Thermodynamics and Phase Behavior

SI Derived Units and Constants Conservation of Mass

R = 459.67 + °F General Balance Equation
m ⋅ kg J m2 ⋅ kg kg N m2 ⋅ kg J 1
N= = J= = Nm Pa = = W= = Hz = K = 273.15 + °C
s2 m s2 m ⋅ s 2 m2 s3 s s °F = 1.8 °C + 32 𝑑𝜃 Rate of Rate at Which Rate at Which Rate at Which θ can be mass, moles, internal energy, or entropy
= = − +
𝑑𝑡 Change of θ θ Enters System θ Leaves System θ is Generated If θ is conserved quantity, generation term zero
Gas Constant = 8.314x10−6 MPa ⋅ m3 Τmol K Water specific heat capacity = 4.184 kJΤkg K Gas Constant = 8.314 JΤmol K
Mass Balance Equation
Gravitational Constant = 9.806 m/s2 Substance concentration = amountΤvolume specific volume = ρ−1 = m3 Τkg
Rate of Rate at Rate at 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑁
Important Definitions and Nomenclature Change = Which Mass − Which Mass = ෍ 𝑀ሶ 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 = ෍ 𝑁ሶ 𝑘 𝑀 𝑡2 − 𝑀 𝑡1 = ෍ 𝛥𝑀𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀 = mass (kg) 𝑁 = number of moles (mol) 𝑈 = internal energy (J) of Mass Flows In Flows Out
Important Definitions
3 𝐺 = Gibbs energy (J)
- Isolated system is not affected by changes in surroundings 𝑉 = volume m 𝑃 = absolute pressure (Pa)
- Adiabatic system is thermally isolated from surroundings 𝐻 = enthalpy J 𝑇 = absolute temperature (K) 𝑄ሶ = heat flow rate JΤs
First Law of Thermodynamics
- Open system: mass can flow in and out of system 𝑆 = entropy JΤK 𝑊 = work done on the system (J) 𝜃መ = property θ per unit mass Energy Balance Heat Capacity
- Closed system: mass cannot flow in and out of system First Law: Energy is Conserved
𝑅 = gas constant 𝑊𝑠 = shaft work done on system (J) 𝜃പ = property θ per mole 𝜕ഫ
𝑈
𝑑 Energy of Rate of Rate of 𝑑𝑈 𝐶𝑉 =
- Steady-state: system properties do not change over time 𝐶𝑉 = constant volume molar heat capacity JΤmol K 𝐶𝑃∗ = ideal gas molar heat capacity = − = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ + ෍ 𝑀ሶ 𝑘 𝐻
෡𝑘 𝑜𝑟 ෍ 𝑁ሶ 𝑘 𝐻
ഫ𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 System Energy In Energy Out 𝑑𝑡
- Isothermal: temperature is constant 𝐶𝑃 = constant pressure molar heat capacity 𝑀ሶ 𝑘 = mass flow rate at location 𝑘
1 Total Total 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑁𝐶𝑉 𝛥𝑇
Enthalpy flow
Pure Substance Phase Behavior 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀𝑣 2 + 𝑀𝑔ℎ + 𝑈
2
heat flow work
𝜕ഫ
𝐻
Pure Substance Phase Diagram Pressure – Volume Diagram Lever Rule Potential Internal 𝑑𝑉 𝐶𝑃 =
Kinetic 𝑄ሶ = ෍ 𝑄ሶ 𝑘 𝑊ሶ = 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 − 𝑃 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
energy energy
Lines correspond
ഫ−ഫ
𝜃 𝜃𝑣
energy 𝑑𝑡
to P-V diagram 𝑥𝐿 = 𝛥𝐻 = 𝑁𝐶𝑃 𝛥𝑇
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ≈ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 Total work = shaft work + expansion work
𝜃𝐿 − ഫ
ഫ 𝜃𝑣
𝑃𝑐 CP
Liquid 𝑥𝐿 + 𝑥𝑣 = 1 Second Law of Thermodynamics Free Energy and Reversibility
Pressure
Pressure

Solid 𝑥𝐿 = liquid phase mole fraction Entropy Balance Second Law: Entropy Free Energy Entropy and Work
CP
𝑥𝑣 = vapor phase mole fraction 𝑑𝑆 𝑄ሶ can be created but For a closed, isothermal, For a closed, constant T & V system
= + ෍ 𝑀ሶ 𝑘 𝑆መ𝑘 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
ሶ not destroyed constant volume system
𝑊𝑠 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 + 𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝜃 and 𝜃෠ can be any
ഫ 𝑑𝑡 𝑇
Vapor ሶ
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≥0 𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑆
Two-phase region
extensive property that’s 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = Helmholtz energy
For a closed, constant T & P system
TP BP been converted to intensive ሶ
DP 𝑑𝑆 𝑄ሶ 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 if process reversible 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 + 𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
= + ෍ 𝑁ሶ 𝑘 𝑆പ𝑘 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
ሶ For a closed, isothermal,
Temperature 𝑇𝑐 𝜃෠ − 𝜃෠𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 At Equilibrium constant pressure system And if process reversible
Specific Volume 𝑤𝐿 =
- Triple point represents P & T at which 3 phases coexist 𝜃෠𝐿 − 𝜃෠𝑣 𝑇 = temp at which heat flow takes place 𝑑𝑆 𝐺 = 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 & 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺2 − 𝐺1
- Bubble point pressure equals the dew point pressure ሶ
- At critical point, liquid and vapor phases are 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = entropy generated within system 𝑑𝑡
=0 & 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 =0
indistinguishable - P & T are constant during phase changes 𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝑣 = 1 𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 If entropy generated, more work is
required for a given change of state
- If above the critical point, no phase change occurs - Phases have significantly different properties
𝑤𝐿 = liquid phase mass fraction
Differential Entropy Change Can lose free energy by
- Saturated steam table displays properties along generating entropy 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑣 + 𝑇𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑉෠𝑣 ≠ 𝑉෠𝐿 ෡𝑣 ≠ 𝑈
𝑈 ෡𝐿 ෡𝑣 ≠ 𝐻
𝐻 ෡𝐿 𝑆መ𝑣 ≠ 𝑆መ𝐿 𝑤𝑣 = vapor phase mass fraction For a closed system 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑑ഫ
𝑈 = 𝑇𝑑പ𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑ഫ
𝑉
saturation line

