACLES I7

based on caste and livelihood for higher education, and offering financial aid for
pursuing higher education abroad2.

The number of beneficiaries against different schemes has indeed improved

since the implementation of the programs. But unfortunately, the impact has been
sparsely distributed and does not always impact the most oppressed, the ones
who need it the most.

Firstly, beneficiaries often lack awareness about application procedures of

different schemes intended to help them, making it difficult for the policies
to reach the target group. For example, the Gujarat government launched
Mukhyamantri Yuva Swavlamban Yojana to help 10th pass students with
monetary assistance for enrolment in higher studies. However, both students and
parents found it challenging to apply for the scheme on the government website
and mistakenly sent the necessary documents on The Indian Iris portal3. This
created confusion and left many targeted beneficiaries out of the process who
could not understand the entire process. The above example shows that complex
processes make it difficult for beneficiaries to understand and avail scheme
benefits (Nishant 2016) fully.

A second issue with policymaking is the lack of detailed information and elaborate
data on economic indicators and social status. For example, The National
Family Health Survey, the District Level Household Survey, and the Annual
Health Surveys collect information on the socio-economic status of women.
However, the list of economic indicators is limited to a checklist that includes only
household assets and the occupational status of household members (World
Bank 2017). Given that local data management systems are virtually non-
existent, it is difficult for policymakers to have the necessary information about
relevant indicators on the status and economic ability of households at a local
level (Bhatty 2019). Thus, policies made never fully consider the complexity faced
by the target group.

In addition to ensuring the right target audience and simple processes, experts
suggest that there is significant scope in rationalising social schemes. A.K. Shiva
Kumar, a Development Economist at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government,
said that the early childhood education scheme should not be managed by the
Women and Child Development Ministry but by the School Education Department
of the Human Resource Development Ministry (Nanda 2014). It is crucial to
ensure that social schemes do not run into overlapping objectives with different
ministries tangled in the monitoring and evaluation processes. Streamlining
ministries to lay clear frameworks and accountability will help to revamp and
reorganise social schemes.

These are only some prominent gaps that need to be worked on while designing
and implementing policies. Many aspects need to be factored in while creating
policy frameworks. The following section offers an insightful approach for
making policies targeted at improving access to opportunities and resources to

2
A detailed list of such prominent schemes with objectives for SC and OBCs can be found in the
Annexure.
3
A dedicated website for all government policies and schemes.
8 | SOCIAL & POLITICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION CURATED VOICES

marginalised castes.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
The previously discussed World Bank (World Bank 2017) study conducted in
Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Bihar offers a new lens aimed at policymaking for
eradicating caste and its debilitating impacts. It suggests that taking a closer look
at the caste by combining the caste/sub-castes influences with local dynamics
like geography, economic status, income level, gender differences, among
others, could reveal valuable policy insights. It indicates that policies closer to the
ground, such as those at Panchayat or block levels and within the beneficiaries’
reach, have a higher impact.

There are hundreds of sub-castes in each region of India, and there is no uniform
system of classifying them based on the amount of institutional assistance
they need. Members within a sub-caste have strong social ties across villages,
complicating matters for policymakers as it becomes difficult to fully comprehend
the range of factors to be considered in policymaking. Even the Indian census
continues to understand and use caste in only broad terms as it does not have
the identifiers for sub-castes. Over the years, the inclusion of different sub-
castes within eligible SC/ST categories has only swelled. For example, in 1935,
the colonial government typified 429 castes as SC. In the most recent census
of 2011, 1241 castes made the cut, along with 705 STs and additional inclusion
lists at the state level, thereby adding to overall evaluation problems (World Bank
2017).

The 2017 World Bank study suggests that there is high disparity even within
the castes. For example, in Bihar, Musahars have a significantly higher female
employment rate than any other SC sub-caste. They are 17% more likely to work
than the OBCs, Dominant Castes, and Muslims and are at least twice as likely
to work as the Dhobis (launderer) and ‘Other’ SC sub-castes. Anthropological
studies also note that Musahars, geographically concentrated in Bihar and
Eastern Uttar Pradesh, have a unique history and are one of the most politically,
economically, and socially marginalised groups in India (World Bank 2017).

