M5034/2401

Electrical Principles

Laboratory Report on RL Transients & AC Circuits

Student Name: Aman Kumar

Student Number: 23540174
Table of contents

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… 3
2. Methodology.………………………………………………………………………………… 4
1.1 Question 1 ……………………………………………………………………………… 5
1.1.1 Simulation Results…………………………………………………………………… 5
3. 2.1 Question 2 ………………………………………………………………………… 6
2.1.1 Simulation Results…………………………………………………………………. 6
4. 3.1 Question 3 ……………………………………………………………………………. 7
3.1.1 Simulation Results…………………………………………………………………. 7
5. 4.1 Question 4 …………………………………………………………………………… 8
4.1.1 Simulation Results…………………………………………………………………. 8
6. Conclusion/Recommendations ………………………………………………………. 9
7. References …………………………………………………………………………………...... 9
Introduction
RL Transients

Earlier we noted that capacitors store energy by producing an electric field within a piece of dielectric
material. Inductors also store energy; in this case it is stored within a magnetic field. An Inductor is a
passive electrical component formed by coil of wire and which exhibits property of inductance,
frequently wound on a ferromagnetic core to increase the inductance. When there is current through
an inductor, an electromagnetic field is established. An increase in current expands the
electromagnetic field and decrease in current reduces it in simple terms amount of induced voltage in
a coil is directly proportional to rate of change of magnetic field with respect to the coil. (Faraday’s
Law).

Also, we must understand Lenz’s law for this Lab when a voltage is induced to a current flow as a
result, this current sets a magnetic field, and the polarity of induced voltage is such that it opposes
the change in current.

The objective of this Lab activity is to study the transient response of inductor circuits using a series
RL configuration and understand the time constant concept.
In an R-L circuit, voltage across the inductor decreases with time while in the RC circuit the voltage
across the capacitor increased with time. The inductor will develop a voltage that will oppose the
current and the key to this analysis is to remember that inductor current cannot change
instantaneously.
Current in Inductor
In series RL circuit the current will increase approximately to 63% during each time constant interval
after when voltage is applied. When current will reach its final value of 5Time constant, it will stop to
change, and this time inductor will act as a short (except for ending resistance.
Also, the similar happens for decreasing or discharging. When the current reached its final value
approximately close to 0A, it stops to change, and inductor acts ideally as a short.
Methodology 1

For the given circuit diagram in Figure 1, determine the following:

a. Determine the time constant.

We know tau Ƭ = L/R =91.4634146X10-6

Where: =9.14634146µS (Alt 0181)
Ƭ=?
L= 75mH ∵ Ƭ==9.14634146µS
R = 8.2KΩ ∵ 5Ƭ==9.1463414µS x 5 =4.57317073µS
Ƭ=(75x10-3) / (8.2X103)
∵ 10Ƭ==9.1463414µS x 10=9.46341 x 10-5s

Tau and 5Tau simulation graphs

The simulation shows that the value times constant is Ƭ=914nS which equivalent to our calculated
time constant value of Ƭ==9.14634146µS and the 5 times constant or the final value where it ceases
to change is around 4.573μs and our calculations show our 5Tau value is 4.57317073µs. So, we can
conclude that both our calculated and simulated values are same only differ by the significant round
off values.

b. Calculate the current at each of the following times: 7μs, 15μs, 30μs.
From the graph we note the pulse goes from 0V to 10V at t=0
The final current is, therefore.

V= IR At 15μs
I =V/R i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ )
= 10V/8.2KΩ i= 1.2195122mA ((1−e−15µs/9.146µs )
I = 1.21951220X10-3A i=1.219512x10-3 (1-0.193980042)
It = 1.2195122mA i=1.219512x10-3 (0.806019958)
i=0.0009829511725A
The current at each time constant interval is i=0.982951172mA
a certain percentage of final current given by
i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ ) Increasing current values

At 7μs At 30μs
i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ ) i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ )
i= 1.219512mA ((1−e−7µs/9.146µs ) i= 1.2195122mA ((1−e−30µs/9.146µs )
i=1.219512x10-3 (1-0.465178845) i=1.219512x10-3 (1-0.0376282568)
i=1.219512x10-3(0.534821157) i=1.219512x10-3 (0.962371743)
i=0.000652220920A i=0.00117362408A
i=0.652220920mA i=1.17362408mA

Below is the plot for all the calculated current values for different time constants and it behaves like
the simulated showing the charge and discharge at the specific time constants. Also, the steady state
before discharging is approximately at 42.7µs before discharging.
Simulation Results
At time values 7μs and 30μs the calculated values were as i=0.652220920mA i=1.17362408mA,while
simulated were 1.1739mA and 652.76µS which are just different on the significant round off values
as aligning the cursor was a bit hard.