Ideal Gas Properties Engines Power Cycle Components

Ideal Gas Law Heat Capacity Entropy Fugacity Simple Heat Engine Turbines and Compressors Expansion Valve
𝜕ഫ
𝐻 𝜕 𝑈
ഫ + 𝑅𝑇 𝑓=𝑃 𝜙=1 Joule-Thompson Expansion
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑃∗ 𝑇 = = 𝛥പ𝑆 = 𝐶𝑉∗ ln 𝑇2 /𝑇1 + 𝑅 ln 𝑉
ഫ 2 /ഫ
𝑉1 𝑄ሶ 1 Heat 𝑄ሶ 2 High P Low P
𝑍=1
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑓 = fugacity Turbine
𝛥പ𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃∗ ln 𝑇2 /𝑇1 − 𝑅 ln 𝑃2 /𝑃1 𝑇1 Engine 𝑇2 𝑀ሶ 1 , 𝑁ሶ 1 𝑀ሶ 2 , 𝑁ሶ 2
𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃∗ 𝛥𝑇
𝛥ഫ 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉∗ 𝛥𝑇
𝛥ഫ 𝜙 = fugacity coefficient High P Low P
𝑍 = compressibility
factor 𝐶𝑃∗ = 𝐶𝑉∗ + 𝑅 𝛥പ𝑆 = 𝑆പ2 − 𝑆പ1 𝜙 = 𝑓Τ𝑃 for all P & T 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 Valve
𝑀ሶ 1 , 𝑁ሶ 1 𝑀ሶ 2, 𝑁ሶ 2
Volumetric Equations of State Closed system with steady-state flow
System is open, reversible, adiabatic, System (valve) is open and
and operating at steady-state adiabatic with steady-state flow
Real Gas Law van der Waals Peng-Robinson (1978) Redlich-Kwong-Soave −𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑄ሶ 1 + 𝑄ሶ 2
𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝑇 ෡1 = 𝐻
𝐻 ෡2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻
ഫ1 = 𝐻
ഫ2
𝑃ഫ
𝑉 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝑃= −
𝑃= − 2 𝑃= −
𝑉
ഫ−𝑏 𝑉 ഫ 𝑉
ഫ +𝑏 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Low P High P
𝑉
ഫ−𝑏 𝑉ഫ 𝑉
ഫ−𝑏 𝑉 ഫ 𝑉
ഫ +𝑏 +𝑏 𝑉
ഫ −𝑏 𝑇 −𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄1 − 𝑇2 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 Compressor
𝑉
ഫ 𝑃ഫ
𝑉 𝛼 =1+𝜅 1− 𝑇1
𝑍 = 𝐼𝐺 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑅2 𝑇𝑐2 𝑀ሶ 1 , 𝑁ሶ 1 𝑀ሶ 2 , 𝑁ሶ 2 Evaporators (Boilers) and
𝑉
ഫ 𝑅𝑇 1 𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑅2 𝑇𝑐2 𝑎 𝑇 = 0.42748 𝛼 𝑇
𝑏= 𝑎 𝑇 = 0.47524 𝛼 𝑇 𝑃𝑐 maximum 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Condensers (Coolers)
𝑍 𝑇𝑟 , 𝑃𝑟
8 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑇𝑐 = critical temp
work
−𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄1
𝑇1
𝑊ሶ 𝑠
2 𝑏 = 0.0778𝑅𝑇𝑐 Τ𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 = critical pressure 𝑏 = 0.08664𝑅𝑇𝑐 Τ𝑃𝑐 Condenser
𝑇 𝑃 27 𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑀ሶ 1 , 𝑁ሶ 1
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑎= 𝜅 = 0.48 + 1.574𝜔 − 0.176𝜔2
−𝑊ሶ 𝑠 −𝑊𝑠 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Turbines and compressors produce the same 𝑀ሶ 2 , 𝑁ሶ 2
𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 64 𝑃𝑐 𝜅 = 0.37464 + 1.54226𝜔 − 0.26992𝜔2 𝜔 = acentric factor efficiency = = = final energy and entropy balances.
2 3
𝑄ሶ 1 𝑄1 𝑇1 𝑄ሶ
If 𝜔 > 0.491 𝜅 = 0.379642 + 1.48503𝜔 − 0.164423𝜔 + 0.16666𝜔
𝑇𝑟 = reduced temp 𝑃𝑟 = reduced pressure
If entropy generated increases, the −𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑀ሶ 1 𝐻
෡1 − 𝐻
෡2 & 𝑆መ1 = 𝑆መ2
Open system with steady-state flow
Equations of State Cubic Form Work Flow engine’s efficiency decreases
−𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑁ሶ 1 𝐻 𝑆പ1 = 𝑆പ2 𝑄ሶ = 𝑀ሶ 1 𝐻
෡2 − 𝐻
෡1 𝑜𝑟 𝑁ሶ 1 𝐻
ഫ2 − 𝐻
ഫ1
ഫ1 − 𝐻
ഫ2 &
𝑍 3 + 𝛼𝑍 2 + 𝛽𝑍 + 𝛾 = 0 -Find 𝑇𝑐 , 𝑃𝑐 , and 𝜔
Dimensionless Parameters -Calculate a and b Liquefaction of Gas
van der Redlich-Kwong -Input T & P to calculate A and B
Peng-Robinson 𝑏𝑃
Waals and Soave 𝐵= For all EOS -Determine 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾
Linde Process
𝑅𝑇 Compressors
𝛼 −1 − 𝐵 −1 −1 + 𝐵 2
-Solve cubic equation for Z 5 3
𝛽 𝐴 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐵2 𝐴 − 3𝐵 2 − 2𝐵 𝑎𝑃 For VDW, P-R, and Intercoolers Vapor
𝐴= -the 3 roots: 𝑍𝐿 < 𝑍𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔 < 𝑍𝑉 (single or multistage)
Gas

Pressure
𝛾 −𝐴𝐵 −𝐴𝐵 −𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵 2 + 𝐵 3 𝑅𝑇 2 and R-K-S EOS 2 3 4 1’’
𝑍𝑉 = vapor Z-factor Condenser
1’
Departure Functions 1 Throttling 6 Liquefied 1’
Valve Liquid Gas
Departure Definition Enthalpy and Entropy Departure 6 4 5 1
𝑃 𝑉
ഫ
𝐻 ഫ 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐻
ഫ =𝐻 ഫ𝐷 Flash Drum Specific Enthalpy
𝐷
𝜕ഫ
𝑉 1 𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝐻
ഫ = ඲ 𝑉
ഫ− 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑 𝑃ഫ
𝑉 − 𝑑ഫ
𝑉 ഫ 𝐷 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑍 − 1 + ඲ 𝑇
𝐻 − 𝑃 𝑑ഫ
𝑉 Total Work for Compression Fraction of Liquid Generated
𝛥𝐻
ഫ = 𝛥ഫ ഫ2𝐷 − 𝐻
𝐻 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐻 ഫ1𝐷 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝑉
ഫ 𝑉
ഫ 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
ഫ
𝑃=0 ෡𝑖𝑛 = 𝑤𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻
෡𝐿 + 𝑤𝑣 𝐻
෡𝑣
𝐻 𝐼𝐺
𝛥ഫ = ഫ2𝐼𝐺
𝐻 ഫ1𝐼𝐺
−𝐻
𝑉
ഫ =∞
−𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑀ሶ 𝐻
෡𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻
෡𝑜𝑢𝑡 & 𝑆መ𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆መ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻 ෡𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐻
෡𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻
𝑤𝑣 = mass fraction of vapor
𝑃 𝑉
ഫ
van der Waals EOS Total work required for compression ෡3 − 𝐻
𝐻 ෡5 𝐻෡𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻
෡𝑣
𝜕ഫ
𝑉 𝑅 𝜕𝑃 𝑅 𝑤𝐿 = mass fraction of liquid
𝑆പ = 𝑆പ 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑆പ 𝐷 𝐷
𝑆പ = − ඲ − 𝑑𝑃 𝐷
𝑆പ = 𝑅ln𝑍 + ඲ − 𝑑ഫ
𝑉 𝐴 equals the summation of each stage 𝑤𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡 = =
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
ഫ ഫ 𝐷 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑍 − 1 −
𝐻 ෡6 − 𝐻
𝐻 ෡5 𝐻෡𝐿 − 𝐻෡𝑣
𝛥പ𝑆 = 𝛥പ𝑆 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑆പ2𝐷 − 𝑆പ1𝐷
𝑃 𝑉
ഫ 𝑍
𝑃=0 𝑉
ഫ =∞
Power Generation and Refrigeration Cycles
Peng-Robinson Departure Functions
Rankine Cycle Refrigeration Cycle
𝑇 𝑑𝑎Τ𝑑𝑇 − 𝑎 𝑍+ 1+ 2 𝐵 𝑑𝑎 𝑅2 𝑇𝑐2 𝛼 𝑑𝑎Τ𝑑𝑇 𝑍+ 1+ 2 𝐵
ഫ 𝐷 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑍 − 1 +
𝐻 ln = −0.45724 𝜅 𝑆പ 𝐷 = 𝑅ln 𝑍 − 𝐵 + ln High-pressure 𝑄𝐵ሶ High-pressure Low-pressure
𝑄𝐵ሶ
Low-pressure
2𝑏 2 𝑍+ 1− 2 𝐵 𝑑𝑇 𝑃𝑐 𝑇 𝑇𝑐 2𝑏 2 𝑍+ 1− 2 𝐵 Vapor Two phases
Steam Water 1 4
Pressure

