I.

INTRODUCTION TO
CLOTHING SELECTION

Intended Learning Outcome:

Analyze the cultural significance of clothing selection, including its role in gender
differentiation, social status, and religious practices.
Recognize the contemporary clothing, political issues, life cycle and global trade on
clothing industry

Clothing (also known as clothes, garments, dress, apparel, or attire) is any

item worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it
has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and
natural products found in the environment, put together. The wearing of clothing is
mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount
and type of clothing worn depends on gender, body type, social factors, and geographic
considerations. Garments cover the body, footwear covers the feet, gloves cover the
hands, while hats and headgear cover the head, and underwear covers the private parts.

Clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements,
rough surfaces, sharp stones, rash-causing plants, and insect bites, by providing a
barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothing can insulate against cold or hot
conditions, and it can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials
away from the body. It can protect feet from injury and discomfort or facilitate navigation
in varied environments. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation. It
may be used to prevent glare or increase visual acuity in harsh environments, such as
brimmed hats. Clothing is used for protection against injury in specific tasks and
occupations, sports, and warfare. Fashioned with pockets, belts, or loops, clothing may
provide a means to carry things while freeing the hands.

Clothing has significant social factors as well. Wearing clothes is a variable social
norm. It may connote modesty. Being deprived of clothing in front of others may
be embarrassing. In many parts of the world, not wearing clothes in public so
that genitals, breast, or buttocks are visible could be considered indecent exposure.
Pubic area or genital coverage is the most frequently encountered minimum found
cross-culturally and regardless of climate, implying social convention as the basis of
customs. Clothing also may be used to communicate social status, wealth, group
identity, and individualism.
 Some forms of personal protective equipment amount to clothing, such
as coveralls, chaps or a doctor's white coat, with similar requirements for maintenance
and cleaning as other textiles (boxing gloves function both as protective equipment and
as a sparring weapon, so the equipment aspect rises above the glove aspect). More
specialized forms of protective equipment, such as face shields are classified as
protective accessories. At the far extreme, self-enclosing diving suits or space
suits are form-fitting body covers, and amount to a form of dress, without being clothing
per se, while containing enough high technology to amount to more of a tool than a
garment. This line will continue to blur as wearable technology embeds assistive devices
directly into the fabric itself; the enabling innovations are ultra low power
consumption and flexible electronic substrates.

Clothing also hybridizes into a personal transportation system (ice skates, roller
skates, cargo pants, other outdoor survival gear, one-man band) or concealment system
(stage magicians, hidden linings or pockets in tradecraft, integrated holsters
for concealed carry, merchandise-laden trench coats on the black market — where the
purpose of the clothing often carries over into disguise). A mode of dress fit to purpose,
whether stylistic or functional, is known as an outfit or ensemble.

CLOTHING IS CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CLASSES:

 The fixed
 The modish

The fixed are substantially permanent and are not subject to fashion changes but vary
with each locality. The modish type predominates in the western countries and changes
rapidly in point of time over all parts of the world, which are subject to fashion changes.

Concerning the origin of clothing, there are major 4 theories, these are:

The Modesty Theory: The word “modesty” comes from the Latin word modestus which
means “keeping within measure”. This theory familiar to the Mesopotamian legends of
the garden of Eden and even seduction by the serpent holds that clothing was originally
donned to conceal the genital organs from a sense of shame, modesty, embarrassment,
or some other forms of sexual emotions. From this beginning it is assumed has grown
the practice of covering body more generally as sexual self-consciousness has become
more refined.

The Immodesty Theory: sexual attraction theory (Westmark 1921) people first wore
clothes in order to attract attention to the private parts *DRESS IS A POWERFUL
SEXUAL TOOL*This theory popularized by Westermarck and Havelock Ellis, maintains
that the intent and purpose of clothing in the begging was salacious, designed to attract
attention to sexual organs and sexual functions and in general to make the wearer a
greater object of sexual interest. This is the Doctrine that familiarity breeds indifference
and that concealment especially pretend or partial concealment increases interest.