At t= 15μs and 57μs calculated values were as i=0.982951172mA i=0.567291275mA ,while simulated
were 989.89µA and 565.55µS which are just different on the significant round off values as aligning
the cursor was a bit hard.
c. Calculate the current at each of the following times: 57µs, 65µs, 80µs.
From the graph we note the pulse goes from 10V to 0v at t=5µs, current starts to decrease
exponentially

Therefore, the decreasing current values is given by. At 65μs

i =It (e−t/Ƭ) i =It (e−t/Ƭ)
i =1.219512x10-3 (e−15µs/9.146µs )
At 57μs i=1.219512x10-3 (0.193980042)
i =It (e−t/Ƭ) i=0.000236561
i =1.219512x10-3 i=0.236561027mA
(e−7µs/9.146µs ) At 80μs
i=1.219512x10-3 (0.465178845) i =It (e−t/Ƭ)
i=0.000567291 i =1.219512x10-3 (e−30µs/9.146µs )
i=0.567291275mA i=1.219512x10-3 (0.037282568)
i=0.000045881181A
i=0.0458881181mA

Simulation Result
At t=65 µs and 80 µs the calculated values were i=0.236561027Ma i=0.0458881181mA,while the
simulated values were 237.78µA and 45.796µA which shows that the values are consistently same, and they
only vary by the significant rounding off uncertainty values.
Note
The Period T = 5 Ƭ but to observe the entire graph we must have at a higher probably 10-time constants

F=1/T
= 1/10 Ƭ
=1/(10x9.146µs)
=1/ 91.463µS
=10933.33333Herts
∵ f= 10.93333333KHz
Methodology 2
For the given circuit diagram in Figure 2, determine the following:

a) Determine the time constants for charging and discharging circuits.

The above is a series RL circuit where we will have.
VR = the instantaneous voltage across resistor
VL = the instantaneous voltage across the inductor

In general, when a switch is closed position 1 (Left), the current begins to rise rapidly from zero
until it reaches its steady state value of I which is determined by the resistance of the circuit and
voltage source. The shape of current will take exponential form. When switch will move to position
2 (Right) the voltage is removed and current will decay again at exponential rate.

We know tau Ƭ = L/R Switch Position Right (Discharging)

Ƭ=? L = 10H
Switch Position left (Charging) R = 5Ω
L = 10H Ƭ = (10) / (5)
R = 1Ω = 2s
Ƭ = (10) / (1)
= 10s

b) The voltage across the inductor instantly after the switch is set to the left position.
At this instant the full dc voltage will appear across the coil as we know that the voltage across VR
cannot change quickly therefore current will be zero amperes initially and V L will drop to negative
voltage before decaying to zero. We can conclude that the VL will equal to voltage observed across
the battery 12V but in opposite polarity.
The simulation shows at the very instant the switch is on left position the voltage is 11.9086V
which is slightly different to the 12V value as we discussed. The variance in the values could be
due to the Tau value used in calculation and axis legends on the software has limits as we could
not feed in the entire digits on the rise and fall time as we had to round off to the nearest whole
number and this could have caused the difference in the required output. Also, the crosshairs on
the cursor move very fast and hard to bring to the very instant start cycle.
So, I tried with online Multisim to verify my reasoning and it confirms my discussion.
c) The time needed to reach a current of 5 A.

V= IR It=12A
I =V/R t=??
= 12V/1Ω i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ )
I = 12
It = 12A i =It (1−e−t/Ƭ )
5= 12 ((1−e−t/10)
We know tau Ƭ = L/R 5/12 =1−e−t/10)
Switch Position left (Charging)
L = 10H 5/12 =1−e−t/10
R = 1Ω -7/12 =e−t/10)
Ƭ = (10) / (1) ln 7/12=-t/10
= 10s -0.5389965m=-t/10
t=5.389965s

The simulation shows the value of t=5.3960 while the calculated value t=5.389965s hence we can
conclude that the software gives the best results if the time constant values are fed properly and the
only uncertainty, we have in the answers are the last few significant numbers which may been a
human error in rounding it off.
d. The voltage across the inductor instantly after the switch is set to the right position. (Assume the
steady state current condition before switching to the right position.
Now if the inductor is added in series with switch to position 1 the VL will decay to zero at an
exponential rate and VR will begin at zero and will rise exponentially to a steady state. With the
switch open or to position 2 the total voltage across R and L, VR + VL will be zero. At this point the
current reaches its final approximation of 0A, its ceases to change. Steady state means the
inductor is no longer resisting current, inductor acts as short (except for the winding resistance) to
the constant current.