3 Boiler 2 3 Boiler 2
Phase Equilibrium and Fugacity Mixtures 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 Compressor
𝑊ሶ 𝑇 𝑊ሶ 𝑃
Turbine Pump Valve
Equilibrium Criteria Fugacity Multicomponent Equilibrium 2 3
Gibbs free energy departure function
Phase I & Phase II 𝑓𝐼 = 𝑓 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑖ҧ𝐼 = 𝑓𝑖ҧ𝐼𝐼 = 𝑓𝑖ҧ𝐼𝐼𝐼 … 1 Specific Enthalpy
𝑃 4 1 4 Condenser
𝑁 = 𝑁 𝐼 + 𝑁 𝐼𝐼 = constant 𝐺
ഫ−𝐺ഫ 𝐼𝐺 1 𝑅𝑇 𝑓𝑖𝐼ҧ = fugacity of component 𝑖 in phase 𝐼 Condenser Coefficient of Performance
𝑓 = 𝑃 exp = 𝑃 exp න 𝑉
ഫ− 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 Low-pressure Low-pressure High-pressure High-pressure
𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐼 + 𝑉 𝐼𝐼 = constant 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑃
Steam 𝑄𝐶ሶ Water Vapor 𝑄𝐶ሶ Liquid 𝑄෠ 𝐵 𝐻෠ 3 − 𝐻෠2
0 Ideal Mixtures 𝐶. 𝑂. 𝑃 = =
𝑊෡𝑠 𝐻෠ 4 − 𝐻෠3
𝑈= 𝑈𝐼 + 𝑈 𝐼𝐼 = constant
𝜙 = 𝑓Τ𝑃 = fugacity coefficient Hydrocarbons make ideal mixtures
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝐼𝐼 𝑇 𝐼 = 𝑇 𝐼𝐼 Path 𝑷 ෡
𝑺 ෡
𝑯 Energy Flow Path 𝑻 𝑷 ෡
𝑺 ෡
𝑯 Energy Flow
𝑃 𝑉
ഫ Volume and Enthalpy 𝛥𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑉 𝐼𝑀 = 0 .

1 𝑅𝑇 1 𝑅𝑇 changes upon mixing 1−2 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑆መ1 = 𝑆መ2 ෡1, 𝐻

𝐻 ෡𝑃 = 𝑉෠1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
෡2 𝑊 1−2 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 𝑆መ1 , 𝑆መ2 ෡1 = 𝐻
𝐻 ෡2 --
ഫ𝐼 = 𝐺
𝐺 ഫ 𝐼𝐼 ln𝜙 = න 𝑉
ഫ− 𝑑𝑃 = න − 𝑃 𝑑ഫ
𝑉 − ln𝑍 + 𝑍 − 1 𝛥𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝐻𝐼𝑀 = 0
𝑅𝑇 𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑉
ഫ are equal to zero
𝐺
ഫ must be minimum 0 𝑉
ഫ= ∞ 2 − 3 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 𝑆መ2 , 𝑆መ3 ෡2 , 𝐻
𝐻 ෡3 𝑄෠𝐵 = 𝐻෡3 − 𝐻
෡2 2 − 3 𝑇2 = 𝑇3 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 𝑆መ2 , 𝑆መ3 ෡2 , 𝐻
𝐻 ෡3 𝑄෠𝐵 = 𝐻
෡3 − 𝐻
෡2
𝐺ҧ𝑖𝐼𝑀 = 𝐺
ഫ𝑖 + 𝑅𝑇ln𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖ҧ𝐼𝑀 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 3−4 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 𝑆መ3 = 𝑆መ4 ෡3 , 𝐻
𝐻 ෡4 ෡𝑇 = 𝐻
𝑊 ෡4 − 𝐻
෡3 3−4 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 𝑆መ3 = 𝑆መ4 ෡3 , 𝐻
𝐻 ෡4 ෡𝑠 = 𝐻
𝑊 ෡4 − 𝐻
෡3
Stability Criteria van der ln𝜙 = 𝑍 − 1 − ln 𝑍 − 𝐵 − 𝐴Τ𝑍
Waals EOS 4 − 1 𝑃4 = 𝑃1 𝑆መ4 , 𝑆መ1 ෡4, 𝐻
𝐻 ෡1 𝑄෠𝐶 = 𝐻
෡1 − 𝐻
෡4 4−1 𝑇4 , 𝑇1 𝑃4 = 𝑃1 𝑆መ4 , 𝑆መ1 ෡4, 𝐻
𝐻 ෡1 𝑄෠𝐶 = 𝐻
෡1 − 𝐻
෡4
𝜕𝑃 Equation of State Mixing Rules
𝐶𝑉 > 0 and <0
𝜕ഫ
𝑉 𝑇 Fugacity coefficient: Peng-Robinson EOS
𝐶
𝐶
Low Pressure Approximations
must be satisfied in each phase Clausius-Clapyeron Equation Fugacity Dalton’s Law Raoult’s Law
𝐴 𝑍+ 1+ 2 𝐵 𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑥 = ා ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗
ln𝜙 = 𝑍 − 1 − ln 𝑍 − 𝐵 − ln
Gibbs Phase Rule 2𝐵 2 𝑍+ 1− 2 𝐵 𝑗=1
𝑃 𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝐻 𝑣𝑎𝑝 1
𝛥ഫ 1 𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑃 𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑃 Valid if low P
𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑃
𝑖=1
ln 2𝑣𝑎𝑝 = − − ideal mixture
𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶 − 𝑃𝐻 + 2 𝑃1 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝐿 𝑉
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝 Work Flow 𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑥 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑏𝑖 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑘𝑖𝑗 𝑓 =𝑓 𝑃𝑖 = partial pressure 𝑥𝑖 = liquid mole fraction 𝑦𝑖 = vapor mole fraction
𝐷𝐹 = degrees of freedom ഫ 𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝐿𝑣
𝛥𝐻
- Follow steps from volumetric EOS section to calculate 𝑍𝑉 and 𝑍𝐿
𝐶 = number of components 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = binary interaction parameter
For a solid
Valid if ideal mixture 𝑃𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑃 − 𝑃2𝑣𝑎𝑝
𝑉 𝐿
- Compute 𝑓 and 𝑓 by inputting 𝑍𝑉 and 𝑍𝐿 into above equations 𝐻 𝑣𝑎𝑝
𝛥ഫ = enthalpy of vaporization 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑥1 =
𝑃𝐻 = number of phases - Iterate 𝑃 until 𝑓 𝑉 = 𝑓 𝐿 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = 0 for HC-HC pairs 𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 of ideal gases 𝑃 𝑃1𝑣𝑎𝑝 − 𝑃2𝑣𝑎𝑝
𝑇 = absolute temperature = 𝐾