The Adornment Theory: Clothing begins in he/She desire to attract attention or secure
preeminence not necessarily of a direct sexual sort. The primitive clothing on this theory
is conspicuous ornamentation. This theory refers to the decorative nature of clothes and
other forms of appearances; modifications for purposes of display, attraction or aesthetic
expression.

Projection Theory: This theory suggests that clothes protect humans from the
elements, animals or even supernatural forces.

1. Origin and History of Clothing

The first known humans to make clothing, Neanderthal man, survived from about
200,000 B.C.E. to about 30,000 B.C.E. During this time the earth’s temperature rose and
fell dramatically, creating a series of ice ages throughout the northern areas of Europe
and Asia where the Neanderthal man lived. With their compact, muscular bodies that
conserved body heat, Neanderthals were well adapted to the cold climate of their day.
But it was their large brain that served them best.

Neanderthal man learned to make crude but effective tools from stone. Tools
such as spears and axes made Neanderthals strong hunters, and they hunted the hairy
mammoths, bears, deer, musk oxen, and other mammals that shared their environment.
At some point, Neanderthals learned how to use the thick, furry hides from these
animals to keep them warm and dry. With this discovery, clothing was born.

2. Clothing as comfort
Comfort is related to various perceptions, physiological, social, and psychological
needs, and after food, it is clothing that satisfies these comfort needs. Clothing provides
aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort.

Aesthetic comfort

Visual perception is influenced by color, fabric construction, style,

garment fit, fashion compatibility, and finish of clothing material. Aesthetic
comfort is necessary for psychological and social comfort.
Thermoregulation and Thermophysiological comfort
Thermophysiological comfort is the capacity of the clothing material that
makes the balance of moisture and heat between the body and the environment.
It is a property of textile materials that creates ease by maintaining moisture and
thermal levels in a human's resting and active states. The selection of textile
material significantly affects the comfort of the wearer. Different textile fibers
have unique properties that make them suitable for use in various environments.
Natural fibers are breathable and absorb moisture, and synthetic fibers are
hydrophobic; they repel moisture and do not allow air to pass. :: Different
environments demand a diverse selection of clothing materials. Hence, the
appropriate choice is important.

Thermal comfort
One primary criterion for our physiological needs is thermal comfort. The heat
dissipation effectiveness of clothing gives the wearer a neither very hot nor very cold
feel. The optimum temperature for thermal comfort of the skin surface is between 28 and
30 °C (82 and 86 °F), i.e., a neutral temperature. Thermophysiology reacts whenever the
temperature falls below or exceeds the neutral point on either side; it is discomforting
below 28 and above 30 degrees. Clothing maintains a thermal balance; it keeps the skin
dry and cool. It helps to keep the body from overheating while avoiding heat from the
environment.

Tactile comfort
Tactile comfort is a resistance to the discomfort related to the friction created by
clothing against the body. It is related to the smoothness, roughness, softness, and
stiffness of the fabric used in clothing. The degree of tactile discomfort may vary
between individuals, which is possible due to various factors including allergies, tickling,
prickling, skin abrasion, coolness, and the fabric's weight, structure, and thickness.
There are specific surface finishes (mechanical and chemical) that can enhance tactile
comfort. Fleece sweatshirts and velvet clothing, for example. Soft, clingy, stiff, heavy,
light, hard, sticky, scratchy, prickly are all terms used to describe tactile sensations.

Pressure comfort

The comfort of the human body's pressure receptors' (present in the skin)
sensory response towards clothing. Fabric with lycra feels more comfortable because of
this response and superior pressure comfort. The sensation response is influenced by
the material's structure: snugging, looseness, heavy, light, soft, or stiff structuring.
3. Functions
The most obvious function of clothing is to
protect the wearer from the elements. It serves to
prevent wind damage and provides protection
from sunburn. In the cold, it offers thermal
insulation. Shelter can reduce the functional need
for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and
other outer layers are normally removed when
entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has
seasonal and regional aspects so that thinner
materials and fewer layers of clothing generally are
worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder
ones. Boots, hats, jackets, ponchos, and coats
designed to protect from rain and snow are
specialized clothing items.

