Govt.

College for Girls, Ludhiana

Department of Psychology

BA III Semester 5
UNIT-I
Nature and Criteria of abnormality

Dr. Rajiv Kumar Sehgal

Associate Professor and Head
▪ Abnormality is significant deviation from
commonly accepted patterns of behaviour,
emotions or thoughts and which significantly
interferes with an individual’s adaptation to
important life demands and often causes distress
in the individual or in others.

▪ Common features of abnormality

The four Ds”:
➢Deviance,
➢Distress,
➢Dysfunction,
➢Danger.
Some experts also add one more i.e. Duration
 Four Ds:
Deviant : different, extreme, unusual, bizarre
Distressing : unpleasant and upsetting,
Dysfunctional : interfering with the person’s ability to
conduct daily activities in a constructive way
Dangerous: posing a risk to the person as well as
others
Duration : The above mentioned features must
persist for a longer period of time.
David Rosenhan & Martin Seligman (1989)
mentioned seven criteria which might be used to
label behaviour as “abnormal”:
1. Suffering
2. Maladaptiveness
3. Statistical Deviancy
4. Violation of the Standards of Society
5. Social Discomfort
6. Irrationality and Unpredictability
7. Dangerousness
1. Suffering

➢If people suffer or experience psychological pain we

consider this as indicative of abnormality.

➢Although suffering is an element of abnormality in

many cases, it is neither a sufficient condition nor
even a necessary condition for us to consider
something as abnormal.
2. Maladaptiveness:
➢Maladaptive behavior interferes with our well-being and
with our ability to enjoy our work and our relationships.
➢ However, not all disorders involve maladaptive
behavior.
➢A contract killer takes someone’s life in return for
payment. Is this behavior maladaptive? Not for him,
because it is the way he makes his living. We consider
his behaviour abnormal, however, because it is
maladaptive for and toward society.
3. Statistical Deviancy:
➢The word abnormal literally means “away from the normal.”
➢Genius is statistically rare. However, we do not consider people
with such uncommon talents to be abnormal in any way.
➢ The common cold is certainly very common, but it is regarded as
an illness.
➢ Intellectual disability (which is statistically rare and represents a
deviation from normal) is considered to reflect abnormality.
➢ If something is statistically rare and undesirable (intellectual
disability), we are more likely to consider it abnormal than
something that is statistically rare and highly desirable (such as
genius)
➢In defining abnormality we make value judgments..
4. Violation of the Standards of Society:

➢When people fail to follow the conventional social and moral

rules of their cultural group we may consider their behavior
abnormal.
➢However social norms change over time.
➢Moreover, social norms differ between cultures. What is
considered ‘normal’ in one culture may actually be ‘abnormal’
in another.
5. Social Discomfort:
➢ When someone violates a social rule, those around him or
her may experience a sense of discomfort or unease.

6. Irrationality and Unpredictability:

➢Although a little unconventionality may add some spice to
life, there is a point at which we are likely to consider a given
unconventional behavior abnormal.
➢A man who responds to voices that do not exist in objective
reality is behaving irrationally.
7. Dangerousness:
➢Someone who is a danger to him- or herself or to another
person must be psychologically abnormal.
➢Is a soldier in battle that is killing enemies mentally ill?
➢What about someone who is an extremely bad driver?
➢Both of these people may be a danger to others. Yet we
would not consider them to be mentally ill.
➢Conversely, we cannot assume that someone diagnosed
with a mental disorder must be dangerous. Although mentally
ill people do commit serious crimes, serious crimes are also
committed every day by people who have no signs of mental
disorder.
 .

➢ The distinction between normal and abnormal is not so

much a difference between two independent types of
behaviours as it is a matter of the degree.

➢ Mental disorder is best thought of as a continuum that

varies between mental health, mental illness.

➢One clinical theorist, Thomas Szasz (2010), places such

emphasis on society’s role that he finds the whole concept of
mental illness to be invalid, a myth of sorts.

