OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

C H AP T E R 4

WO R K S TU D Y

Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Conduct the method study.
Prepare the charts for data collection for method study
Do the process improvement effectively.

Structure
4.1 Understanding the Work Study
4.2 Method Study Concept
4.3 SREDIM
4.4 Tools for Method Study
4.5 Key Words
4.6 Summary

4.1 Understanding the Work Study

To increase productivity, two important functions of production management are :

installation of the most effective method of performing the operation and the control of
resources - mainly plant and labour - required in carrying out the operation.
Work study, formerly known as Time and Motion Study, fulfills these two requirements
through its two complimentary specializations of Methods Study and Work
Measurement
Work Study is the systematic examination of the methods of carrying out activities
such as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of
performance for the activities carried out.
Another definition of Work Study could be:
A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work
measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts,
and which lead systematically to to the investigation of all the factors which affect the
efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, to effect improvement'. This
has to do with Productivity Improvement, but also improvement of Quality and Safety.
Work study includes Method study and work measurement
Method Study aims to determine the most effective method of performing a job, the
most logical layout of manufacturing facilities, the smooth flow of men and materials
throughout the

1 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

organization and the right placement of inspection stages to enable processing of a

job through the smallest possible time and at the least possible cost.
Work Measurement on the other hand helps to determine the time required by the
operator to complete a specified task for the defined method at the defined pace of
performance.
Method study and work measurement though they are considered as two separate
techniques, yet they are closely related and complement each other. Needless to
mention that the time for a job can be assessed accurately only after standardizing the
method which implies that method study should precede work measurement.
The relationship between method study and work measurement is shown in
Fig. 17.1.
Work study for long was known as “Time and Motion Study” but with the development
of the technique and its application to a wide range of activities, it was felt that its old
title was insufficiently descriptive. Work study term, therefore, was coined and the
same is now generally accepted.
Work study is concerned with managing people within operations involves actual
design decisions about jobs, methods, relationships between jobs and machines and
systems of control and communication. Work design involves complex "people"
relationships between operative staff, supervisors and specialists e.g. engineering
managers and staff who commission new machines and maintain them. Other
specialists may co-ordinate health and safety systems or monitor performance and
plan maintenance
People are not mere extensions to machines or horsepower to be switched on and off.
A worker's performance may be better than a machine's capability - yet a machine
may outstrip the human being for many tasks.
People can be hurt/injured physically by operating environments or trapped socially
and psychologically in them/by them. How operational systems are designed and the
jobs and performance relationships within them are of great operational, economic,
and social importance. In this context then work-study is a collection of techniques
used to examine work - what is done and how it is done - so that there is systematic
analysis of all the elements, factors, resources, and relationships affecting the
efficiency and effectiveness of the work being studied.
Considerable diplomacy and sensitivity is needed by the industrial engineer or
operations manager who becomes involved in work study (or business process
improvement) investigations.
Method study and work measurement are two principal activities of work study which
originated in the work of F. W. Taylor F.W. Taylor's "scientific management"
imperatives are:

investigate the work situation and identify weaknesses - where and why is poor
performance happening? The "scientific" title for this approach to management
means placing emphasis on data gathering and rational analysis certain

2 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

narrow assumptions about the objectivity of efficiency criteria the existence of

direct, deterministic relationships between worker performance and incentive
payments and consideration of the worker to some extent as a machine. Thus
we can evaluate and introduce improvements in operating methods. This
includes type of equipment, its use, layout of operations, supply and use of
materials, materials handling, work organization, effectiveness of planning
procedures and so on. Productivity improvement is the aim.
we can select staff with characteristics that fit the job, train and reward them
using payment schemes the offer particular economic incentive by linking payment
to measured performance.

Such propositions are commonly the stuff of managerial populists and "how to" texts
on human resource management.
In the 1950's and 1960's the work study officer or O&M Person (organization and
methods) gathered the data and gave advice. In the 1970's the titles evolved e.g. to
that of management services officer. Work-study and methods study came within the
scope of the industrial engineer. Today the techniques of method study are inclusive
within the tool-kits and applications of the business systems analyst. The most
modern application of some of the techniques of work study is the early 1990's
managerial receipe; "business process reengineering" i.e. re-designing business
processes which have developed to the extent that they mismatch the needs of the
situation today. However -- having said this - the scope for work study definition and
evaluation is useful for operations managers in a general sense. Such roles require
data on operational capacities and effectiveness and the use of time and resources.
Methods need regular re-evaluation. Some may have evolved and changed over time
to become disjointed, patch works that no longer fully serve requirements. The case
may need to be put for more staff or new methods and equipment. Such arguments
call for data and measurement.
How many extra hours/people are needed? Why? What will the new method offer? Is
it possible to change methods? What will be the costs/benefits?
Thus the techniques, assumptions and weaknesses of work study reflect important
know-how for the operations manager generally - and not just those working in
engineering or manufacturing environments. However the assumptions, difficulties
and limitations of the claims must be understood.