Clothing has been made from a wide variety

of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics, to elaborate and exotic
natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles
carried rather than worn normally are considered accessories rather than clothing (such
as Handbags), items worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves),
worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or items that do not serve a protective function. For
instance, corrective eyeglasses, Arctic goggles, and sunglasses would not be
considered an accessory because of their protective functions.

Clothing protects against many things that might injure or irritate the naked
human body, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun.
Garments that are too sheer, thin, small, or tight offer less protection. Appropriate
clothes can also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing
protects from specific hazards, such as insects, toxic chemicals, weather, weapons, and
contact with abrasive substances.

Humans have devised clothing solutions to environmental or other hazards: such

as space suits, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle
leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. The distinction
between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut since clothes
designed to be fashionable often have protective value, and clothes designed for
function often have corporate fashion in their design.

The choice of clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body
that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other
social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure appropriate clothing due to
poverty or affordability, or lack of inclination, sometimes is said to be worn, ragged, or
shabby.[31]
 Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual,
occupational, gender differentiation, and social status. [32] In many societies, norms about
clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may
also function as adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.

4. Cultural Aspects
Clothing has long served as a marker of social status, gender, and cultural
identity, reflecting broader societal structures and values.

 Gender differentiation

In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The

differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types.

In contemporary Western societies, skirts, dresses, and high-heeled shoes are

usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties usually are seen as men's
clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing, but nowadays are worn by
both genders. Men's clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a
wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically,
men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally
common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as
unusual. Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such
as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In previous times,
such garments often were worn as normal daily clothing by men.

In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to
wear. Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire, usually hijab. What items required
varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their
bodies than men. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range
from the head-scarf to the burqa.

Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-

shirts, have started out as menswear, but some articles, such as the fedora, originally were a
style for women.
 Social Status

During the early modern period, individuals utilized their attire as a significant
method of conveying and asserting their social status. Individuals employed the
utilization of high-quality fabrics and trendy designs as a means of communicating
their wealth and social standing, as well as an indication of their knowledge and
understanding of current fashion trends to the general public. As a result, clothing
played a significant role in making the social hierarchy perceptible to all members of
society.

In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient

Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In
traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and
palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of the republic, only
the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of
elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without
such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is signaled by the
purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or
status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.
 Religion

Some religious clothing

might be considered a special
case of occupational clothing.
Sometimes it is worn only during
the performance of religious
ceremonies. However, it may be
worn every day as a marker for
special religious status. Sikhs
wear a turban as it is a part of
their religion.
5. Contemporary Clothing
 Western Dress Code

The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The
mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at
affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has
changed the definition of what is "stylish". In the latter half of the twentieth
century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally
demand formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market.

 Spread of Western Styles

By the early years of the twenty-first

century, western clothing styles had, to some
extent, become international styles. This
process began hundreds of years earlier, during
the periods of European colonialism. The
process of cultural dissemination has been
perpetuated over the centuries, spreading
Western culture and styles, most recently as
Western media corporations have penetrated
markets throughout the world. Fast
fashion clothing has also become a global
phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing.
Also, donated used clothing from Western countries is delivered to people in poor
countries by charity organizations.

 Ethnic and Cultural Heritage

People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles
or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-
style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions,
such as weddings and cultural holidays. Also, items of Western dress may be worn
or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a
used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.

 Sports and Activity

For practical, comfort or safety reasons, most sports and physical activities are
practised wearing special clothing. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-
shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet
suits (for swimming, diving, or surfing), salopettes (for skiing), and leotards (for
gymnastics). Also, spandex materials often are used as base layers to soak up sweat.
Spandex is preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as
volleyball, wrestling, track and field, dance, gymnastics, and swimming.

