Labour Productivity

Introduction
Labour productivity is an important concept in the construction industry that refers to the
amount of output or work that can be achieved by a worker or a group of workers in a given
amount of time. It is a crucial factor that determines the efficiency and profitability of
construction projects. Labour productivity can be affected by various factors such as the skills
and experience of the workers, the availability and quality of equipment and tools, the level of
organization and planning of the work, and the working conditions on the construction site. In
this introduction, we will explore the concept of labour productivity in construction in more
detail, examining its significance and how it can be improved to optimize construction projects.

Importance of labour productivity in construction

Labour productivity is a crucial metric in optimizing the cost of the project. Also, the
productivity measurement identifies the weak areas of performance. The following points will
clear the importance of labour productivity in construction.
1. Reduction in Project Cost
The labour cost is almost 25 – 40% of the project cost. The correct estimation of labour
productivity reduces the surplus-labour therefore a reduction in the overall project cost.
2. Timely Completion of Job
The labour productivity identifies the performance backlogs. The replacement of lesser
skilled labour with skilled labour ensures the timely completion of the job.
3. Enhanced Supervision
The low productivity jobs are specially monitored and controlled.
4. Quality of Work
Quality is one of the prime objectives of project management. The high-precision jobs
are planned to be done by skilled and productive labours.
5. Labour Mobilization and Demobilization Plan
The requirement of labour is as per the project stages. The initial and closing phases
need lesser workers. The mobilization and demobilization plans take care of the labour
requirement and cost accordingly.
6. Manpower Histogram
Labour productivity and the activity duration are the basis for the labour requirement
calculation. A histogram is a statistical tool for easy analysis of labour requirement
versus availability.
7. Cash Flow Requirement
The Labour requirement histogram helps calculate the wages for the month.
8. Facilities for Workers
The labour productivity yields the labour requirement, which is the basis of labour
accommodation and utility planning.
Understanding Labour Productivity in Construction: Key Findings and
Insights
Labour productivity is a crucial factor in determining the efficiency and profitability of
construction projects. In recent years, there have been several studies conducted to understand
the patterns and factors that affect labour productivity in construction. Some of the key findings
from these studies include:
Tuesday and 10 a.m. are the Most Productive Time of the Week and Day:
Studies suggest that Tuesday is the most productive day of the week, while 10 a.m. is the most
productive time of the day. This is attributed to the fact that workers have settled into their
work week and are well-rested and focused.
Labourers are Capable of Lifting Up to 94 Pounds (42.6 kg):
On average, a labourer is capable of lifting up to 94 pounds (42.6 kg) on his own. However,
this can vary depending on the task at hand, the worker's physical fitness, and other factors.
Least Productive Time Frame and Repeating the Same Task:
The least productive time frame for labour is right before the finishing time. Additionally,
studies suggest that if a labourer performs the same task repeatedly, there is a chance of low
productivity after 60-70 minutes of performing the same work.

Friday is the Least Productive Day of the Week:

Studies suggest that Friday is the least productive day of the week, likely due to workers being
fatigued and distracted as the week comes to a close.
Time Utilization of the Average Construction Worker:
The time utilization of the average construction worker is broken down as follows: 55.5%
productive time, 29.4% unproductive time, 13% extra breaks, and 2.1% supervision time.
Understanding these findings can help construction companies and managers optimize their
labour productivity, by identifying factors that affect productivity and taking measures to
address them.

Introduction and Techniques for Work Measurement

Work measurement is a process used in the construction industry to accurately determine the
time it takes to complete a specific task. By understanding the time it takes to complete tasks,
construction companies can better plan their projects, optimize their resources and ensure that
projects are completed on time and on budget.
Work measurement can be divided into two main categories, direct and indirect methods. The
direct method includes time study and work sampling, which measure the time it takes for a
worker to perform a specific task. On the other hand, the indirect method uses standard times,
formulas and analytical techniques to estimate the time required to complete a task. Some of
the indirect methods include synthesis from standard data, pre-determined motion time system,
estimating, analytical estimating, and comparative estimating. In this article, we will explore
these methods of work measurement in more detail, highlighting their strengths and limitations,
and their importance in the construction industry.