3 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Method Study Concept

Method Study – 'Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of
existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying
easier and more effective methods and reducing costs.'
The definition suggests the examination of existing as well as proposed production
methods. Critical examination when conducted on existing methods helps the firm to
identify unnecessary costs associated with the existing jobs. Such costs get added to
the jobs due to various reasons and are not readily apparent especially to those who
are responsible for causing them. They are brought to light when existing production
methods are analyzed critically and impartially. Critical examinations of proposed
production methods, on the other hand, helps the organization to prevent the
possibility of introduction of unnecessary cost in new jobs.
Production methods, another term in the definition, refers to the manufacturing
process by which materials and other resources get converted into goods and
services. Since production method is a complicated combination of men, machines
and materials, the scope of method study is more broad based. The scope of method
study is not merely restricted to manufacturing industries. It can be applied almost in
any field, say offices, banks, hospitals, shops and even defense. In a manufacturing
industry, method study can be successfully used in many areas of production
management, namely:

(I) to evolve creatively and innovatively improvement in processes and procedures.

(ii) to determine correct sequence of operations and avoid duplication (if any).
(iii) to improve layout, smoothen materials flow, reduce backtracking and avoid
obstacles.
(iv) to reduce unoccupied time of the operator and thereby obtain effective use of
human efforts.
(v) to improve utilization of the equipment and thereby reduce manufacturing cycle
time per piece.
(vi) to select materials of right specifications, cut down process waste, reduce
defectives, and thereby reduce raw material consumption per unit of production.

4 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(vii) to achieve economy in human effort and reduction of unnecessary fatigue.

(viii) to develop a better physical working environment.

Methods analysis examines the way a task (changing the clutch on a car, preparing
a flower bed for planting, cleaning a hotel room) is done. The industrial engineer has
an eye on operational efficiencies and costs, quality of processes, service reliability,
staff safety etc. Method study techniques are applicable from factory/workshop
manufacturing to cabin crew activities on an international flight and office clerical
work. From Method Study to Structured Systems Analysis
Modern approaches to the analysis of computerised business information systems
involve aspects of method study. Such systems analysis involves the evaluation of the
flows, processes and storage of data in business systems. In a non-computerised
system this is represented by the documents, the data capture and rule-based
processing activities, the storage and the reporting and communication of information
from the data.
Basic method study technique involves observation, data recording/collection,
charting, analysis and synthesis of new methods/ideas. The methods analyst
undertakes methods improvement projects.

4.2 SREDIM

The mnemonic SREDIM represents the stages of a method study. These six steps are
in a logical order and indeed represent a commonsenseapproach toany investigation.
The success of the analysis thus depends on correct order of the investigation and the
rigor of the application. Each of the above steps is described below:

Select the tasks to study - Select tasks on the basis of delays, safety issues,
capacity problems, queues, idle-time, bottlenecks, quality problems, high costs,
control difficulties. The focus and scope of the method study project must be agreed
with senior management. Staff whose work may be subject to the study will need
explanations and re-assurance about what is taking place and why. Method study is
readily associated with fewer staff. Selection of the jobs to be studied for methods
improvement by the method study practitioner is a managerial responsibility and it
(selection) may be based on economic technical or human consideration. Economic
consideration justifies selection based on economic worth (i.e. money saving
potential) of the job. Technical consideration identifies jobs which require studies to
overcome manufacturing difficulties (excessive rejection, relaxation in prefixed
performance standards, inability of the shops to stick to specified machining
parameters such as speeds, feeds, depth of cut etc., inconsistent quality etc.) Human
consideration in job selection is usually given weight age while introducing method
study practices for the first time.

5 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

The selection of the job should be such that the proposed method achieves one or
more of the following results:
a) Increased production with same labour, material and equipment or same
production with less labour, material and equipment.
b) Improved quality with lesser scrap.
c) Improved layout leading to elimination/minimization of unproductive movements
of men and materials.
d) Improved working conditions leading to employee's satisfaction.

record the facts about it - The method can be studied by observation, by interview or
by experiencing the job and then recording it for example using a process chart, travel
charts, string diagrams(charts of movement) etc. Systematic recording is the most
crucial step in method improvement. Since recording by long hand (or by descriptive
method) has its limitations, it is not recommended for use in method study. Instead,
five symbols and eight charting conventions are used to record facts relating to the job
under study. Recording is the preparatory step towards critical examination. The
success of critical examination to a large extent, depends on how correctly, precisely
and in comprehensive form the facts relating to method under study are recorded.
The tools used for recording the method study data are detailed in section 4.4.
Examine these - The methods study person can examine the recorded process by
asking the recommended PPSPM series of questions - all of them and in the following
sequence. Experience shows that the more closely the job is examined and
considered the easier it is to identify possible alternative, more effective methods. the
what else, who else questions point the way to uncovering new solutions. Critical
examination is conducted through a systematic and methodical questioning process.
Each activity recorded on the chart, whether it relates to processing or inspection, or
material handling, or to any other aspect, is picked up one at a time and is examined
minutely. The questioning process is considered under five major heads, namely the
purpose, the place, the sequence, the person and the means. These five aspects in
critical examination are referred to as five governing considerations.

1. Purpose What is being done?

Why is it being done?

What else could be done?