➢ According to Szasz, the deviations that society calls

abnormal are simply “problems in living,” not signs of
something wrong within the person.
The distinction between normal and abnormal is not so much a difference between two independent types of behaviours as it is
Thank You
Psychological and psychosocial causal factors of Abnormal behavior

Abnormal behavior is not a concrete construct but has different meanings in different cultures and
surroundings. There are many distinct factors underlying abnormal behavior, and the factors
interact together. The causes of abnormal behavior are complex, no one factor in isolation impacts
the behavior, but multiple factors interact to influence abnormal behavior. There cannot be just
one sole factor as the cause or predictor of abnormal behavior. For this reason, an eclectic
understanding of abnormal behavior is essential.

The major factors involved are biological, psychological and psycho-social.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSAL FACTORS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

Psychological causes: Psychological factors are those developmental influences that may handicap
a person psychologically, making him or her less resourceful in coping with events.
Traumatic life experiences that have an impact on the individual‘s personality constitute the
psychological factors in the development of abnormality. Unrealistic expectations, learned
helplessness, focusing on the negative, blaming, etc., can trigger psychological difficulties.

Some of the main psychological causal factors are:

1. Early Deprivation Or Trauma:

If children do not have sufficient care and interaction from parents (or primary care givers) during
the formative years (birth to approximately five years), they may experience adjustment difficulties
into adulthood. Deprivation (the lack of or an insufficient amount of loving and frequent
interaction) may also occur with children who have parents in the home. If a parent, for instance,
is mentally ill, he or she may not be able to provide adequate care, love, and attention to his or her
child. The more extreme forms of deprivation occur when children are abandoned or orphaned and
placed in institutions or a series of inadequate foster homes.

• A family that is incomplete as a result of death, divorce, separation, or some other

circumstance has harmful consequences for the child.

• Institutionalization : children who may either be institutionalized or placed in foster homes

receive less warmth and physical contact; less intellectual, emotional, and social
stimulation; and a lack of encouragement and help in positive learning, such children are
deprived of normal parenting in infancy and early childhood and show maladaptive
personality development and are at risk for psychopathology.
• Deprivation and abuse in the Home: Abused children often have a tendency to be overly
aggressive (both verbally and physically) and some even respond with anger and
aggression to friendly
• Intrapsychic conflict: Sigmund Freud emphasized the role of the early parent–child
relationship in the development of mental illness. According to Freud, mental illness is due
to intrapsychic (i.e. within the mind) conflict and that early interpersonal experiences affect
later outcomes. The early parent–child relationship is the original source of mental illness,
and that what goes on in the mind of the child (and the adult) is important. The idea is that
this early caregiver–child relationship is internalized by children, so that they learn about
themselves and others from the manner in which the caregiver treats them. Freud, also
emphasized that if the child did not successfully negotiate the psychosexual stages, mental
illness would develop.
• Attachment and Security: The attachment model of psychopathology, developed by
Bowlby (1969; 1973; 1980) also emphasizes the early parent–child relationship.
Attachment theory suggests that when parental behavior fails to make children feel safe,
secure, and able to turn to and trust the parent in times of need, then children will be unable
to regulate their emotions and needs adaptively and will develop negative, ‘insecure’ views
of themselves and others. This would put children at risk for developing psychological
disorders. Research supports this hypothesis, as ‘insecure’ children and adults show more
psychopathology than ‘secure’ children and adults (Dozier, Stovall & Albus, 1999;
Greenberg, 1999).

2. Inadequate Parenting Style: four types of parenting styles have been identified that
seem to be related to different developmental outcomes for the children. These styles vary
in the degree of parental warmth (amount of support, encouragement, and affection and
in the degree of parental control (extent of discipline and monitoring)

• Authoritative Parenting: The authoritative style is one in which the parents are both very
warm and very careful to set clear limits and restrictions regarding certain kinds of
behaviors, but also allow considerable freedom within certain limits. (best parenting style)
• Authoritarian Parenting: Parents with an authoritarian style are high on control but low on
warmth, and their children tend to be conflicted, irritable, and moody.
• Permissive Parenting: A third parenting style is the permissive-indulgent style, in which
parents are high on warmth but low on discipline and control. These children are spoiled,
selfish, inconsiderate, and demanding. Inadequate, Irrational, and angry.
• Neglectful/uninvolved parenting: such parents are low on both warmth and control. Such
parents are uninvolved with the child and the neglect him/her. This style of parenting leads
to low self-esteem and conduct problems in the child later on in life
3. Maladaptive Peer Relationships: Another important set of relationships outside the
family usually begins in the preschool years- those involving age-mates, or peers. A child
who fails to establish a satisfactory relationship with peers during the developmental years
is deprived of a crucial set of background experience and is at higher-than-average risk
for a variety of negative outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. Peer social problems in
childhood have been linked to a variety of breakdowns in later adaptive functioning,
including depression, school dropout, and delinquency.