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Properties of Reservoir Fluids
Conversions and Constants Phase Behavior
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 lbm = 453.59 g Clausius-Clapeyron Binary Mixtures Real Mixtures
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C
1 cp = 1 mPa-s 𝜕𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝐿𝑣 𝑦𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑛ത 𝐿 + 𝑦𝑖 𝑛ത𝑣
𝑖𝑓 ෍ 𝑧𝑖 𝐾𝑖 > 1 𝑃 < 𝑃𝐵𝑃
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32 = If summation is equal to
𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝑉𝑀𝑔 − 𝑉𝑀𝐿 1 − 𝐾2 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 1, pressure is at the
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 mile = 1,609 m 1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal 1 BTU = 1.055 kJ 𝑥1 = 𝑛ത𝑣 = 𝑧 bubble point or dew point
𝐿𝑣 = heat of vaporization 𝐾1 − 𝐾2 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑖𝑓 ෍ 𝑖ൗ𝐾 > 1 𝑃> 𝑃𝐷𝑃
Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol Gas Constant = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3Τlbmol ⋅ R Water density at SC = 62.37 lbm Τft 3 𝑖
𝑉𝑀𝑔 = molar volume of gas 𝐾 = K factor or equilibrium ratio
Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia Gas Constant = 1.9859 BTUΤlbmol ⋅ R Molar Volume of ideal gas = RT SCΤPSC
𝑉𝑀𝐿 = molar volume of liquid 𝑧𝑖 = overall mole fraction of component 𝑖 Flash Calculation
IG IG
Standard Temperature = 60°F VM = 22.4 LΤgmol @ 1.013 bar VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia 𝑧𝑖 Iterate 𝑛ത 𝐿 until both
Assume 𝐿𝑣 is constant, 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Reservoir Fluid Components 𝑉𝑀𝐿 is negligible, and liquid 𝑛ത𝐿 + 𝐾𝑖 1 − 𝑛ത𝐿 σ 𝑦𝑖 = 1 & σ 𝑥𝑖 = 1

Pressure (psia)
Ideal Gas Law vapor Tie-line
Composition of Reservoir Fluid 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Major Components of Reservoir Fluids 0.1 𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑧1 𝑛ത𝐿 + 𝑛ത𝑣 = 1 𝑛ത 𝐿 = 𝑛ത 𝑣 =
𝑃2 𝐿𝑣 1 1 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Overall Mole Fraction, 𝑧𝑖

𝑥1 𝑦1
Hydrocarbons Propane n-Butane In general, as carbon ln 𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑇1 𝑇2 Ternary Diagrams
0.01 number increases
1. Paraffins
mole fraction decreases Pure Substance Component 3
- Saturated: Carbons have as many Hydrogens as possible 1000
iso-Butane n-Pentane 10−3 0 20 40 60 80 100
Diagram for a Each corner

Vapor Pressure (psia)

𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 Composition, mol % component 1
Slope of line single pressure 80 represents
- As carbon # increases, 𝑇 𝑐 increases and 𝑃 𝑐slightly decreases 10−4 depends on 100 & temperature 100% of that
- Waxes form when carbon # above 𝐶20 fluid type liquid component and
*Pedersen et al 60

Temperature 𝑅
- Specific gravity ≈ 0.65 (1983, 1984) vapor each leg signifies
Most Common Cycloalkanes 10−5
0 10 20 30 40 10 a binary mixture
Cyclopentane Cyclohexane 𝑧1 40
2. Naphthenes/Cycloalkanes (𝐶5 − 𝐶100) Carbon Number 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝
linear on
*Pattern observed in compositions of gas condensate and oil semi-log plot 𝑥1 𝑦1
- Specific gravity ≈ 0.88 − 0.9
reservoir fluids. For 𝐶𝑛 ≥ 𝐶6 , linear relationship on semi-log scale 1 20
Temperature−1 1Τ𝑅 Vapor Liquid
2-phase
3. Aromatics (𝐶6 − 𝐶20) Benzene Building block
Mass and Mole Fraction Conversions Assumptions above not always 0 20 40 60 80 100
- Excellent solvents for dissolving Resins & Asphaltenes 𝑤𝑖 valid. Cox Chart more accurate. Composition, mol % component 1 Component 1 Component 2
of Aromatics is 𝑧𝑖 𝑀𝑊𝑖
- Specific gravity ≈ 0.88 − 0.9 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑧𝑖 =
usually Benzene 𝑀𝑊𝑇 𝑀𝑊𝑖 𝑛𝑇 Classification of Reservoir Fluids
Resins & Asphaltenes 𝑤𝑖
𝑀𝑊𝑇 = ෍ 𝑧𝑖 𝑀𝑊𝑖 𝑛𝑇 = ෍ ൗ𝑀𝑊 Laboratory and Field Characteristics
𝑖
- Complex, large molecules containing mainly C & H with S, O, or N
𝑤𝑖 = mass fraction of component 𝑖 𝑛 𝑇 = total moles
Initial GOR Oil Gravity Initial 𝐵𝑜 𝐶7+ Fraction
- Resins dissolve in petroleum but Asphaltenes do not dissolve (need aromatics) Fluid Type 𝑇 𝑅𝐶 Phase Behavior
- Resins and Asphaltenes increase the fluid’s viscosity and determine its color
scf/STB °API RB/STB Mole %
𝑀𝑊𝑇 = total molecular weight

Reservoir Fluid Properties Dry Gas > 𝑇 𝑐𝑟𝑐 -- -- -- -- Single phase at all pressures and temperatures

Gas phase in reservoir at all P & T.