What should be done?

2. Place Where is it being done?

6 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Why there?

Where else could it be done?

Where should it be done?

3.Sequence When is it being done?

Why then?

When else could it be done?

When should it be done?

4. Person Who does it?

Why them?

Who else could do it?

Who should do it?

5. Means How is it done?

Why that way?

How else can it be done?

How should it be done?

Critical examination aims to analyze the facts critically and thereby give rise to
alternatives that form the basis of selection and development of easier and effective
methods.
The principles to be followed during critical examination are:
a) Facts should be examined as they are and not as they should be.
b) Each step, how insignificant it may be, should be analyzed in a logical sequence.
c) Hasty judgements must be avoided.

7 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

d) Opinion regarding alternatives to the existing method should not be formed

unless all aspects of the existing method have been exposed to critical
examination.
To ensure that each of the above objectives is achieved, each governing
consideration is subjected to a set of four questions
C. Develop a new method - New methods require knowledge of the
possibilities - new machinery, the effects of removing a stage in a process or
reallocating it to another process or person. Developing solutions requires the
designer to have knowledge of new methods and equipment and the technical
feasibility, reliability and cost of these. A chart of the new system is a pictorial model
which enables others to see the new system and evaluate it.
A quality circle (improvement team) can brainstorm ideas on developments to method.
The improvement team can try the technique of reverse engineering or value analysis.
Individual staff can submit suggestions. This can be encouraged by introducing a staff
suggestion scheme which offers good rewards to viable suggestions no matter how
apparently trivial the suggestions. Even the substitution of a plastic clip-fastener for a
nut and bolt can bring savings in time and materials expenditure when applied across
a year's production run of thousands of sub-assemblies.
The development of a workplace culture in which staff can contribute and participate is
important. People are extremely ingenious and not everyone sees the wood for the
trees.
New methods have to be thought through and tested. Giving staff the opportunity for
experimentation or enabling people to join with others to work through the detail of a
half-formed idea can all help in the development of new methods. Some organisations
have allows members of staff time and access to equipment to enable them to
research the detail of their ideas.
There may be effects on the composition of jobs and the ability of staff to maintain
earning opportunities - these need urgent looking into.
Development involves analysis of creative ideas and giving them a practical shape.
Development phase is the combination of three phases : evaluation, investigation and
selection.

a) Evaluation
Since detailed investigation of each and every idea generated at the critical
examination stage is neither practical nor desirable, their number must benarrowed
down to ensure development of ideas an economical and plausible exercise.
Evaluation assesses the true worth of each creative idea and thereby decide whether
an idea should be pursued or discarded. It is therefore, an exercise to shortlist
creative ideas.

Evaluation in order to shortlist ideas explores the following (i) Fault

finding and fault identification :

8 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Evaluation investigates into advantages and disadvantages of each creative idea so

as to identify creative ideas which.
appear usable. Such ideas are straightway adopted for further invetigation.
possess technical flaws. Such ideas are discarded and removed from the
list.
lack confidence and cannot be put to immediate use because of insufficient
data or lack of requisite knowledge. Such ideas are not discarded or thrown
away. They are kept aside until a future time when proper data or knowledge
will make them usable.

contain more disadvantages than advantages. Such ideas are again critically
examined to see whether deficiencies can be removed failing which they are
kept aside. Fault identification is not used as an excuse to reject an idea but
an opportunity to improve.

(ii) Combination of ideas :

Creative ideas covering different aspects of materials (e.g. material specifications,
originating process, matching allowance etc.) machines (e.g. changes in work cycle,
speed, feed, work allocation during machine element, multiple machine allocation
etc.), design (e.g. change of tolerance, surface, redesign of component etc.) and the
like combined to reduce the number of creative ideas.

(iii) Estimation of cost of testing and implementation :

Estimates are made to forecast the kind of expenditure that shall require to be
incurred to test an idea or a combination of ideas. Cost estimation of each idea helps
to narrow down the list of available ideas. Based on cost estimates, the ideas are
ranked beginning with least cost alternative.

(b) Investigation
Investigation explores as to how the ideas cleared at the evaluation stage as suitable
or promising can be converted into practical suggestions. Investigation usually
involves preparation of drawings, holding discussion with personnel from design/
purchase/ finance/ quality control etc. making prototypes, conducting trial runs, getting
work measurement studies redone from industrial engineering or making cost
accountant prepare fresh cost estimates. The aim is to test idea for its economic and
technical feasibility so that each suggestion is definite and is supported by evidence of
practicability.
Investigation involves steps detailed below:

Test each idea for its technical feasibility.

Predict performance of each technically feasible idea. Test each
technical feasible idea for its economic feasibility.

9 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

c) Selection
To select the optimum alternative, each alternative needs to be evaluated against a
set of specific factors. The most commonly selected factors are - investment required,
production rate expressed in terms of cycle time per piece, manufacturing cost per
unit of production (or return on investment) and physical effort. Using point system,
weights are then assigned to each of the factors. The allocation of points to a
particular factor depends on its importance, a consideration which varies form
company to company :
To select a preferred alternative, the points scored by each alternative against each
specific factor are totaled up. And the alternative scoring the maximum points is
selected as the preferred alternative.