In light of the complexity of castes and sub-castes divisions in India, working

with schemes and policies at only the caste level may be misleading. A more
targeted and grassroots approach is requisite as the first step to ensure the
policy benefits reach the target groups and create opportunities equitably. In
addition, creating awareness about the existing policies will ensure it reaches the
target beneficiaries. The government must ensure that the schemes have clear
instructions and do not create ambiguous clashes or overlaps with other policies.
This can create confusion for beneficiaries and the possibility of passing the
blame among government departments when results are not achieved.

Finally, a robust, transparent, and inclusive monitoring mechanism should

be set up to follow through with the beneficiaries and measure the intended
impact. Government organisations should also make an active grievance cell
within reach of beneficiaries to resolve any queries. This will actively involve the
beneficiaries in the process and also build their trust in the system. Over and
above the mentioned administrative reforms by the government, public action and
CURATED VOICES CASTE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA: LINKAGES, PROMISES, AND OBSTACLES I9

engagement like building social awareness about the need to eradicate caste in
everyday life should be propagated via social events, projects, and community-
building programs.

It is only through sustained efforts on various integrated fronts by different

governments, communities, and institutions that we can make sure education is
no longer determined by caste.
10 | SOCIAL & POLITICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION CURATED VOICES

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ambedkar and Roy (2014). Annihilation of Caste. New Delhi, India: Navayana
Publishing Private Ltd.

Bhatty, Kiran. (2019). “Better data can improve public education in India – draft
National Education Policy says it too”. The Print, 19 June 2019.
Accessed 12 May 2021, https://theprint.in/opinion/better-
data-can-improve-public-education-in-india-draft-national-
education-policy-says-it-too/251715/.

Choudhury Agarwal, Sushmita. (2019). “Upper caste Hindus own 41 per cent
of India’s total wealth: study”. Business Today, 14 February 2019.
Accessed 25 April 2021, https://www.businesstoday.in/current/
economy-politics/upper-caste-hindus-own-41-per-cent-india-total
wealth-study/story/318727.html.

Kishore, Roshan. (2016). “Caste matters everywhere: schools, jobs or life at

large”. The Mint, 28 January 2016. Accessed 21 May 2021, https://www.
livemint.com/Opinion/wquRqpqgRGfDP58kN9BNOM/
Caste-matters-everywhere-schools-jobs-or-life-at-large.html.

Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2018). State/UT-wise SCs

& PD Literacy Rate 2001. New Delhi, India: Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment.

Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2021). Unstarred Question

Number 297: Attacks against scheduled castes. New Delhi, India: Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment.

Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2021). Unstarred Question 3355

Discrimination in OBC Admissions in College. New Delhi, India: Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment.

Mruthunjaya, Anshuman. (2019). “Caste Based Discrimination in Indian Schools”.

Medium, 21 April 2019. Accessed 25 April 2021, https://medium.com/age-
of-awareness/caste-based-discrimination-in-indian-schools-
21b477be395c.

Nanda, Prashant K. (2014). “Economic Survey indicates no reduction in social

sector expenditure”. The Mint, 9 July 2014. Accessed 12 May
2021, https://www.livemint.com/Politics/d14WJPdCy4BgKJiQzdyCtJ/
Economic-Survey-indicates-no-reduction-in-social-sector-expe.html.

Nishant, Nachiket. (2016). “Why does government fail to implement a scheme

successfully?”. The Hans India, 18 April 2016. Accessed 12 May 2021,
https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/News-Analysis/2016-04-18/
Why-does-government-fail-to-implement-a-scheme-successfully/222285?i
nfinitescroll=1.
CURATED VOICES CASTE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA: LINKAGES, PROMISES, AND OBSTACLES I 11

PRS India. (2021). “National Education Policy : Recommendations and

the current scenario.” Accessed 13 July 2021, https://www.prsindia.org/
blogcomment/845523.

PRS Legislative Research. (2020). National Education Policy: Recommendations

and the current scenario. New Delhi, India: PRS Legislative Research.

Rajya Sabha. (2020). Three Hundred and Twelfth Report: Demands for Grants
2020-21. New Delhi, India: Rajya Sabha.

Sharma, Kritika and Nikhil Rampal. (2019). “Quota seats for SC, ST students in
higher education remain vacant, OBCs fare better”. The Print, 19 January
2019. Accessed 21 May 2021, https://theprint.in/india/
governance/quota-seats-for-sc-st-students-in-higher-education-remain-
vacant-obcs-fare-better/179765/.