Reservoir Conditions Surface 𝐵𝑔 (1 − 𝑅𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑠 ) + 𝐵𝑜 (𝑅𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅𝑣 ൯ 𝐵𝑔 Calculation Wet Gas > 𝑇 𝑐𝑟𝑐 > 50,000 -- -- -- Separator within two-phase region.
𝐵𝑡𝑔 =
Isothermal Conditions 1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣
𝑃 𝑆𝐶 𝑧𝑇 𝑟𝑐𝑓 Gas All gas initially; As pressure falls below
P > BP P < BP 𝐵𝑔 = [=] Condensate 𝑇 𝑐 − 𝑇 𝑐𝑟𝑐 3300 − 50000 40 − 60 -- < 12.5 dew point a liquid phase forms
Gas
1 1.2 1 + 2 𝑅𝐵 𝑇 𝑆𝐶 𝑃 𝑠𝑐𝑓
Gas 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑇 𝑅𝐶 close to 𝑇 𝑐 . Key difference between volatile and black
OIL 1 1.1
𝐵𝑡𝑔 = [=]
𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑇 = 𝑅 Volatile Oil < 𝑇𝑐 2000 − 3300 42 − 55 1.7 − 3.0 12.5 − 20 oils is that the gas phase can produce liquid at surface.
Oil
2 + 2.1 As reservoir pressure falls below
1.1 1.1 1.1 Specific Gravity Black Oil < 𝑇𝑐 200 − 2000 15 − 45 1.1 − 1.7 25 − 50 bubble point, gas phase forms.
Oil 𝜌𝑜 Undersaturated Oil phase in reservoir at all P & T.
1.2
Piston

𝛾𝑜 = Oil < 𝑇𝑐 200 − 2000 15 − 45 1.1 − 1.7 25 − 50 Separator within two-phase region.
𝜌𝑤 𝑆𝐶

𝐵𝑜 (1 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝑅𝑣 ) + 𝐵𝑔 (𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 ൯ 𝑀𝑊𝑔 Dead Oil < 𝑇𝑐 -- 5 − 15 1.0 − 1.1 > 50 Single phase at all pressures and temperatures.
𝐵𝑡𝑜 = 𝛾𝑔 =
1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣 𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇 𝑐𝑟𝑐 = cricondentherm
Legend Gas Specific Gravity
2.1 2 2.1 𝑀𝑊 = molecular weight API Classification
1.1 – Free Gas
1.2 – Volatilized Oil
1 + 2 𝑅𝐵
1.0 0.934 0.876 0.825 0.78

𝐵𝑜 = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐵𝑡𝑜 = [=] API Gravity

Fluid Type °API Gravity Dead Oil Light Crude Oil
2.1 – Solution Gas Oil
2.2 2.2 2.2 1.2 + 2.2 𝑆𝑇𝐵 Light Crude Oil > 31.1 Black Oil
2.2 – Free Oil 141.5
1 – Gaseous Phase (Gas + Volatilized Oil) 𝑟𝑐𝑓 𝛾𝑜 = Medium Oil 22.3 − 31.1 Medium Oil
2 – Oleic Phase (Oil + Solution Gas) 𝐵𝑜 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑅𝑠 [=] 𝑠𝑐𝑓ൗ 𝐵𝑔 [=] ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑅𝑣 [=] 𝑆𝑇𝐵ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 °𝐴𝑃𝐼 + 131.5 Volatile Oil
𝑆𝑇𝐵 Heavy Crude Oil 10.0 − 22.3 Heavy Crude Oil

Fluid Properties – Pressure Dependence Compressibility Extra Heavy Oil < 10.0 Extra Heavy Gas Condensate
0.04 10 20 30 40 50
z-Factor 1 𝜕𝑉 °API Gravity
𝑐=− [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝑉 𝜕𝑃
0.03 1.5 60
𝑇 Undersaturated Oil Black Oil Volatile Oil
1 1 𝜕𝑧
𝐁𝐭𝐨 𝑐𝑔 = − Initial Pressure Reservoir
0.02 𝑩𝒈 0.02 1.2 1 40 𝑃 𝑧 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 Isothermal
𝐁𝐨
1 𝜕𝐵𝑜 𝜕𝑅𝑠
0.01 𝝁𝒈 20 𝑐𝑜 = − − 𝐵𝑔
BP 𝐵𝑜 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 Surface
𝑇 𝑇
0.01 1.1 Conditions
400 800 1200 1600 400 800 1200 1600 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑆𝑜 + 𝑐𝑔 𝑆𝑔 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤 + 𝑐𝑅
Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)

Z-Factor Approximation Properties of Brine

Law of Corresponding States Ion Composition Compressibility Gas Condensate Wet Gas Dry Gas
- Cations: positive ions in solution 𝜕 1 1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕𝜌𝑤
𝑃𝑐𝑝 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑃𝑐,𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑝 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 - most common: 𝑁𝑎+ , 𝐶𝑎2+ , 𝑀𝑔2+, 𝐹𝑒 2+ 𝑐𝑤 = 𝐵𝑤 =− =
𝜕𝑃 𝐵𝑤 𝐵𝑤 𝜕𝐵𝑤 𝑇 𝜌𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝑇
𝑃𝑐𝑝 = pseudocritical pressure - Anions: negative ions in solution
Quality Lines or
- most common: 𝐶𝑙− , 𝑆𝑂42−, 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−, 𝐶𝑂32− iso-vols
𝑇𝑐𝑝 = pseudocritical temperature Mixing Brines
Dissolved Solids - Certain mixtures of brines can cause solids to drop out
Represent constant
𝑃𝑝𝑟 = 𝑃ൗ𝑃 𝑇𝑝𝑟 = 𝑇ൗ𝑇 liquid volume
𝑝𝑐 𝑝𝑐 Parts Per Million (PPM) of solution called scale
𝑃𝑝𝑟 = pseudoreduced pressure 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 if actual 𝐾𝑠𝑝 ≥ theoretical 𝐾𝑠𝑝
𝑃𝑃𝑀[=]
𝑇𝑝𝑟 = pseudoreduced temperature 106 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 scale is likely to form
*Once 𝑃𝑝𝑟 and 𝑇𝑝𝑟 are known, can use a chart 𝑇𝐷𝑆 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿 𝐾𝑠𝑝,𝑎 = 𝐴 𝐶
Laboratory Measurements
or correlation to determine the z-factor [=]𝑃𝑃𝑀 𝑇𝐷𝑆 = total 𝐾𝑠𝑝,𝑡 = exp −𝛥𝐺 Τ𝑅𝑇
𝛾𝑤 dissolved solids Flash Vaporization Test Differential Vaporization Test
𝐴 = anion molarity 𝛥𝐺[=] 𝑐𝑎𝑙Τ𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇[=]𝐾
Hall-Yarborough Correlation (1973) Miliequivalents Per Liter 𝐴 [=] 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 𝑃𝐵𝑃 Vented Vented
−1 𝑅 = 1.986[=] 𝑐𝑎𝑙Τ𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
Gas Gas
𝑡 = 𝑇𝑝𝑟 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝐶 = cation molarity
2
[=] 𝛥𝐺 = ෍ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − ෍ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐tan𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝐵𝑃
𝐴 = 0.06125𝑡 exp −1.2 1 − 𝑡 𝑀𝑊𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑉𝑇 Liquid Gas
𝑉𝐵 Liquid Gas
𝐵 = 14.76𝑡 − 9.76𝑡 2 + 4.58𝑡 3 𝑉𝑇
Stiff Diagram Formation Water Analysis Liquid Liquid
Liquid Gas Liquid Gas
𝐶 = 90.7𝑡 − 242.2𝑡 2 + 42.4𝑡 3 Ion Concentration 𝑚𝑒𝑞Τ𝐿
1000 0 1000 Hg Hg Liquid
𝐷 = 2.18 + 2.82𝑡 Na Cl Liquid Liquid
Hg Hg
Hg Hg Hg
𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 Ca HCO3
𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 𝐷 100 100 First Step Second Step Third Step Fourth Step Hg Hg
1−𝑥 3
Mg SO4 aka Constant Mass Expansion - Good for calculating bubble point
set 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and solve for x 100 100 First Step Second Step
𝐴𝑃𝑝𝑟 Fe CO3 Standard pressure can be achieved because of the gas venting
𝑧= 𝑉𝑇 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑉𝑇
𝑥 100 100 Comparing diagram shapes can confirm = < 1 when 𝑃 > 𝑃𝐵𝑃
Other correlations include Dranchuk If mix brines, the resulting stiff diagram will be a reservoir communication, contamination of 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝐵𝑃 𝑉𝐵 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝐵 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝐹 𝐹 𝐵𝑜𝐷 = [=] 𝑅𝑠𝐷 = [=]
Abou-Kassem (1975) & Standing and Katz (1942) weighted average of the individual stiff diagrams fresh water, or incursion of foreign water 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑃&𝑇 𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑃&𝑇 𝑏𝑏𝑙