Install / implement it - New methods once agreed and costed must be installed. Staff
consultation, briefing and training are needed. Goodwill requires sensitivity, planning
and resourcing. Installation may require a detailed project plan and a budget. A new
method could be installed in one depot or one line whilst the old method continues on
other depots/lines - this reduces risk and offers time for learning and dissemination of
experience. If a new method is installed immediately over an old method - then there
needs to be complete certainty that it is going to work. How is the problem of staff
training for the new method to be resolved if it has not yet been installed?

Installation refers to the implementation of the proposed method and it serves the
following objectives: to prepare and present the change proposal to the management.
to develop sequential steps to be taken to implement the proposal on its
acceptance.
to secure formal approval from the management.
to implement the accepted proposal in the most speedy and efficient manner.

Installation comprises of two vital steps (or phases) : recommendation phase and
implementation phase.
(i) Importance of recommendation phase
Even if the management is solidly behind the methods improvement programme, it still
requires facts and figures to support specific proposals. That is each change proposal
requires the method study practitioner to prepare a formal report of his proposal,
present his recommendations to the management, provide information on
implementation plan and secure approval of the management.
(ii) Implementation Phase
No recommendation is effective until implemented. Though the responsibility of
implementation is that of top management yet active assistance of methods man is
required to -
(i) resolve problems encountered in the implementation process.
(ii) minimize delay in the implementation process.

10 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(iii) ensure that change proposal is not modified during the implementation process
would cause it lose its cost effectiveness or the basis for its original selection

Basic steps involved in the implementation of proposed changes are as under:

Obtain written acceptance to the proposal.
Prepare implementation plans.
Authorise changes.
Clear misconcepts and remove roadblocks.
Provide demonstration of the proposed method.
Organise one or more trials to make employee get used to the new method.
Arrange for training of workmen in the use of new methods.
Get work measurement studies done and revised method retimed.

A. Maintain it - A new method needs new sequences of operator action and probably
different perspectives. Every member of the operations team needs to be committed
to the new method. The process chart needs to be up-dated with the new method and
associated documentation modified. If teething troules do occur a "hit team" needs to
be ready to jump into action. The new method should ne formally reviewed and its
performance compared against benchmark data from the previous method.
The methods charts form part of the firm's ISO 9000 documentation and when
changes to the quality assured processes occur - the charts will need up dating. The
availability of quality system software with integrated charting facilities makes this
readily possible.
Method change does not get completed with the implementation of the proposal.
Follow up after the implementation is equally important. Follow up after the
implementation:
1. serves as a monitoring and control mechanism and helps to ensure that
revised methods are followed in future.
2. audits results (or savings) achieved from the implementation of the study.
3. evaluates effectiveness of the methodology followed and enables the
practitioner to take corrective action for future projects.
4. appraises the management of the contribution of method changes.

a) Monitoring and control:

People generally have uncanny habit of reverting back to the old methods once initial
tempo dies down. It is, therefore, necessary that the analyst shouldcontinually visit the
shops and maintain liaison with the management. Some feedback mechanism is a
must and all those concerned should be informed of the results. The reporting
frequency may be as under:
Daily reports : Until one week after trial

11 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Bi-weekly reports : From one week after and up to four weeks after the
trial.
Weekly reports : From one month after and up to two months after the
trial.
Monthly reports : From two months and up to six months after the trial.
The above reporting frequency is sure to set the new method into concrete and
eliminate the possibility of employees reverting back to the old method.
(b) Audit of the savings
Audit of the savings released too is the responsibility of the practitioner. Audit of
savings enables the practitioner.
(i) to know whether the implementation work is complete. This being the case when
the savings show up as predicted.
(ii) to do follow up on the shop floor for implementation of remaining parts of the
project or review and correct estimates. This being the case when the actual
savings fall short of targeted saving.
(iii) to study those additional factors which contributed to enhance gains or to enable
him to review and correct its estimates. This is being the case when the actual
savings are far greater than the targeted savings.

Irrespective of the above situations, audit feedback helps methods engineer in his
future work.

( c) Review of the approach :

After the audit of the savings, method study should review the approach followed by
him in his investigations. This helps the practitioner to draw conclusions :
Was the approach followed by him effective? Does it require any correction for the
next study?
Was the implementation process smooth? Did the line management react favorably
during implementation? if no, what changes in approach can help smooth
implementation of future projects?
What methods of data collection were used? Did those methods prove effective?
Should same methods be used in future for similar projects?

(d) Performance appraisal

Mere measurement of gains immediate after the implementation is not enough. Some
sort of performance appraisal system needs to be devised to measure the gains of the
productivity at regular intervals.
To all intents and purposes SREDIM is a straightforward, common-sense series of
steps. Indeed a work analyst may make useful contributions to operations
management by using the steps in methods improvement projects (business process
re-engineering by another name).