Analyzing Labour Productivity through Work Sampling

Work sampling is a technique that provides valuable information to a construction manager
regarding areas of low productivity that need corrective action. It is a method that involves
taking a series of instantaneous observations, or "snapshots," of work in progress over a period
of time. This technique provides information on the amount of time workers spend performing
productive, supportive, and non-productive tasks. Work sampling's main advantage is that it
allows for simultaneous monitoring of labour productivity in a variety of trades. This technique
is particularly useful when monitoring more than one trade. However, when monitoring more
than one trade, the observer(s) need to distinguish the different trades so that observations are
not incorrectly categorized. Work sampling is an effective tool for identifying areas of low
productivity in a construction project, and can be used to help managers develop strategies for
improving productivity.

How Work Sampling Works?

Work sampling is a statistical technique that is used to determine the proportions of time spent
by subjects, such as workers or machines, in various defined categories of activity. These
categories of activity could include setting up a machine, producing parts, being idle, and so
on. To conduct a work sampling study, a large number of observations need to be made for the
subjects over an extended period of time. The objective is to find the proportion of time that
the subjects spend in each activity category based on the proportion of observations in that
category. Work sampling provides valuable information to construction managers, enabling
them to identify and manage non-productive time, and optimize the use of resources on a
construction project. By using work sampling to determine the proportions of time spent on
different activities, construction managers can identify areas where productivity can be
improved, reduce downtime, and increase efficiency.

Considerations for Conducting Accurate Work Sampling Studies

Work sampling is a powerful tool for measuring labour productivity in construction. However,
to ensure statistical accuracy, certain considerations must be taken into account. Observations
must be taken at random times and the period of the study must be representative of the types
of activities performed by the subjects. Work sampling is well-suited for situations where there
is sufficient time available to perform the study, usually several weeks, and when multiple
subjects are involved. It is also effective when measuring long cycle times and non-repetitive
work cycles that involve various tasks, rather than just one task. Work activities must be
divided into categories for accurate analysis. Work sampling can provide valuable information
to construction managers, enabling them to identify areas where productivity can be improved,
reduce downtime, and increase efficiency. By considering these factors when conducting work
sampling studies, construction managers can obtain accurate and actionable data to optimize
their projects.
Limitations of Work Sampling and Alternative Techniques
Although work sampling is a valuable technique for measuring labour productivity, it is not
always suitable for all types of work. Highly repetitive jobs with short cycle times performed
by one worker are not well-suited for work sampling, nor are jobs requiring immediate
measurement of a task. In such cases, other techniques, such as Direct Time Study (DTS),
Standard Data System (SDS), and Predetermined Motion Time Systems (PMTS) may be more
appropriate. It is important for construction managers to select the most appropriate technique
for each situation to obtain accurate data for decision-making. Work sampling is also known
by other names, such as activity sampling, occurrence sampling, ratio delay study, and snap
reading method. By being aware of the limitations of work sampling and alternative techniques,
construction managers can effectively measure labour productivity and optimize their
construction projects.

Measuring Machine and Worker Utilization

In addition to measuring the productivity of workers, it is also important to measure the
utilization of machines on construction sites. Machine utilization can be measured by assessing
how much time is spent by machines in various categories of activity, such as setup, production,
downtime, and so on. Similarly, worker utilization can be measured by assessing how workers
spend their time in various activities. To obtain accurate data for decision-making, time
allowances for various activities need to be considered, including an assessment of delay
components in the Personal needs, fatigue, and unavoidable delays (PFD) allowance factor.
Delay components such as machine malfunctions, downtime, and other interruptions need to
be factored into the data obtained from time studies to accurately assess worker and machine
productivity. By measuring machine and worker utilization, construction managers can identify
areas of improvement to optimize productivity on construction sites.

Determining Average Unit Time and Time Standards

Another important aspect of work measurement is determining the average time required to
complete each work unit. This information can be obtained by dividing the total time observed
during a work sampling study by the number of units produced. Time standards can then be
established based on the average unit time, especially in certain work situations such as office
work. However, it is important to note that work sampling provides limited statistical accuracy,
and therefore, the standards set by work sampling should not be used for incentive pay work.
By determining the average unit time and establishing time standards, construction managers
can optimize workflow and improve productivity on construction sites.