4. Distorted Thinking: (Cognitive models) of abnormal behavior focus on the way people
think about themselves, others and the world (e.g. Beck et al., 1979). According to this
model, how we think and interpret a situation determines our emotional reactions and
adaptive and maladaptive behavior. Distorted cognitive processes – such as selectively
attending to some information and ignoring other information, exaggerating negative
feelings, expecting the worst, or making inaccurate attributions about events have been
shown to play an important role in various types of psychological disorders. People may
hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and inaccurate. People
may also repeatedly think in illogical ways and make overgeneralizations, that is, they
may draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event.

5. Learned behaviors: Behavioral theories: these theories states that all behavior (including
abnormal) is learned from the environment (nurture) and that all behavior that has been
learned can also be ‘unlearnt’ (which is how abnormal behavior is treated). The behavioral
approach emphasizes the environment and how abnormal behavior is acquired
through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical
conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared object
(e.g., spider or rat) is associated with fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned
stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear response characterized by avoidance of the
feared object and the emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered.
Learning environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors
e.g., an individual may be rewarded for having panic attacks by receiving attention from
family and friends – this would lead to the behavior being reinforced and increasing in
later life.
Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive models that children identify with and
imitate (e.g. social learning theory).
PSYCHO-SOCIAL CAUSES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

Psychological factors are the elements of a person's personality that can limit or enhance how they
think. Social factors are general factors at the level of human society that affect an
individual. These factors include social structure, social processes, relationships, family, culture,
work, money, and housing. Psychosocial factors are the combination of psychological and social
factors that influence a person's thoughts, emotions and behaviors.

1. Inadequade/ Pathogenic Family Structure: Family is the main socializing agent for the
child and is important in all aspects of a human development. From family, an individual
gets emotional, financial, mental support and is able to cope with his/her problems with the
help of the members of the family. Scientific observations on mental disorders and mental
patients have indicated that family contributes significantly to the development of mental
disorders. There is no model of the ideal family. However a few types of families that
clearly have a detrimental influence on the child developments are:

(a) The Inadequate Family – This type of the family is characterized by inability to cope
with the ordinary problems of the daily living. It lacks the resources, physical and
psychological for meeting demands. Incompetence of such families can’t give its
children the feeling of safety and security or adequately guide them in the development
of essential competencies. Children brought up in a very poor environment where they
are deprived of the basic needs may develop maladaptive behaviors in life.

(b) The Antisocial Family: The parents are overtly or covertly engaged in behavior that
violates the standards and interests of the society at large. They provide undesirable
models to the child. Children in such families may be encouraged in dishonesty, deceit
and other undesirable behavior patterns and imitate the behavior and attitudes of their
parents. Their social interactions are shallow and may lead to the development of anti-
social personality of the child.

(c) The Disrupted Family- Disrupted families are incomplete, whether as a result of death,
divorce, separation or some other condition. Delinquency and other maladaptive
behaviors are much higher among children and adolescents coming from disrupted
homes.

(d) The Discordant Family: Here one or both the parents express feelings of frustration and
disillusionment in hostile ways such as nagging, fighting and doing things purposely to
annoy the other person. Serious discordant relationships are likely to be frustrating,
hurtful and generally pathogenic in their effects on both the adult and the children.

(e) Psychopathology in the family: if any one member of the family is suffering from any
sort of mental illness or disorder it may have a very detrimental effect on the mental
health of the child that is brought up in that environment.
2. Socio-Economic Status: Social class is one of the most important causal factors in mental
illness. This has been clearly and consistently demonstrated by studies related to mental
disorder. It was found that those from the lower economic classes are more likely than
those from other classes to be mentally ill. Lower economic class people are more prone
to mental disorder because they are more likely to experience social stress (e.g.
unemployment, separation), to suffer from psychic frailty, infectious diseases, neurological
impairments, and to lack good medical treatment, coping ability and social support.
Research continues to show a link between social and economic inequality and poor mental
health.