12 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

4.3 Tools for data Collection for Method study

Different methods to record details of the existing method are as follow:

(i) Charts.
(ii) Diagrams.
(iii) Templates and Models.
(iv) Photographic aids (Micromotion study).
(v) Graphic Techniques (cyclegraph and chronocyclegraph). Charts :
Charts are the most popular method of recording data. The activities comprising the
job are recorded by means of symbols and charting conventions. There are different
types of charts.
There are charts to :
give a bird's eye view of the entire process (Operation process chart).
show detailed sequence of activities performed by the workman (Flow process chart:
Man type)
show detailed sequence of activities performed on the materials (Flow process chart:
Material type).
show detailed sequence of activities performed by the equipment (Flow process
chart: Equipment type).
study man-machine utilization, determine number of machines to be manned by an
operator and the like (Multiple activity chart). study work bench layout (Two handed
process chart). study the movement of materials, men or equipment (travel chart).

a) Operation Process Chart ( OPC )

What is an operation process chart?
An operation process chart is a chart on which the major activities and entry points of
materials are recorded to have graphic view of operations and inspections involved in
the process.
An operation process chart gives the detailed step by step account of what is done to
the materials from beginning of the first stage to the last (finished product stage)
stage. Only operations and inspections performed on the materials are depicted on
this chart. Activities like transports, delays and storages are not included. The chart,
therefore, can be compared to a tower in the city (or the map of the city). One can
have a fair idea of the layout of the city from its map (or from the tower top) but one
cannot know from it about the lanes and by-lanes, and their inhabitants. This is what
precisely an operation process chart does by recording only the principal operations
and inspections. It gives an overall view of the entire process. The chart does not say
anything regarding the person who does the work, the place where the work is
performed and the time when it is performed. The delays, transports and storages are
also not recorded.

13 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Why is it made?
Operation process chart is useful to :
visualize the complete sequence of operations and inspections involved in the
process.
know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into the entire process.
How is it made?
Operation process chart, as mentioned earlier, is the graphic representation of the
points at which materials are introduced into the process and what operations and
inspections are performed on them. Operations and inspections in the operation
process chart of a single part or component is in the form of a single flow line
consisting of a horizontal portion on the top of which is written the description of
the materials and a vertical portion to depict operation and inspections performed
on the part or component. The symbols representing operations and inspections
as usual are placed one below another in the sequence of their occurrence and
are joined by a vertical line. A brief description of the activity is written on the right
hand side against the symbol representing that activity. The time required for the
activity, which may be based on estimate or stop-watch studies, is recorded on
left hand side of the symbol. The entry points of the materials, process rejection,
rework, repetition etc. are indicated at the appropriate place. The chart uses
following symbols:

Symbol Title Description

Operation A complex action or process (possibly described

elsewhere), often changing something.

Checking of items to ensure correct quality or

Inspection
quantity.

Operation process chart of an assembly contains a large number of flow lines,

one for each component. The flow line for the component on which the largest
numbers of components are assembled is charted on the extreme right hand side.
The flow lines of other components are then placed on the left of the main flow
line considering the order of assembly of components. The individual flowlines are
made to be fed into the main flow line at the stage at which their components are
assembled. Each flow line records principal operations and inspections performed
on the component it represents. The symbol operations and inspections are
numbered independently but serially starting with numbering of symbols in the
main flow line. The serial numbering, beginning with 1 for the first symbol on the
main flow line is continued down the line until the point where next component
joins its. At this point, the symbols on the flow line of the component joining the
main line are numbered. The symbol on the main flowline after the junction of the
main and the other flow line is assigned the next higher serial number. The

14 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

boughtout parts are also shown in the operation process chart. The flow line of a
boughtout part is merely in the form of a horizontal line with description of the part
written above the line. Like flow lines of works made parts, the flow line of the
bougtout part terminates at the point the part enters the assembly.

Finally, a brief note giving present or proposed method, task, the activity with which
chart begins, the activity with which the chart ends, date of charting and charted by is
written on the top of this chart.

b) Flow Process Chart

A flow process chart, either a Single-Column Flow Process Chart, or a local form,
can help you to analyze our work flow. We can prepare a flow process chart for
any process, person, or material we wish to analyze. The heading of the chart
indicates what aspect of the operation we are analyzing and where the process
begins and ends. We should then list the steps that are involved in the process
in the sequence in which the steps occur under our present method. Next, we
should draw a line to connect the symbols that identify what each step
involves. The symbols are explained in the following paragraphs.
The table below shows many of the symbols that may be found in Flow Process
Charts.

15 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Meaning and usage of symbols is detailed below:

Operation - An operation occurs when there is a distinct change in physical or
chemical characteristic of an object or, when there is an addition or subtraction or,
when there is consumption of physical effort or, when information is given or received
An operation always takes the object (materials, component, item or service) a stage
further towards completion. A few illustrations are :
Turning, drilling, grinding, punching, blanking, or in general a machine shop or a
press shop operation (change in physical characteristic) A chemical reaction
(changing in chemical characteristic). Welding, brazing, riveting, assembly ( addition.
) Removal of a worn-out part from a machine ( subtraction ).
Getting instructions from supervisor (information received).
Giving directions/instructions (information given)
Lifting, loading, unloading, positioning, bending and other similar activities
(consumption of physical effort). Posting of a ledger (consumption of effort) Operation
is represented by circle.