How Work Sampling Works

Example 1
A total of 500 observations were taken at random times during a one-week period (40 hours)
on 10 machines with results shown below.
Category No. of observations
1) Being Set up 75
2) Running Production 300
3) Machine idle 125
 Total 500

How many hours per week did an average machine spend in each category?
Solution
Proportions of time determined as number of observations in each category divided by 500
Time in each category determined by multiplying proportion by total hours (40 hr)

Category Proportion Hours per category

1) Being set up 75/500 = 0.15 0.15 x 40 = 6
2) Running 300/500 = 0.60 0.60 x 40 = 24
production
3) Machine idle 125/500 = 0.25 0.25 x 40 = 10
1.00 40

Example 2
A construction site manager conducted a work sampling study for a period of 50-hour
workweek and observed the activities of workers involved in formwork, reinforcement, and
concreting. The manager recorded the following observations:
Activities
Formwork Number of Reinforcement Number of Concreting Number of
observations observations observations
Plywood 188 Tying of 204 Setting up 54
transportation reinforcement concrete
pump
Formwork erection 288 Iron fabrication 304 Concrete 182
compaction
Giving or receiving 18 Iron material 24 Concrete 72
order transportation curing
Crane Operator 88 Giving or 94 Concrete 105
(Lifting of receiving order transportation
materials)
Shoring and 54 Crane operator 74 Giving or 45
Bracing receiving
order
Private Time 20 Cleaning 25 Crane 65
operator
Delay due to 40 Minor Cont. 65 Checking the 25
weather Work batch sheet
Delay due to crane 25 Walking bare 25 Performing 35
handed slump test
Waiting for 35 Attending 54 Pep talk to 65
material phone call labours
 Activities
Formwork Number of Reinforcement Number of Concreting Number of
observations observations observations
Walking bare hand 30 Waiting for 47 Walking bare 25
material or handed
Order
Waiting for next 35 Waiting for the 35 Waiting for 35
job next job RMC
Sitting, drinking, 25 Private time 20 Delay due to 30
and Smoking weather
Formwork Total 486 Delay due to 25 Concreting 738
weather Total
Delay due to 35
crane
Sitting, 45
drinking, and
Smoking
Reinforcement 1076
Total

A) What is the percentage of non-productive activities for each task at the job site?
B) Calculate the labour utilization ratio (LUR) for each task and critically comment on the
labour-crew productivity for the job.
Assume that the number of activities observed is representative of the entire workweek and
that non-productive activities have the same duration as productive activities.

Solution
Step 1: Categorizing the activity type for Formwork, Reinforcement and Concreting task:
Activities
Formwork Category Reinforcement Category Concreting Category
Plywood Essential Tying of Effective/ Setting up Essential
transportation contributory reinforcement Productive concrete pump contributory
Formwork Effective/ Iron Essential Concrete Effective/
erection Productive fabrication contributory compaction Productive
Giving or Essential Iron material Essential Concrete curing Essential
receiving contributory transportation contributory contributory
order
Crane Essential Giving or Essential Concrete Essential
Operator contributory receiving contributory transportation contributory
(Lifting of order
materials)
Shoring and Essential Crane operator Essential Giving or Essential
Bracing contributory contributory receiving order contributory
Private Time Non- Cleaning E-ssential Crane operator Essential
Productive/ contributory contributory
Idle
 Activities
Formwork Category Reinforcement Category Concreting Category
Delay due to Non- Minor Cont. Essential Checking the Essential
weather Productive/ Work contributory batch sheet contributory
Idle
Delay due to Non- Walking bare Non- Performing Essential
crane Productive/ handed Productive/ slump test contributory
Idle Idle
Waiting for Non- Attending Non- Pep talk to Essential
material Productive/ phone call Productive/ labours contributory
Idle Idle
Walking bare Non- Waiting for Non- Walking bare Non-
hand Productive/ material or Productive/ handed Productive/
Idle Order Idle Idle
Waiting for Non- Waiting for Non- Waiting for RMC Non-
next job Productive/ the next job Productive/ Productive/
Idle Idle Idle
Sitting, Non- Private time Non- Delay due to Non-
drinking, and Productive/ Productive/ weather Productive/
Smoking Idle Idle Idle
Delay due to Non-
weather Productive/
Idle
Delay due to Non-
crane Productive/
Idle
Sitting, Non-
drinking, and Productive/
Smoking Idle

Step 2: Work Sampling Analysis (adding the observations category wise and finding
proportion and calculating LUR)

Activities Category Sum of observations Proportion LUR (%)

(%)

Formwork Effective/ 288 288/846 (288+0.25x348)

Productive = 34.04 % / 846
Essential 188+18+88+54 348/846 = 44.32%
contributory = 348 = 41.13 %
Non- 20+40+25+35+30+35+25 210/846
Productive/ = 210 = 24.82%
Idle
Formwork Subtotal 288+348+210 100%
= 846
 Activities Category Sum of observations Proportion LUR (%)
(%)