 Fashion

Paris set the 1900–1940 fashion trends for Europe and North America. In the 1920s the
goal was all about getting loose. Women wore dresses all day, every day. Day dresses
had a drop waist, which was a sash or belt around the low waist or hip and a skirt that
hung anywhere from the ankle on up to the knee, never above. Day wear had sleeves
(long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleated, hank hemmed, or tiered.
Jewelry was not conspicuous. Hairwas often bobbed, giving a boyish look.

In the early twenty-first century a diverse range of styles exists in fashion, varying
by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from
expensive haute couture, to traditional garb, to thrift store grunge. Fashion shows are
events for designers to show off new and often extravagant designs.
6. Political Issues
 Working conditions in the garments industry

Although mechanization transformed most aspects of human clothing industry,

by the mid-twentieth century, garment workers have continued to labor under
challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Often, mass-
produced clothing is made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops,
typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While
most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made
in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions.

Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American

Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun), and campaign groups such as
the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human
Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these
conditions by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both
the media and the general public to the plight of the workers.

Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh, China,

India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre
Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports,
was deemed a protectionist measure. Although many countries recognize treaties
such as the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for
worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of
the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified
sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.

The production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing

nations, providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to
millions of people.
 Fur

The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. Currently, although
fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth
and protection, in developed countries it is associated with expensive, designer clothing.
Once uncontroversial, recently it has been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that
campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA and other animal and animal
liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider
cruel.

Real fur in fashion is contentious, with Copenhagen (2022) and London (2018)
fashion weeks banning real fur in its runway shows following protests and government
attention to the issue. Fashion houses such as Gucci and Chanel have banned the use
of fur in its garments.] Versace and Furla also stopped using fur in their collections in
early 2018. In 2020, the outdoor brand Canada Goose announced it would discontinue
the use of new coyote fur on parka trims following protests.

Governing bodies have issued legislation banning the sale of new real fur
garments. In 2021, Israel was the first government to ban the sale of real fur garments,
with the exception of those worn as part of a religious faith. In 2019, the state of
California banned fur trapping, with a total ban on the sale of all new fur garments except
those made of sheep, cow, and rabbit fur going into effect on January 1, 2023.

7. Life Cycle
 Clothing Maintenance

Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds
skin cells and body oils, and it exudes sweat, urine, and feces that may soil clothing.
From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and
lice can hide in seams. If not cleaned and refurbished, clothing becomes worn and loses
its aesthetics and functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics
thin or tear, and zippers fail).

Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present
problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without
dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials
such as these inevitably age.

Most clothing consists of cloth, however, and most cloth can be laundered and
mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).
 Laundry, Ironing, Storage

Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering clothing,

ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the
latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other
than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning, and ironing are all traditional
methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.

Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove
wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for
example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and
neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily
wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been
treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and
creates a smooth appearance without ironing. Excess lint or debris may end up on the
clothing in between launderings. In such cases, a lint remover may be useful.

Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, usually they are hung
on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded
to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases, or to
present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance, when they are put on sale in
stores.

Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as
the black carpet beetle and clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored
in cedar-lined closets or chests,[60] or placed in drawers or containers with materials
having pest repellent properties, such as lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such
as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may deter insect pest damage to clothing materials
as well.

 Mending

When the raw material – cloth – was worth more than labor, it made sense to
expend labor in saving it. In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor
or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so
skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. Today clothing is considered a
consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required
to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending.
The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems, however. Other
mending techniques include darning and invisible mending or upcycling through visible
mending inspired in Japanese Sashiko.
 Recycling

It is estimated that 80 billion to 150 billion garments are produced

annually. Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages,
and many other household uses. Neutral colored or undyed cellulose fibers can be
recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to
charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress
agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Also, used clothing often is collected on
an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally,
used clothes are worth $4 billion, with the U.S. as the leading exporter at $575 million.

Synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals, are not renewable or

biodegradable.

Excess inventory of clothing is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value.