Inspection - An inspection occurs when the object is verified against predetermined

standards of quality or quantity, or both. Inspection, unlike operation, does not take
the object one step forward towards completion. It merely verifies whether or not the
object has undergone the required operation as per specifications. A few illustrations
of inspection activity are:
A dimensional check with a measuring instrument. Visual check for
burrs, mutilations, finish, etc.
Physical count of incoming material to tally quantity actually received with the
quantity mentioned on the delivery challan. Inspection is represented by square

Transport - A transport occurs when the object is moved from one place to another.

A few illustrations of transport are :

Movement of materials or trolley.
A workers trip to tool-crib (grinder) to procure tools (sharpen tools).
Transport is represented by 'an arrow'

Delay - A delay occurs when the object is held up resulting in delay in the start of next
event i.e. Next operation, inspection or transport.
A few illustration of delay are :
Worker waiting at the tool crib for his turn or while issue clerks collects tool(s)
from rack(s).
Jobs waiting at the machines for their turn.
Operatives awaiting instructions from supervisor. Delay is
represented by letter “D”.

16 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Storage - A storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorised custody and is
protected against unauthorized removal.
A few illustrations of storage are :
Materials kept in the work distribution center.
Copy of an outgoing letter filed in the master file. Storage is
represented by an inverted triangle.

These symbols are placed one below another as per occurrence of the events and are
joined by a vertical line. A brief description of the activity is given on the right hand of
the symbol. And the time that the activity takes is written on left hand against all the
symbols except the transport symbol.

Charting Conventions :
Simple processes/activities can be recorded with the help of the foregoing symbols.
Complicated processes-those involving rework, rejection, repetition, change of state,
introduction of new material, combined activities etc. can not be recorded clearly by
symbols alone. The recording of such activities besides symbols requires use of
charting conventions. Typical charting conventions are :

(a) Composition of the chart

There are three distinct parts of the chart:
Introduction to record name of the chart, present or proposed method, task under
study, chart begins, chart ends, charted by, date of charting.

Body to show activities by relevant symbols written one below another

according to the sequence.
Summary to give frequency of each symbol, total time for each symbol and total
distance traveled by the object.
b) Rejection
Sometimes materials or components are rejected (or discarded) during processing.
Such rejection-the stage at which it occurs and the place where this discarded
material is taken to-requires to be shown in the chart.

c) Repetition
Repetition concerns a situation where an activity or a series of activities are to be
repeated. To show such activities by repeated use of symbols is
unnecessary/laborious. Much of this extra effort can be saved by enclosing the
activities by a loop.

d) Reprocessing
Reprocessing concerns a situation where the component is not completely rejected
but is to be reworked. Such rework activity is represented as shown in Fig. (17.6).

17 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

e) Introduction of new materials

Introduction of new materials considers the entry points of the materials. Such entries
are indicated on the chart by horizontal lines with description of materials written
above the line and quantity written below the line.

f) Combined activities
Sometimes, more than one activities are performed simultaneously by the operator.
Such activities are represented by combined symbols.

g) Numbering of activities
The symbols in a process chart are numbered to facilitate easy reference for
comparison. Likewise symbols are numbered serially from the beginning to end.

Flow process chart is useful to explore the possibilities of reducing distance

travelled by the workmen (or materials). avoiding waiting time and thereby
reduce production losses. eliminating operations or combining one
operation with another.
evolving better sequence of activities. relocating inspection stages to reduce
frequency of inspection. Flow process chart like operation process chart, consists of
three parts - introduction, body and summary.
All the five symbols - operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage - are used in
the making of this chart. The symbols are placed one below another as per
occurrence of the activities and are joined by a small vertical line. A brief description
of the activity is inserted on the right hand of the symbol and the time or the distance,
depending upon the symbol, is given on the left hand of the symbol.
The identity of the subject to be recorded is maintained while preparing the flow
process chart. A chart intended to record flow of material shows only activities
concerning the material and not those of the workman or vice-versa.

c) Multiple Activity Chart / Man machine Chart / Simo Chart

A multiple activity chart is chart on which the activities of more than one subject are
recorded to indicate their inter-relationship in a given cycle. Multiple activity charts in
other words shows what each subject does at any time in relation to the other.
A multiple activity chart is made to :
Detect idle time enforced on men and machines.
Establish number of machines that can be conveniently manned by an operator
Determine number of workmen necessary to perform a job involving team working.
A multiple activity chart consists of a series of bars (columns) placed against a
common time scale. One separate bar is allotted for each subject (man or machine)
and activities related to the subjects are represented in this bar. Each bar is further
split up into three columns: bigger column to record the description of activities of the
subject and two small columns to record time and the state of working or non-working
(symbol). The columns placed against a common time scale which starts with zero
and terminates at cycle time of the job. The task to be recorded is broken into smaller

18 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

activities and time for each activity is measured with the help of either a wrist watch or
a stop watch. The activities and their times so observed are then recorded in the
appropriate columns activities performed by the man are entered in the man column
and those performed by the machine are shown in the machine column. Two symbols
are used in the making of this chart, one representing working and other representing
idle. “Working” is represented by a hatched bar and 'idle” is shown by “Shaded bar”