We can conclude that after very long time the voltage decays to almost 0v and this can be verified by
the simulations.
Charge and Discharge Graph to show the behaviour of an inductor.

The Circuit simulation using a time delay spdt switch to show the behaviour of current and voltage
during charging and discharging.

Methodology 3

For the given circuit diagram in Figure 3, determine the following:

a. To find the reactance of the capacitor and inductor we use the formula.

XC =1/2πfc XL=2πfl
= 1/2π (12000) *(0.022x10-6) =2 π (12000) *(15x10-3=)
=1/ (1.65876092x10-3) =1130.97336 Ω
=602.859633Ω

b. Calculate the total impedance and current in polar form.

We know that the total impedance in rectangular form is given by. Thus, in parallel RLC circuit the
total impedance is calculated by using the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocal method just like we
do for the resistors in parallel.

Z= (1/R∠ 0° + XL ∠ 90 + XC∠ -90°)-1

 We know,
XC = 602.859633Ω
XL = 1130.97336 Ω

Z= (1/R∠ 0° + XL ∠ 90 + XC∠ -90°)-1 IR = VS /R

= (1/100) +1/ (1130.973355) +1/ (602.859632)-1 = 5∠0 °V/(100∠0° Ω )
=(1/√(0.012+(8.84941285x10-4-1.65876092x10-3))-1 = 5 ∠0° V/(100∠0° Ω
= 1/√ (0.012 + 5.9875953x10-7) = 0.05∠0°A
= (1/√ (0.0059954x10-4))-1
= 1/√ (0.012 +(-7.73819635X10-4) tan-1 (-7.73819635/0.01) IC= VS /XC
Z= 99.70∠-4.4251°Ω = 5∠0 °V/(°
= 5 ∠0° V/(602.85996329∠-90 °Ω)
IT = VS /Z = 0.008293804 ∠90°A
= 5∠0 °V/(° Ω)/99.70∠-4.42590°Ω
= 0.05015451 ∠4.42590°A IL= VS /XL
= 5∠0 °V/(°
= 5 ∠0° V/(1130.973355∠90 °Ω)
= 0.00442097∠-90°A

c. Draw the phasor diagram reflecting the result of your calculations.

Current Phasors

IC
0.00829A

IT
IC – IL 4.425°

IR
Vs
0.00829A

IL
Phasor representation not to scale

d. Is the circuit capacitive or inductive? Explain why.

In a parallel circuit ,smaller quantity has the greatest effect on the total current because its current
is the greatest. Like the case of the resistances in parallel, the smaller reactance draws more
current and has greater effect on the total impedance.
In parallel RLC circuit at low frequencies the inductive reactance is less than capacitive
inductance; therefore, the circuit is inductive .As frequency is increased ,XL increases and XC
decreases until a value is reached where XL = XC. This is point of parallel resonance .As the
frequency is increased further the XC becomes smaller than XL and the circuit becomes capacitive.
Also, our total impedance had a negative phase, so this also yields to being the circuit capacitive.
e. At what frequency does the circuit change its reactive characteristic (from inductive to capacitive
or from capacitive to inductive)?

Fr = 1/2π√LC
= 1/(2 π√(15X10-3 )*(0.022X10-6)
= 1 /2 π√(3.3x10-10)
=1/2 π(1.81659021x10-5)
=1/1.141397929x10-4
= 8.76119127kHz

Simulation results showing the value of frequency at which the state of reactance takes place.Our
calculated value shows the resonance frequency to be approximately

Simulation showing the magnitude of total impedance, total Current and current across resistor,
capacitor and inductor are same as found in the calculations and in the single frequency AC sweep
when done in Multisim. For some reason the phase angles are not corresponding for few variables,
and this could be due to the mode of plot selected in simulation the linear, decade and logarithmic
could have caused the variance in phase angles also putting in the formula for calculation of current
using the nodal analysis.