Reinforcement Effective/ 204 204/1076 (204+0.25 x

Productive = 18.96% 586) / 1076
Essential 304+24+94+74+25+65 586/1076 = 32.57%
contributory = 586 = 54.46%
Non- 25+54+47+35+20+25+35+45 286/1076
Productive/ = 286 = 26.58%
Idle
Reinforcement subtotal 1076 100%
Concreting Effective/ 182 182/738 (182+0.25 x
Productive = 24.66 % 466) / 738
Essential 54+72+105+45+65+25+35+65 466/738 = 40.44%
contributory = 466 = 63.14%
Non- 25+35+30 90/738
Productive/ = 90 = 12.20%
Idle
Concreting subtotal 738 100%

Here, Labour Utilization Rate (LUR) is calculated using the formula:

1
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝐿𝑈𝑅 (%) = 4
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Accordingly,
A) The percentage of non-productive activities for each task at the job site is:

Activity % of non-productive activities

Formwork 24.82%
Reinforcement 26.58%
Concreting 12.20%

B) The labour utilization ratio (LUR) for each task:

Activity LUR (%) Remarks
Formwork 44.32% The LUR is just adequate.
Though it can be improved
further.
 Activity LUR (%) Remarks
Reinforcement 32.57% The LUR is less than 40%
indicating labour crew
productivity for
reinforcement is not
optimal.
Concreting 40.44% The LUR is just adequate.
Though it can be improved
further.

Overall, at construction project, there is a need to improve the labour productivity. To improve
the productivity, a detailed analysis of the work activities should be done to identify the reasons
for the low utilization rate. Possible reasons could be ineffective work practices, inadequate
training, or inefficient work processes. Once the causes are identified, appropriate measures
can be taken to address them, such as providing additional training to the workers,
implementing better work processes, or improving the availability of resources.

Time Study

Time study is a technique used to measure the time it takes for a worker to complete a
specific task or activity. The goal is to identify the most efficient way to perform the task
while minimizing wasted time and effort.

In construction projects, time studies can be used to:

 Develop accurate project schedules: By determining the time required to complete

specific tasks, project managers can create accurate schedules that take into account
the available resources, including labor and equipment.

 Set productivity standards: Time studies can be used to determine the productivity
rate of workers and crews for specific tasks. These productivity standards can be used
to track performance, set goals, and identify opportunities for improvement.
  Identify and reduce waste: Time studies can help identify areas where waste occurs,
such as waiting for materials or equipment, excessive travel time, or unnecessary
movement.

 Improve safety: By identifying potential safety hazards or ergonomic issues, time

studies can help reduce the risk of injuries and improve the safety of the work
environment.

 Overall, time studies can help construction projects improve efficiency, reduce costs,
and increase productivity.

Fig. Before and After implementing Time Study for brickwork task

Calculating Labour Productivity

The simplest way for calculating labour productivity is to divide the output by the input.
The output is the job done by the labour, such as shuttering; rebar cutting-bending
work, concrete pouring work, etc. The following image shows the labour productivity
equation –
Formula for Labour Productivity Calculation
The labour productivity calculated by the above formula is for the complete job. However,
the daily, weekly and monthly productivity can also be calculated by modifying the labour
productivity formula accordingly. The following image shows the labour productivity
equation for daily and monthly labour productivity.

Formula for Daily & Weekly Labour Productivity Calculation

Similarly, the calculation of monthly labour productivity is possible by the above formula
by putting monthly values.

Labour Productivity Calculations for Different Construction Works

Labour productivity calculations for different construction works are as follows:
1. Labour Productivity for Excavation Work
 2. Labour Productivity for Reinforcement Works
3. Labour Productivity for Shuttering Works
4. Labour Productivity for Concrete Work
1. Labour Productivity For Excavation Works
Small-scale construction requires manual excavation works. The method is limited to
excavation in soft soils with a maximum depth of 1.5-3 m. The excavation activity involves
the measurement and marking of the pit, excavation up to desired depth, taking out the
excavated soil of the pit, and disposal at a suitable dumping location.

Excavation Work
The output of the excavation works is the soil excavation and its disposal. The unit of work
is cubic meters (cum). The following image shows the labour productivity equation for
excavation work.
 Excavation Work Labour Productivity Calculation
02. Labour Productivity for Reinforcement Works

Reinforcement Works
The reinforcement works include several activities such as-
 Rebar selection and transportation from store yard to the steelyard
 Rebar straightening
 Marking & cutting
 Bending in the desired shape
 Transporting to the worksite
 Placing & fixing in the member (footing, beam, column, slab, etc.)
A fitter (bar binder), helper and unskilled complete the rebar job. The labour productivity
is calculated as per the rebar fixing, as it is the last activity for the rebar work. The rebar
work productivity is in kg per man-day. The following image shows the labour
productivity equation for rebar work.