Developed Miscibility Separator Test

Separator Test Results
Evolution of Developed Miscibility
Linear Scale

- Best estimate of 𝐵𝑜 and 𝑅𝑠 at bubble point

𝐶4 𝐶4 𝐶4 Optimal °𝐴𝑃𝐼
- Multiple test results yield optimal separator pressure
Pressure 𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏
80 Injected gas and 80 Gas composition 80 𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝐵 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏
oil immiscible moves toward 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏 = [=]
𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 tan𝑘 𝑆𝑇𝐵
60 initially 60 Plait Point 60 50 100 150 200 250 300
Dilution Developed 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠𝑐𝑓 Separator Pressure (psig)
line Tie-lines Miscibility
40
𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏 = [=] - Optimal pressure occurs when 𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏 and 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏 are minimized and °𝐴𝑃𝐼 is at a maximum
40 40 𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑆𝑇𝐵
2-phase region - Most black oils have optimal separator pressures of 100-120 psig at normal temperatures
Initial Oil
20 𝑦𝑖 20 20 Correcting Lab Measurements
Injected 𝑧𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Gas Pressure Greater than Bubble Point Pressure Equals BP Pressure Less than Bubble Point
𝐶𝑂2 𝐶10 𝐶𝑂2 𝐶10 𝐶𝑂2 𝐶10 𝑉𝑇 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏
𝐵𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏 𝐵𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜𝑆𝑏 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏 𝐵𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜𝐷 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝑆𝑏 − 𝑅𝑠𝐷𝑏 − 𝑅𝑠𝐷
- Developed miscibility (miscible displacement) can be achieved if the initial oil or injected gas composition is above the critical tie-line 𝑉𝐵 𝐹
𝐵𝑜𝐷𝑏 𝐵𝑜𝐷𝑏

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Reservoir Engineering – Primary Recovery
Conversions and Constants Reservoir Fluids
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 cp = 1.0 mPa-s 𝐵𝑔 (1 − 𝑅𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑠 ) + 𝐵𝑜 (𝑅𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅𝑣 ൯
Reservoir Conditions Surface
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C Conditions
𝐵𝑡𝑔 =
1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣
Isothermal
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal 1 lbm = 453.592 g P > BP P < BP
2
Gas Gas
1 1.2 1 + 𝑅𝐵
Gaseous OIL 1 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑅𝑣 = 𝐵𝑡𝑔 = [=]
1 Newton = 1 x 105 dynes 1 Darcy = 9.8692 x 10-9 cm2 Standard Temperature = 60°F 1.1 𝑠𝑐𝑓
Oil
1 dyne = 2.248 x 10 lbf -6 1 Darcy = 1.0623 x 10-11 ft2 Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia 2 + 2.1
Oleic 1.1 1.1 1.1
1 g/cm3 = 62.428 lbm /ft3 Euler (γ) = 0.5772 = ln(1.781) Water density at SC = 62.37 lbm Τft 3
Oil
1.2

Piston
1 mD/cp = 6.33 x 10-3 ft2/psi-day Gravitational Constant = 9.806 m/s2 Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol Aqueous
IG Capillary Pressure creates
1000 kgΤm3 = 0.4335 psiΤft Natural logarithm base = 2.71828 VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia transition zone between phases
3 𝐵𝑜 (1 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝑅𝑣 ) + 𝐵𝑔 (𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 ൯
1 kgΤl = 8.347 lbm Τgal Gas Constant = 8.314 Pa ⋅ m Τmol K Univ. Gas = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3Τlbmol ⋅ R 𝐵𝑡𝑜 =
Component Concentrations 1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣
Diffusivity Equation Reservoir Pressure and Temperature 𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑊
Legend
2.1
Gas
2.1
Mass Balance leads to Pressure 𝐶𝑜 = + 𝑅 𝐶𝑤 = 1.1 – Free Gas 2 1 + 2 𝑅𝐵
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛼𝑃 𝑧 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝑣 𝐵𝑊 1.2 – Volatilized Oil 𝐵𝑜 = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐵𝑡𝑜 = [=]
Continuity Equation Normal 2.1 – Solution Gas Oil
2.2 2.2 2.2 1.2 + 2.2 𝑆𝑇𝐵
Pressure 𝑧 = depth 𝛼𝑃 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑇𝐵 2.2 – Free Oil
𝜕(𝜌𝜙) Gradient 𝐶𝑔 = + 𝑅 𝐶𝑗 = 1 – Gaseous Phase (Gas + Volatilized Oil)
−𝛻(𝜌𝑢) = Gas 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑜 𝑠 𝑅𝐵 2 – Oleic Phase (Oil + Solution Gas) 𝐵𝑜 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑅𝑠 [=] 𝑠𝑐𝑓ൗ 𝐵𝑔 [=]
𝑟𝑐𝑓
ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑅𝑣 [=] 𝑆𝑇𝐵ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝜕𝑡 Kick
𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑆𝑇𝐵
0.433 if fresh H2 O
𝑓𝑡
Depth