3. Discrimination: discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, caste, gender etc. can lead
to mental health problems. Many studies have shown higher rates of psychological stress
among minorities, is because these groups experience more social stresses stemming from
discrimination, poverty and cultural conflict. People who face prejudice and discrimination
experience loneliness and feelings of not being accepted, which is an underlying factor for
developing abnormal behavior.

4. Migration : refugees from war and persecution have often suffered experiences that affect
their mental health adversely.

5. Urban Environment: An important social factor implicated in mental illness is the urban
environment itself. Community surveys indicate higher rates of mental disorders in urban
areas, particularly the inner city, than in rural areas, including the suburbs and small towns.
It is argued that the urban environment produces a lot of mental problems because it
generates an abundance of physical and social stresses (e.g. traffic congestion, noise,
population density, tenuous social relations, loneliness and lack of social support).

6. Parenting styles: Children raised in healthy parenting styles are less likely to develop
mental disorders, whereas children raised in unhealthy parenting styles like uninvolved
parenting styles lack attachment, feeling of belongingness may have problems with
academic performance, adjustment and so on.

7. Abuse : abuse can also leave a mental scar and develop abnormal behavior in an individual.
Toxic parenting, where parents discriminate or compare their children or abuse them
physically or verbally, can deteriorate the mental well-being of those children. Children
start to show abnormal behavior like losing interest in studies, developing trust issues and
even being scared of stating their opinions, which begin to compromise their mental
development.

8. Social Networks: Having caring and close relationships strongly protects against most
non psychotic forms of mental illness. Supportive social networks, particularly family, are
crucial in times of crisis. Such networks extend beyond family and close friends, and in
many communities include religious groups.

9. Peer relationships: As with familial relationships, peer relationships can be both healthy
and unhealthy. Some detrimental experiences that a child may face are school bullying and
 prejudice due to economic status, race, religious beliefs, gender, sexual orientation,
physical characteristics, dress, or place of origin. Problems such as lowered self-confidence
and self–esteem are often the result of negative childhood experiences.

10. War, violence, pressures of modern life………

BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
The biological viewpoint focuses on mental disorders as diseases whose causes are biological or
physiological. According to this view, mental disorders are seen as disorders of the central nervous
system and thus are sometimes inherited or caused by some medical factors like injuries or physical
diseases. The biological viewpoint emphasizes on understanding the underlying cause of disorders,
which might include genetic inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical
imbalances. Diseases, malnutrition, injuries and other conditions that interfere with normal
development and functioning are considered as the potential causes of abnormal behavior.
The biological causes include
 Genetic endowments: Genetics (heredity): Genes comprise 90% of our personality traits,
and we acquire them from our parents, or we can say some sets of genes are passed on and
on from one generation to the other. The traits of abnormal behavior can also be genetic
and can be passed on from one generation to the other. Mental illnesses sometimes run in
families, suggesting that people who have a family member with a mental illness may be
somewhat more likely to develop the disorder.
Experts believe that many mental illnesses are linked to abnormalities in many genes,
rather than just one or a few, and that how these genes interact with the environment is
unique for every person (even identical twins). That is why a person inherits a likeliness to
have a mental illness and doesn't necessarily get the illness. Mental illness itself comes
from the interaction of multiple genes and other factors – such as stress, abuse, or a
traumatic event – which can influence, or trigger, an illness in a person who has an inherited
likeliness to have it.

Chromosomal abnormalities: Each normal living cell has a nucleus which contains 46
chromosomes. These 46 chromosomes are in 23 pairs. The 1 st 22 pairs determine body
characteristics and are called autosomes. The remaining one pair i.e. 23 rd pair determines
the individual’s sex. They are called sex chromosomes. The chromosomes contain the
genes. Genes are the carriers of genetic information that we inherit from our parents and
other ancestors. It has been found that most mental disorders show at least some genetic
influence. Genes play an important role in determining risks for both psychotic and non-
psychotic disorders. For example, the lifetime risk of schizophrenia is 1%, but for the
offspring of an affected person it becomes 10% and in bipolar disorder is 20%.
Research has shown that abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes are
associated with major defects or disorders. Chromosomal abnormalities may lead to
Down’s syndrome (Down‘s Syndrome: There are 3 pairs of chromosomes instead of two
in the 21st pair).