World Bank. (2016). Policy Research Working Paper 7929. New Delhi, India:
World Bank.

World Bank. (2017). Are caste categories misleading?. New Delhi, India: World
Bank.
12 | SOCIAL & POLITICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION CURATED VOICES

ANNEXURE:

Scheme for OBCs Objective

To motivate children of OBCs studying at Pre-Matric
stage. Scholarships are awarded to students belonging
Pre-Matric Scholarship to the OBCs
to OBCs whose parents’/ guardian’s income from all
sources does not exceed INR 2,50,000 per annum.
Promote higher education by providing financial
Post-Matric Scholarship for the OBC students support to OBC students studying at post-Matric/post-
secondary levels leading to their earning PhD degrees.
Providing hostel facilities to students belonging to
socially and educationally backward classes, especially
Construction of Hostels for OBC Boys and Girls
from rural areas, enables them to pursue secondary
and higher education.
Involve the voluntary and skilling sector, through
National 107 BACKWARD CLASSES DEVELOPMENT
Backward Classes Finance and Development
Corporation (NBCFDC), to improve educational and
Assistance for Skill Development of OBCs/DNTs/
socio-economic conditions of the target group, i.e.,
EBCs (NGO Scheme)
OBCs/DNTs/EBCs etc. by way of upgrading their skill
to enable them to start income-generating activities on
their own or get gainfully employed in some sector or
the other.
Providing financial assistance to the OBC students in
obtaining quality higher education leading to degrees
National Fellowship (NF) for OBC Students
such as M. Phil and Ph. D in universities, research
institutions and scientific institutions.

“Dr. Ambedkar Scheme of Interest Subsidy on Award interest subsidy to meritorious OBC and EBC
Educational Loans for Overseas Studies for Other students so as to provide them better opportunities
Backward Classes (OBCs) and Economically Backward for higher education abroad and enhance their
Classes (EBCs)” employability.

To provide financial assistance to the EBC students

Dr. Ambedkar Scheme of Post Matric Scholarship for studying at post-matriculation or post-secondary stage.
Economically Backward Classes (EBCs) The income ceiling of parents/guardians for eligibility is
INR 2.50 lakh per annum.
Support those entrepreneurs from Backward Classes
Venture Capital Fund for OBCs who will create wealth and value for society while also
promoting profitable business.
Provide financial assistance to scheduled caste
Post Matric Scholarship for Scheduled Caste Students students studying at post matriculation or post-
(PMS-SC) secondary stage to enable them to complete their
education.
Support parents of SC children for education of their
wards studying in classes IX and X so that the incidence
of dropout, especially in the transition from the
Pre-Matric Scholarship for SC students studying IX elementary to the secondary stage, is minimised, and to
and X improve participation of SC children in classes IX and X
of the pre-matric stage so that they perform better and
have a better chance of progressing to the post-matric
stage of education.
CURATED VOICES CASTE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA: LINKAGES, PROMISES, AND OBSTACLES I 13

Under the scheme, financial assistance is provided for

pre-matric education (Classes I to X) to children of the
following target groups, irrespective of their caste or
family income:
Pre-Matric Scholarship to the Children of those 1. Persons who are Manual Scavengers as defined
engaged in occupations involving cleaning and prone under Section 2(I) (9) of the Manual Scavengers Act
to health hazards 2013
2. Tanner and Flayers
3. Waste pickers
4. Persons engaged in hazardous cleaning as defined
in Section (2)(I)(d) of the Manual Scavengers Act
2013
Facilitate the low-income students belonging to the
Scheduled Castes, Denotified Nomadic and Semi-
National Overseas
Nomadic Tribes, Landless Agricultural Labourers and
Scholarship for Scheduled Caste Students etc.
Traditional Artisans category to obtain higher education
viz., Masters.
Provide fellowships in the form of financial assistance
to students belonging to Scheduled Caste category
to pursue higher studies leading to M. Phil., PhD in
National Fellowships for SC Students
Science, Humanities, Social Science and Engineering
and Technology, in Indian Universities/
Institutions/Colleges recognised by UGC.
The scheme aims at integrated development of villages
Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY) where the population of Scheduled Castes is above
50%.
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