Calculated Simulated

Z= 99.70∠-4.4251°Ω
IR=05∠0°A
IC= 0.008293804 ∠90°A
IL = 0.00442097∠-90°A
Methodology 4

Figure 4

Given V=40°∠VR= 100ΩL=15mH C=0.022µF

a. To find the reactance of the capacitor and inductor we use the formula.
XC =1/2πfc XL=2πfl
= 1/2π (12000) *(0.022x10-6) =2 π (12000) *(15x10-3=)
=1/ (1.65876092x10-3) =1130.97336 Ω
=602.859633Ω

b. Calculate the total impedance and current in polar form.

We know that the total impedance in rectangular form is given by.
Z=R+ jXL-jXC

As we know, inductive reactance (XL ) causes the total current to lag the applied voltage. Capacitive
reactance has opposite (XC) effect. It causes the current to lead the voltage. Thus, XL and XC tens to offset
each other. When they are equal, they cancel. In this case we know the magnitude of total reactance in
series.

XTotal = |XL – XC|

In series circuit ,when XL > XC ,the circuit is predominately inductive and when XL < XC is predominately
capacitive. Thus, the impedance is the magnitude and phase angle between the total current and applied
voltage. If the circuit is predominately inductive the phase angle is positive and if predominately capacitive,
the phase angle is negative.

∵ Z=√(R2 +(XL – XC)2 ∠ ∓ tan-1(Xtotal/R)

 We know the two reactance and the magnitude of total reactance can be found by

We know, Impedance in polar form is calculated by scientific calculator

XC = 602.859633Ω using pol function alternatively.
XL = 1130.97336 Ω Pol(100,528.1137224) shift F
XTotal = |XL – XC|
= 1130.97336 Ω -602.859633Ω Using the formula
= 528.1137224 Ω Z=√(R2 +(XL – XC)2 ∠ ∓ tan-1(Xtotal/R)
= √(1002)+(528.1137224) ∠ tan-1 (528.1137224/100)/100)
Rectangular form from above yields ZT =537.44980035 ∠79.27780729° Ω
Z=R+ jXL-jXC
= 100 Ω +j1130.97336 Ω- j602.859633Ω
= 100 Ω+j528.1137224 Ω

c. To find total Current we use ohms law and for convenience of calculation we use polar form values.

I = VS /Z VL = IXL
= 4∠0 °V/(537.44980035 ∠79.27780729° Ω) = (7.4418811∠-79.27780729°mA)*( 1130.97336 ∠90°)
= 7.4418811∠-79.27780729°mA =(7.4418811x10-3 x1130.97336) ∠(-79.27780729°+90°)
= 8.416569159∠10.72219271°V
Now using ohms law again find voltages across
R,L,C
VC= IXC
VR = IR = (7.4418811∠-79.27780729°mA)*( 602.859633Ω ∠-90°)
= (7.4418811∠-79.27780729°mA)*(100∠0°) =(7.4418811x10-3 x602.859633Ω) ∠(-79.27780729°-90°)
=(7.4418811x10-3 x100) ∠(-79.27780729°+0°) = 4.48649709∠-169.2778073°V
= 0.74418811∠-79.27780729°V

d. Voltage Phasor Diagram

VL
10.72°

-V V
-79.277°

VC VR
C

Phasor representation not to scale

f. For this circuit we can see that XL > XC from the reactance calculations but to confirm if it is inductive we
have our calculations we see the phase angle between the current and voltage calculated in the impedance
value is positive hence the circuit is predominately inductive

The circuit will change state when it is in Resonance. XL =XC

Resonance is a condition in series RLC circuit in which capacitive and inductive reactance are equal; thus,
they cancel each other out and result in a purely resistive Impedance. The frequency at which resonant
occurs is called resonant frequency and will only occur at one specific frequency which is given by.
 Fr = 1/2π√LC
= 1/(2 π√(15X10-3 )*(0.022X10-6)
= 1 /2 π√(3.3x10-10)
=1/2 π(1.81659021x10-5)
=1/1.141397929x10-4
= 8.76119127kHz

g. Simulation showing the Voltage, Total Impedance current and Phasor angle values.
The simulation corresponds to all the calculated values, and we can conclude that our calculations are
correct when a single frequency AC sweep was carried out and the magnitude and phase are all within the
range.

Calculated Simulated

ZT =537.44980035 ∠79.27780729° Ω
IT= 7.4418811∠-79.27780729°mA
VR = 0.74418811∠-79.27780729°V
VL= 8.416569159∠10.72219271°V
VC= 4.48649709∠-169.2778073°V

Frequency at which resonance occurs is same as the calculated value of 8.72KhZ