Faulty genes: Sometimes a gene contains a variation, these variations may make a gene
not work properly. These variations are called mutations that may be either inherited or as
result of exposure to certain drugs, radiation or chemicals etc. which may cause gene
damage.
 Constitutional Liabilities: The term ‘constitutional’ is used to describe any characteristic
that is either innate or acquired early in life often at prenatal stage. Physical handicaps and
temperament are some of the traits included in this category. Embryonic abnormalities or
environmental conditions operating before or after birth may result in physical defects. The
most common birth difficulty associated with learning disabilities and behavioral and
emotional disorders is low birth weight. Prenatal conditions that can lead to premature birth
and low birth weights include nutritional deficiencies, disease, and exposure to radiation,
drugs, severe emotional stress or mother’s excessive use of alcohol or tobacco. These
can lead to the risk of developing mental disorders later in life. Socio- economic status is
also related to fetal and birth difficulties.
Deformities and handicaps of our bodies can also lead to both physical as well as
psychological problems.
Temperament: The temperament of an infant or young child has profound effects on a
variety of important developmental processes (Rothbart & Ahadi, 1994). For example, a
child with fearful temperament is more likely to learn to fear social situations.
Temperament might also cause various forms of psychopathology in later life. For
example, children who are fearful in many situations might be at risk for developing
anxiety disorders later in childhood or in adulthood. A child with a low tolerance for stress
may also develop problems later in life.
 Brain Structure: Knowledge about brain structure has increased with the advances in
computed tomography (CT) scanning and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This has
led to many notable observations. Changes in structure and functioning of the brain may
lead to brain pathology. For instance, neuroimaging in some patients with schizophrenia
shows dilated cerebral ventricles and reduced frontal lobe density. Exposure to adverse
conditions which can affect brain development (in utero or in early life) may lead to
changes in the frontal lobes that increase the risk of schizophrenia.

 Physical Deprivation or Disruption: The most basic human requirements are those of
food, water, oxygen, sleep and elimination of wastes. Insufficient rest, inadequate diet or
working too hard when ill, can all interfere with a person’s ability to cope and might
predispose him or her to a variety of problems. Prolonged food deprivation or severe
malnutrition in children not only impairs physical development and lowers resistance to
disease but it also impairs brain growth, results in lowered intelligence and increases risk
for disorders like attention-deficit disorder.
 Neurotransmitter and Hormonal Imbalances: The biological perspective views mental
illness as being a result of a malfunction in the body as a result of issues with brain anatomy
or chemistry. The neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) communicate by chemical
messages through neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They
send information between neurons by crossing a synapse. When these neurotransmitters
become imbalanced they give rise to many psychological problems. Biological approaches
to treatment focus mainly on medications that rectify neurotransmitter imbalances.
Neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA) regulate level of
 mood, anxiety, and cognitive functioning. Neurotransmitter imbalance can cause a number
of problems.
Hormonal Imbalance: Hormones are chemicals messengers secreted by the endocrine
glands (e.g., pituitary). They play a role in the functioning of the nervous system and in the
regulation of behavior. Malfunction of this system has been said to be responsible for
various forms of psychopathology.
 Infections: Certain infections have been linked to brain damage and the development of
mental illness or the worsening of its symptoms. For example, a condition known as
pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder (PANDAS) associated with the
streptococcus bacteria has been linked to the development of mental illnesses in children.
Researchers have traced a connection between some infections and mental illnesses like
schizophrenia, depression and bipolar disorder. The findings support the idea that
infections affect mental health, possibly by influencing the immune system. Influenza in
pregnant women has been linked with an increased risk of schizophrenia in their
children. Other studies have found that other infections are also associated with
schizophrenia.
 Prenatal damage: Some evidence suggests that a disruption of early fetal brain
development or trauma that occurs at the time of birth for example, loss of oxygen to the
brain may play a part in certain conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder.
 Substance abuse: Long-term substance abuse, in particular, has been linked to anxiety,
depression, and paranoia.
 Other factors: exposure to toxins, such as lead, may play a role in mental illnesses.