𝛼𝑃 = Compressibility Factor Pressure Dependent Fluid Properties Specific Gravity

1 𝜕(𝜌𝑟𝑢𝑟 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) OGOC
𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑧𝑁𝑅𝑇 0.04
− = − = 0.465 if brine
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝜌𝑜
𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝛾𝑜 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝑃 0.03 1.5 60 𝜌𝑤 𝑆𝐶
Introduce Darcy’s Law 𝑢𝑟 = − 𝛻𝑃 = − 𝜌𝐺 𝑔 OWOC 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝛼 𝑇 𝑧 Relate 𝐵𝑔 to z-factor
𝜇 𝜇 𝜕𝑟 𝜌𝑜 𝑔 𝐁𝐭𝐨 𝜌𝑔 𝑀𝑔
𝛼 𝑇 is usually 0.01 − .02°𝐹/𝑓𝑡 𝑃 𝑆𝐶 𝑧𝑇 𝑟𝑐𝑓 0.02 𝑩𝒈 0.02 1.2 1 40 𝛾𝑔 = =
𝜌𝑆𝐶 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑆𝐶 [=] 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟
Introduce Formation Volume Factor 𝐵= 𝑇 𝑃 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐁𝐨 𝑆𝐶
𝜌𝑅𝐶 Volumetrics 0.01 20
𝝁𝒈
𝑉𝑝 𝑆𝑜 𝑉𝑝 𝑆𝑔 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑇 = 𝑅 BP API Gravity
Introduce Compressibility 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴ℎ𝜙 𝑁= ൘𝐵 [=]𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝐺= ൘𝐵 [=]𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝑔
𝑜 0.01 1.1
400 800 1200 1600
141.5
𝑉𝑝 = reservoir pore volume 𝑆𝑜 = average oil saturation 400 800 1200 1600 𝐴𝑃𝐼° = − 131.5
1 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 1 Isopach Map Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi) 𝛾
𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐵
𝜙 𝜕𝑃 𝑇
𝜕𝑃 𝐵 𝐴0 + 𝐴10
𝑉1 = ℎ Black Oil Phase Diagram Undersaturated Reservoir Key Properties
𝑘 2
Introduce Diffusivity Constant 𝛼= 50 Fluid Type 𝐆𝐟𝐠𝐢 𝐍𝐟𝐨𝐢 𝐆𝐩 𝐍𝐩 𝐑𝐯 𝐑𝐬
𝜇𝜙𝑐𝑡 𝐴10 + 𝐴20 Dry Gas >0 0 >0 0 0 --
𝑉2 = ℎ
1D Diffusivity Equation 2 Wet Gas >0 0 >0 >0 R vi 0
50 5 Condensate >0 0 >0 >0 >0 0
𝜕𝑃 𝛼 𝜕 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑃 40
𝑉𝑛 𝜙𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑛
= 𝑟 =𝛼 2 30 Volatile Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 >0 >0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 20 𝑁=෎
10 𝐵𝑜 Black Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 0 >0
𝜕𝑃 0 𝑛=1
= 𝛼 𝛻2𝑃 Each contour line represents a line of Undersaturated Oil 0 >0 >0 >0 0 R si
𝜕𝑡 constant thickness in the reservoir Dead Oil 0 >0 0 >0 -- 0
Well Testing
Buildup Test Analysis
Material Balance Equation
Drawdown Test Analysis
Semi-log Plot (k & s) Semi-log Plot (k & s) 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑜 𝑅𝑣 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠
𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝜇
𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔 + 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜 + 𝑊𝐸𝑤 + 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝐸𝑓 + 𝑊
ด𝑒 = 𝐺𝑃 − 𝐺𝐼 + 𝑁𝑃 + 𝑊𝑃 − 𝑊𝐼 𝐵𝑤
𝑘 = 162.6 mbu = [psi/log cycle]
1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠
ℎ𝑚𝑇 𝑃𝑤𝑠,1 Free-gas Free-oil Free-water Rock Water Net water withdrawal
expansion expansion expansion expansion influx Net gas withdrawal Net oil withdrawal
Pressure

mT =[psi/log cycle] 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃1 𝑘𝑜
P1
Pressure

𝑠 = 1.151 − log + 3.23 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 = Original free gas = 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 = Original free oil = 𝑆𝑇𝐵 W𝑒 [=]𝑅𝐵 𝐺𝑃 = Cumulative Gas Produced = 𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐺𝐼 = Gas Injected = 𝑠𝑐𝑓
|𝑚𝑇 | 𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2𝜙 𝑁𝑝
𝑡𝑝 =
Well Storage 𝑘[=]𝑚𝑑 𝑞𝑠𝑐 [=]STB/day ℎ[=]𝑓𝑡 𝜇[=]𝑐𝑝 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝𝑖 − 𝑉𝑝 1 𝜕𝜙 Aquifer Models
Transient Flow 𝛥𝑡 = 1
PSS Flow 𝑐𝑡 [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1 𝑃[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑟𝑤 [=]𝑓𝑡 𝑊= 𝐸𝑤 = 𝐵𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑓 = ≈ 𝑐𝑓 𝛥𝑃 𝑐𝑓 ≈ 𝑐𝑝 = Pot Aquifer (Coats, 1970)
𝐵𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝜙 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 - Assumes instantaneous response
1 10 100 1000 10000 1000 100 10 - No time dimension
time (hours) Horner time ൫𝑡𝑝 + 𝛥𝑡 )Τ𝛥 𝑡 Can combine free-water expansion and rock expansion into composite expansivity
𝑊e = 𝑊′(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 )𝛥𝑃
Linear Plot (A & 𝐶𝐴 ) 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝑜 𝜇
𝐴= [=]consistent units 𝑘 = 162.6 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 = 𝐸𝑜 + 𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑇 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 = 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝑐𝑇 𝛥𝑃 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 ≈ 𝐸𝑜 Fetkovitch (1971)
𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝜙𝑚𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑚𝑏𝑢
- Assumes SSS relationship
4𝐴 𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑖 162.6𝐵|𝑞𝑠𝑐 |𝜇 𝑡𝑝 + 𝛥𝑡 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐵𝑡𝑜 − 𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐵𝑡𝑔 − 𝐵𝑡𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 ≈ 𝐸𝑔 - Not applicable for transient response
Pressure

log𝐶𝐴 = log + 0.87s + 𝑃𝑤𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖 − log 𝑑𝑊𝑒

P0 1.781𝑟𝑤2 |𝑚𝑇 | 𝑘ℎ 𝛥𝑡 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑚𝑠𝑠 =[psi/hr] 𝑐𝑇 = *𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐽 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃ത
𝑑𝑡
𝐴, 𝑟𝑤2 = ft 2 ∗∗mT from semi-log plot 𝑃𝑤𝑠,1 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑘𝑜 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑠 = 1.151 − log + 3.23 Hurst and Van Everdingen (1949)
Transient Flow |𝑚𝑏𝑢 | 𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2 𝜙
PSS Flow 𝐶𝐴 = 31.62 1:4 𝐶𝐴 = 5.38 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑜 𝑅𝑣 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠 - Constant terminal-pressure solution
ℎ[=]𝑓𝑡 t 𝑝 [=]ℎ𝑟 𝑃[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑞𝑠𝑐 [=]STB/day 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 + 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 + 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐹 = (𝐺𝑝 − 𝐺𝐼 ) + 𝑁𝑃 + (𝑊𝑃 − 𝑊𝐼 )𝐵𝑤 - Time based (superposition principle)
0 200 400 600 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠 1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠
time (hours) 𝐶𝐴 = 30.88 1:2 𝐶𝐴 = 22.6 - Applicable for transient and SSS flow
𝑟𝑤 [=]𝑓𝑡 𝜇[=]𝑐𝑝 𝑘[=]𝑚𝑑 𝑐𝑡 [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
𝐸𝑔𝑤𝑓 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ𝑠𝑐𝑓 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 [=] 𝑅𝐵ൗ
𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝐹 = Reservoir Voidage[=]𝑅𝐵 𝑁𝑝 = Cumulative Oil Produced = 𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵 ෍ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝐷 𝑡𝐷
Stages of Flow
𝑞𝑝 P/z Plot – OGIP Estimation Original Free Oil Estimation Carter-Tracy (1960)
𝑃ത 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑡 1. Infinite Acting/Transient Flow
𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 ത - Constant terminal-rate solution
𝑞𝜇 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑇 𝑟 2
P - Incorporates transient and SSS flow
Water influx
𝑃(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑃1 + 𝐸𝑖 − z - Preferred model for simulators
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 4𝑘𝑡 i No water influx
𝑃ത 𝑡 = 𝑃lim + 𝑃ത𝑝 − 𝑃lim 𝑒−𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 ∞ Drive Indices
−1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝐸𝑖 (−𝑥) ≈ ln(𝑒 𝛾 𝑥) ഥ
𝐏 slope = 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖
𝐸𝑖(−𝑥) = ln(𝑥) + 𝛾 − ෎ 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝐸𝑔
𝑛(𝑛!) Valid if 𝑥 < 0.01 𝐅 = 𝐼gd Gas cap drive
𝑛=1 𝐳 𝐹
𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜
162.6𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝜇 𝑘 Gab = Gr Water influx = 𝐼𝑠𝑑 Solution gas drive
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑡 ≈ 𝑃𝑖 − log 𝑡 + log − 3.23 ത 𝐹
𝑘ℎ 𝜇𝜙𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2 P No water influx
𝜕𝑃ത Field Units
z
G = OGIP Zero 𝑊𝐸𝑤 𝑉𝑝𝑖 𝐸𝑓 Formation
𝑞𝑝 = −𝑉𝑃 𝑐𝑇 intercept + = 𝐼𝑓𝑤𝑑
𝜕𝑡 2. Transitional/Late Transient Flow ab 𝐹 𝐹 drive