Rebar Work Labour Productivity Calculation

For, large construction projects where a separate team cuts and bends the bar and a
different team fixes the bar, the rebar work productivity for cutting-bending and fixing is
calculated.
However, the diameter of the rebar plays an important role in defining labour productivity.
The higher diameter bars (>20mm dia.) yield more labour productivity than the lower
diameter bars (<20 mm dia.).
03. Labour Productivity for Shuttering Works
 Shuttering Work
The shuttering work is a collection of multiple activities like-
 Board making and re-making
 Transporting the shuttering material at the work site
 Staging for the superstructure shuttering jobs
 Fixing of shuttering in place
 Applying the supports and props to the shuttering fixed
The following image shows the labour productivity equation for shuttering work.

Shuttering Work Labour Productivity Calculation

The measurement of shuttering fixing is in a square meter. The unit for shuttering work
productivity is square meters per man-day. The shuttering job employs carpenters, helpers
and unskilled labours.

According to the research paper “Labour productivity Measurement method using 3D

BIM of a Commercial Project” developed by ‘M Archana Menon, Shibi Varghese’, you
may take the standard labour productivity for formwork of heights up to 10m as –

Standard Labour Productivity for Formwork

 Labour Productivity for Concreting Works

Concreting Work
A team of masons, helpers and unskilled labours complete the concreting work. The
activities performed for the entire work are-

 Transporting of construction material from store to the mixing plant

 For manual works, the labour mixes the material, adds water to it.
 For batching plant, the labour helps the batching plant operator.
 Transportation from batching plant to the worksite
 Concrete pump operation and concrete pipeline work
 Concrete compaction or vibration
 Levelling and Finishing
The following image shows the labour productivity equation for concrete work.
Concrete Work Productivity Calculation
The labour productivity of the concrete work is cubic meters per man-day.

The concrete mixing in batching plant and transportation by transit mixer significantly
improves labour productivity. On the other hand, the Capex requirement is also higher.
According to the research paper “A Study on Construction Labour
productivity Parameters in India” developed by ‘K Dasari, and Rao Rameshwara C B’,
The standard labour attributes and their constants for 1, cum of RCC in building
construction up to plinth level as per IS7272, Telangana State Building Data (TS), and
CPWD are as follows –
Standard Labour Attributes & Their Constants

How to improve labour productivity in construction?

Planning and ensuring the availability of the right tools for the work, particularly in this digital
era.
Facilitation of work with construction equipment like the crane, bar cutting machine, bar
bending machine, and wheelbarrow for concrete transportation.
Ensure the drawings are clear before handing them to the site workers. Discuss the working
methodology with the carpenters, fitters and masons to reinforce the correct procedure. The
methodology discussion reduces rework.
Develop a safety culture at the site. The labours should have information on occupational
hazards. The safety culture motivates the labour to focus on the work.
Supervisors should behave impartially with the workers. The implementation of fair working
culture should prevail.
Time and motion study is a tool to identify the unnecessary movements by workers. It helps in
reducing fatigue and timely completion of the job.
Enhance the work site facility. General and job-specific lighting at night, rain protection, etc.
should be kept handy.
Recognize the good performers and make them role models for other workers. Also, encourage
the workers to take ownership of their work.
Reward the timely completion of work. It enhances labour productivity. Similarly, punish the
non-performer at the right time.

Labour Productivity and Overtime

Let us take a case where number of labourers are 10 and the overtime duration is 10 weeks
No of hours of work required by 1 labour to complete the total work
= No of week *No of labour * No of hours/week * Efficiency 10*10*50*1
= 5000 hours
First let us assume there is no overtime and we employ more labour

No of labour days required = No of hours / Working hours/ day = 5000/8 = 625 labour days
Amount payable = No of labour days * wage/day =625*800= Rs 5,00,000
Now let us assume there are five 10 hours days a week i.e. overtime of 2 working hours/day
No of labour days required by 1 labour to complete the whole work without any loss in
productivity
= No of hours / working hours per day = 5000/10 = 500 labour days
However, there will be impact on their efficiency.
Below mentioned table shares the sensitivity analysis with increased overtime and number of
week of extended overtime (OT).