The chart also carries general details such as name of the chart, present or proposed
method, task, chart begins, chart ends, dates of charting and charted by.
Multiple activity charts on its completion is scrutinized to
Rearrange the work cycle to minimize enforced idle time of men or machines.
to reallocate the activities among the members of the team and thereby achieve
optimal work distribution.
Combine or eliminate some of the work elements.
explore ways to improve utilization of men and machines

d)Two Handed Process Chart - A two handed process chart is a chart on which the
activities performed by two hands or two limbs of the operator are recorded to show
their inter-relationships. Two-handed process chart is useful:

to visualize the complete sequence of activities in a repetitive task of short duration

performed within the confines of a work place. This chart is generally prepared to
study a variety of assembly, machining and clerical jobs. to study a work bench
layout.

Two handed process chart consists of two charts one for the left hand and the other
for the right hand synchronized in space together. The chart for the left hand is drawn
on the left hand side and the chart for the right hand is drawn on the right hand side.
The simultaneous activities of both hands are recorded opposite to each other on the
chart. This enables the analyst to analyse as to what right hand does when left hand
is working, or alternatively what left hand does when the right hand is working, or what
both hands do at any point of time in a work cycle. To prepare this chart although all
the five symbols-operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage - are used to
record the activities of two hands yet two out of these symbols- inspection and storage
- are not used in the conventional sense. Inspection symbol features when check by
touch or feel is involved. And storage symbol is used when either hand is used as grip
or vice to hold an object.

Diagrams:
Every business activity, be it manufacturing, servicing or office, requires movement of
men and materials from one location to another. Every movement is not essential.
Some of the movements can possibly be avoided by rearrangement of the facilities
within the department or by effecting change in the sequence of activities. The
number of movements if reduced, can result in substantial saving both in the labour

19 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

cost as well as in the efforts required to do the job. Therefore, recording of

movements can serve a valuable guide for improving existing layouts.
Operation process charts (OPC) though indicate the sequence of events but do not
show movements while flow process charts do record movements but they do not
provide a visual picture (i.e.do not give mental feel of the problem). The problems
concerning movements can be better visualized by drawing a diagram which may
either be a flow diagram or a string diagram. Diagrams highlight unnecessary long
travels, cross traffics and obstacles clearly than charts do. Diagram though do not
give all the information yet they are valuable aids to supplement information recorded
on the charts. Diagrams are useful to :
(i) study the different plant layouts and thereby select the most optimum layout.
(ii) study the extent of traffic over the different routes of the plant.
(iii) identify extent of back-tracking, cross traffic and obstacles encountered during
movement of materials.
(iv) study the activity relationships between departments/work centers. Diagrams are
of two types:
(i) Flow diagram
(ii) String diagrams

(a) Flow Diagrams

Flow diagrams are the scale plans on which the movements of an object are traced by
lines. The flow diagram shows the relative position of the machine tools, work
benches, storage racks, inspection benches etc. on a scaled diagram on which are
marked the paths followed by the workmen and materials. Different colours are used
to represent different types of movements.

The steps involved in the making of a flow diagram are as under:

(i) The layout of the shop (working places) is drawn to scale on a piece of paper.
(ii) The relative position of the machine tools, workbenches, storage areas,
inspection benches etc. is marked on it. (i.e. on the above layout)
(iii) The paths followed by the subject under study (workman or material) are traced
by drawing lines.
(iv) Each movement is serially numbered and indicated by arrow for tis directions.
(v) Different colours are used to denote different types of movement e.g.
worker with empty trolley, worker with loaded etc. Fig. below
shows a flow diagram

20 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(b) String Diagrams

String diagrams are the scale plans on which the movements of an object are traced
by means of a string.
String diagrams have certain distinct advantages over flow diagrams. Repetitive
movements between workstations which are difficult to be traced on flow diagrams
can be conveniently shown an string diagrams.
How is a string diagram drawn?
The steps involved in drawing of a string diagram are as under:
(i) The layout of the working places is drawn to scale on a soft wooden board.
(ii) Pins are driven into the board to mark exact location of the work centers. Pins are
driven in such a way that they protrude at least 10-15 mm above the board. Pins
are also driven at the turning points on the route.
(iii) A measured length of thread is taken to trace the paths and its one end is
fastened to the pin at the starting point.
(iv) Each movement between the work places is indicated by laying the thread
around the corresponding pins driven on the layout. Repetitive movements are
indicated by laying the thread in layers around the pins in the vertical plane.
(v) The distance covered by the object is obtained by subtracting the leftover length
of the thread from its original length.

