ELT

1. Six Variables Governing Language Choice

In communication, we often have multiple ways to express the same idea. Our language
choice depends on factors like the situation, purpose, and audience. Six important variables help
guide us in selecting the most appropriate words for each context.

Setting: We speak differently in offices than we do in cafes. At home, we often use informal
language, while we may use more formal, pre-planned speech in an office or work.

Participants: The people involved in a conversation, whether in speech or writing, clearly

influence the language we choose. We use more formal language with superiors and more casual
language with friends, families, or colleagues.

Gender: Some research suggests that men and women typically use language differently,
especially when talking to the opposite sex. For example, women might speak more politely than
men.

Channel: There are clear differences between spoken and written language. But, not all spoken
language is the same—it is influenced by the situation. It differs depending on whether it's face-
to-face, on the phone, or in front of an audience.

Topic: The topic of the conversation also affects word and grammar choices. Language used for
casual conversations is different from that used for specialized topics like science or sports. The
language we use when talking about weeding will differ from that when talking about physics.

Tone: The tone of language, whether formal or informal, polite or casual, effect the language we
choose. A relaxed tone is more common with friends, while a formal tone is used in professional
settings.
These variables affect how we use language. In teaching, it’s important for students to
understand these factors in both their first language and a foreign language. By considering these
elements, students can choose the right words for the right situation.
Types of Tests
There are five main types of tests that English teachers and learners often use.

 Placement Tests
 Progress and Achievement Tests
 Proficiency Tests
 Portfolio Assessment

Placement Tests: Placement tests help schools decide which class a student should join when
they start a language course. These tests usually check grammar, vocabulary, reading, and
listening skills, and sometimes speaking. Some schools also ask students to rate their own abilities
to help with placement.
Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests provide the student’s overall knowledge and skills in English.
These are often used for important exams where results are needed for things like university
admission, job applications, or certificates.
Each type of test plays a specific role in language learning, helping both teachers and
students understand progress and future needs.
Types of Linguistic

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. This means linguists analyze language
systematically and without bias, similar to how scientists study other subjects.
Theoretical Linguistics: This area, also known as generative linguistics, focuses on understanding
how humans know and use language. It looks at the mental rules we use to speak and understand
language.
Descriptive Linguistics: This field analyzes the grammar of specific languages, like Choctaw or
Arabic. It studies languages from both historical and current perspectives.
Historical Linguistics: This type looks at how languages change over time. It uses methods to
compare languages and trace their development and relationships.
Anthropological or Ethno-Linguistics and Sociolinguistics: These areas study how language fits
into culture and society, examining how factors like social class, ethnicity, and gender influence
language.

Dialectology: This field investigates how languages split into different dialects based on social
and cultural factors.
Applied Linguistics: This type deals with practical issues related to language, including language
planning, literacy, bilingualism, and teaching methods.
Computational Linguistics: This area focuses on using computers to understand and process
language, including tasks like automatic translation and sentence generation.
Mathematical Linguistics: This field studies the formal and mathematical aspects of language.
Pragmatics: Pragmatics examines how context affects the meaning of language.
Neurolinguistics: This area studies how language is connected to the brain and how brain
functions relate to language learning and disorders.
Psycholinguistics: This field looks at how we produce and understand language, including how
children learn language and how brain processes affect language.
Each of these types of linguistics explores different aspects of language, contributing to
our overall understanding of how language works.
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics studies how language is used in society. It looks at why and how people
use different languages and styles in their interactions.
Language Variety: Sociolinguistics shows that language is not just to communicate ideas but to
communicate opinions of others and ourselves. For example, saying "Hello!" might show
friendliness and probably the speaker is British, while Americans might prefer "Hi."
Revealing Information: The way someone speaks can reveal about their gender, age, region,
ethnicity, education, and attitude to the listener. People use different language styles depending
on the topic and the person they're talking to. For instance, the language used with a shopkeeper
differs from that with a teacher.
Formality: Language varies from informal slang to formal speech. Sociolinguistics examines this
variety and how it changes in different contexts.
Bilingual and Multilingual Communities: In communities with multiple languages, language
choice can signal education or friendliness. For example, a Belgian switching from French to
Flemish might indicate their shared cultural background with the listener.

Lingua Francas: In multilingual areas, common languages (lingua franca) often develop to help
people communicate. These lingua franca show similar patterns across the world, reflecting
common human needs.
Research Goals: Sociolinguists study how language varies, develops, changes, and is
standardized. They explore regional and social dialects, lingua franca, and specialized codes. This
research reveals that language can both include and exclude people, showing its complex and
flexible nature.
Sociolinguists explore how language varies, develops and changes, including regional and
social dialects, lingua franca, and specialized codes. Thus it shows that language can reflect and
shape our social identities and interactions.
Applied linguistics

Applied linguistics is the study of how language is used in real-world situations to solve
practical problems, especially in areas like language teaching, translation. Communicating with
others often requires adjusting their language, whether speaking with someone from a different
region or using a different language entirely.
It's clear that while any language can be translated into another, a direct, word-for-word
translation isn't enough to capture the true meaning. Learning a language means understanding
how native speakers use it naturally.
Insights from sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics have helped in teaching languages
more effectively. For example, English for Special Purposes (ESP) tailors language learning to
specific professions, such as teaching scientists the technical terms.
Psycholinguistics has shown that starting language learning earlier is beneficial, as
children are more flexible with language before puberty. Errors made by learners can also help
understand how they are progressing.
Various techniques have been developed to help with language learning, such as
contrastive analysis, which compares the native and new language and error analysis, which
focuses on mistakes of learners. These methods have made it easier to teach basic
communication skills faster, especially with the help of language labs and new teaching
strategies.
However, there is no one perfect method to make someone fluent quickly. A good
teacher, motivated students, and plenty of practice are all essential for mastering a new
language.
Techniques for Assessing Reading
To assess reading exams effectively, we need to choose the right test formats for
evaluating reading skills. Some common formats include multiple-choice, true/false, matching,
and sequencing tasks. These are called receptive tasks because learners select answers from
given options without having to produce their own language.
Although they are easy to score, creating well-designed questions, especially multiple-
choice ones, can be challenging and require experience. Teachers are advised to avoid using them
in classroom assessments.
On the other hand, productive tasks require learners to generate their own answers,
making them more communicative and reflective of actual performance. These tasks include
short answer questions, gap-filling, information transfer, and summary writing. Marking these
tasks can be more complicated, as responses can vary, and the scoring may need to focus not
only on content but also on grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation. Summary writing, in
particular, assesses both reading and writing skills and requires special grading criteria.
In the classroom, teachers can use informal assessments to help learners improve their
reading skills and get feedback on their progress. Here are some simple ways to do this:
1. Record Responses: Keep a written record of student answers to reading questions.
2. Track Reading Time: Measure how long students spend on reading activities.
3. Word Lists: Have students list and explain words they want to learn after reading.
4. Book Reports: Encourage students to write simple reports on the books they read.
5. Reading Rate: Record students' progress in reading speed.
6. Reading Portfolio: Ask students to compile a portfolio of their reading work.