21 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Pins and string Diagram

Templates and Models :

Flow diagrams and string diagrams exhibit movements of men and machines by
drawing the scale plans to the shop/office facilities but they do not indicate clearly the
bottlenecks and backtracking. The problems of congestion, bottlenecks and
backtracking (if any) can be better visualized by use of templates and models.
Templates are two-dimensional cutouts of cardboard (or coloured paper). They are
made to scale and are placed on the scaled plan of the building drawn on a board or
on a cross-hatched surface or on a graph paper. Templates show the plan of the
various facilities like machine tools, work benches, fittings, storage racks etc.
Templates offer number of advantages over diagrams:

(i) The congestion, bottlenecks and backtracking can be better visualized with
templates.
(ii) They can be conveniently moved on the graph paper hereby providing the
flexibility to evaluate various feasible positions for the facilities. The usual
approach is to take a photograph of each layout before rearranging the templates
to have another layout of the facilities.
(iii) They are less laborious and save lot of time which otherwise is spent in making
drawings for each alternate plant layout arrangement.

Templates, however, have few limitations, namely : (I)

Overhead facilities cannot be visualized.
(ii) Non-technical persons find it difficult to comprehend the arrangement.

22 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Three-dimensional models are the models of the facilities resembling the actual in
length, width and height. They are usually made up of wood or plastic. They usually
show fewer details compared to physical facilities.
Models are commonly used to develop floor plans and elevations and are not most
effective while preparing alternate plans for multistory plant layouts. Typical examples
of the uses of the three dimensional models are layout plans of chemical factories,
refineries etc.
Three dimensional models have numerous advantages:
Non-technical persons find it easy to comprehend.
Overhead facilities can be shown.
Services such as lighting, ventilation, safety features can be easily incorporated.
Like templates, models too can be shifted easily and quickly.
They represent more or less a real situation and as such comparison of alternate
arrangements is easy and more effective.
Three-dimensional models however are expensive and are difficult to be taken to the
site for reference.

Micromotion Study - Many a repetitive short cycle operations namely components

assembly, packaging, inspection, machine shop operations involving loading and
unloading of small components into jigs and fixtures, segregation of small mixed up
jobs, clerical operations etc. involve quick hand/limb motions which can not be
accurately studied and timed using the operation charts such as two-handed process
charts etc. This is because twohanded process charts merely record macroscopic
details such as operations. Inspection, transports etc. and study of such macroscopic
motions in shortcycle repetitive jobs is not enough. Short cycle jobs needs to be
studied for microscopic motions (each macromotion consists of a number of
micromotions e.g. operation of picking up a bolt from a bin consists three motions
namely reach hand for the bolt, grasp bolt and move hand back to assembly position)
so that even if it is not possible to eliminate a macromotion, at least the possibility of
elimination of some of micromotions can be considered. Such a detailed analysis
helps to develop the best possible pattern of motions, thus enabling the workman to
perform the operation repeatedly with a minimum effort and fatigue. Since the
techniques used for this purpose frequently make use of filming, they are known
collectively as micro motion study.

Other Recording Aids - As an additional aid for micromotion study, Gilbreth also
developed graphic techniques - (i) cyclegraph and (ii) chronocyclegraph for the study
of path of movements of an operator's hands, fingers etc. These are photographic
methods and are used to trace especially those movements that are too fast for
human eye to pursue.

23 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

4.4 Key Words

Method Study: Is the systematic selection, recording and analysis of the existing
methods and means to develop easier, productive and cost saving methods.

Methods analysis: Method analysis is the study which examines the way a task is
done.

Operation: An operation occurs when there is a distinct change in physical or

chemical characteristic of an object.

Operation Process Chart: An operation process chart is a chart on which the major
activities and entry points of materials are recorded to have graphic view of operations
and inspections involved in the process.
Flow Process Chart: Flow process chart is a chart which sets out the sequence of
flow of work of a product, or any part of it through the section or the department or the
factory by recording the events under review using appropriate symbols.

Micro Motion Study: Short cycle jobs needs to be studied for microscopic motions so
that even if it is not possible to eliminate a macromotion, at least the possibility of
elimination of some of micromotions can be considered. Such a detailed analysis
helps to develop the best possible pattern of motions, thus enabling the workman to
perform the operation repeatedly with a minimum effort and fatigue. Since the
techniques used for this purpose frequently make use of filming, they are known
collectively as micro motion study.

4.5 Summary

Method Study is the systematic selection, recording and analysis of the existing
methods and means to develop easier, productive and cost saving methods. Method
study can be applied both in the manufacturing as well as service organizations. It is
an organized approach and it involves six steps- SREDIM which stands for select,
record, examine, develop, install and maintain in its basic procedure. Selection of the
jobs to be studied for methods improvement by the method study practitioner is a
managerial responsibility and it (selection) may be based on economic, technical or
human considerations.
Systematic recording is the most crucial step in method improvement. Besides charts,
two types of diagrams - flow diagram and string diagrams - are drawn when recording
details of an existing layout. Critical examination is the generation of creative ideas.
Development and selection stage concerns short listing of ideas generated at the
critical examination stage, testing each short listed idea for its technical feasibility and
economic feasibility and making selection among the alternatives wherever choice
exists.

24 | Page
 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Maintenance phase is the follow up phase after implementation which serves as a

monitoring and control mechanism Basic method study technique involves
observation, data recording/collection, charting, analysis and synthesis of new
methods/ideas. The methods analyst undertakes methods improvement projects.

25 | Page