𝜆 - When pressure disturbance first approaches boundary 𝐆𝐏 − 𝐆𝐈 𝐄𝐨𝐰𝐟 𝑊𝑒

𝑞 = 𝐽 𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 - Short time period and difficult to model mathematically = 𝐼𝑛𝑤𝑑 Natural water drive
𝐺𝑟 𝐹
𝑃ത 𝑃ത 𝑃ത 1 𝑅𝐹 = 𝐹 = 𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝐸𝑜𝑤𝑓 𝐺𝑓𝑔𝑖 = 0
𝑞 = 𝐽 𝑃ത𝑝 − 𝑃lim 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 3. Stabilized Flow = − 𝐺𝑃 − 𝐺𝐼 𝐺 Drive Indices must add up to 1.0
𝑧 𝑧 𝑖
ถ 𝑧 𝐺
Pseudo/Semi SS Steady State (SS) 𝑖 Recovery Plot applicable for undersaturated reservoirs with **Different definition can be used to
Actual intercept slope factor Volatile, Black, Undersaturated, or Dead Oils account for an artificial water drive
Closed drainage Open drainage
Performance
boundary
0<𝑓<1
boundary Productivity Index Decline Curve Analysis
𝑓=0 𝑓=1
𝐽
𝑞 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑏 𝐷𝑖 𝑡 𝑞
𝑑𝑞 𝑡
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑞𝑝 𝑡𝑝 + 𝑃ത − 𝑃lim 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡−𝑡𝑝 𝐽= [=] ODE: − 𝑞 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷𝑖 𝑞 ; 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 @𝑡 = 0; න 𝑑𝑡 = − න 𝑏+1 𝑁𝑝 = න 𝑞(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜆 𝑝 2𝜋𝑘ℎ(𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤 ) 𝑃ത − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ⋅ 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖 𝑞𝑖𝑏 𝑡=0 𝑞𝑖 𝑞 𝑡=0
𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 =
𝑟 1 1−𝑓
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑒 − 2 − 4 +𝑠 2𝜋𝑘𝑗 ℎ (Arps, 1940) b-factor Rate 𝑞 Cumulative Recovery 𝑁𝑝 Decline Rate 𝐷
𝑤 𝐽=
𝑟 1 1−𝑓 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞
**For gas flow, replace pressure with pseudopressure: 𝜇𝑗 𝐵𝑗 ln 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑠 − 2 − 4 Exponential 𝑏=0 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑒 −𝐷𝑖 𝑡 𝑁𝑝 = 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
𝑤
𝑃
𝐷𝑖
2𝑃 2𝜋𝑘𝑗 ℎ 𝑏
𝑚(𝑃) = න 𝜕𝑃 𝐽= 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖𝑏 𝑞
𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑝 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝜇𝑧 1 4𝐴 Hyperbolic 0 < 𝑏 < 1 𝑞 = 𝑁𝑝 = 𝑞1−𝑏 − 𝑞1−𝑏 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑃 − 𝑃lim − 𝜇𝑗 𝐵𝑗 ln +𝑠 1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡 1 Τ𝑏 𝐷𝑖 (1 − 𝑏) 𝑖 𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑝 𝑖 𝐽 2 1.781𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤2
2 2
𝑞𝜇 𝑟1 1−𝑓 𝑟1 𝑟2 J is constant after transient flow period 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑞
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ln − − Harmonic 𝑏=1 𝑞= 𝑁𝑝 = ln 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑟2 2 𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒 (1 + 𝐷𝑖 𝑡) 𝐷𝑖 𝑞 𝑞𝑖
Formation Skin
𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇𝐵 1 4𝐴 2𝜋𝑘𝑡 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝐵𝜇 1000 1000
(+)𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑞 ↓ 𝛥𝑃𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠
PSS: 𝑃𝑤𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑃𝑖 − ln + +𝑠 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1
1.781𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤2
Production Rate (q)

Production Rate (q)

𝐽 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑇 𝐴 Economic Limit

𝜆= [=]𝑡 −1 𝛥𝑃𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 0.869|𝑚|𝑠
Recovery 𝑁𝑝

𝑉𝑝 𝑐𝑡 (−)𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑞 ↑ 100 100

4. Depletion Flow 𝑚 = transient slope
- Pwf limit reached; well′ s BHP held constant EL
10 10
- Well’s flow rate begins to decline 𝑞𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 𝐽𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 As b-factor increases, well’s Economic Limit
= = EL
- Exponential decline can be derived (equations shown to the left) 𝑞𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐽𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 economic life increases 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1
1 1 0
0 Time 0 Cumulative Recovery 𝑁𝑝 0
- Hyperbolic b-factor is empirical (refer to Decline Curve Analysis) Skin is unitless and specific to each well Time

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff and contributions from Jenny Ryu and Matt Mlynski Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Reservoir Engineering – Improved Recovery
Petrophysics Review Multiphase Flow
Relative Permeability Darcy’s Law for Multiple Phases Mass Balance for Multiphase Fractional Flow Derivation
𝑘𝑗 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑘𝑟𝑗 if constant 𝜙, 𝜌𝑗 𝑢𝑜 + 𝑢𝑤 𝜕𝑃𝑐 𝜕𝑃𝑜 𝜕𝑃𝑤
𝑘෨ 𝛻𝑃𝑗 + 𝜌𝑗 𝑔𝛻ℎ 1D flow of oil and water =1
Relative Permeability

𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑢෤𝑗 = − 𝑗 = phase Introduce capillary pressure = −
𝜇𝑗 𝜕𝑆𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Water Wet Rock 𝜙 + =0
𝑘𝑟𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 Combine Darcy’s Law, definition of fractional flow, and capillary pressure
𝑜 < 𝑘𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝜕𝑃𝑗
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑜 1D: 𝑢𝑗 = − + 𝜌𝑗 𝑔sin𝛼 𝜕𝑆𝑗 𝜕𝑓𝑗 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝑃 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝛥𝜌𝑔
𝜇𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝜙 +𝑢 =0 1 + 𝑢𝜇𝑟𝑜 𝜕𝑥𝑐 − 𝛥𝜌𝑔sin𝛼 𝑁𝑔 =
𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 > 0.5 when 𝑘𝑟𝑤 curve 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑜 if 1 − 𝑁𝑔 sin𝛼 if 1 𝑢𝜇𝑜
intersects 𝑘𝑟𝑜 curve 𝑓𝑤 =
𝑞𝑗 𝑢𝑗 𝑘 𝜇 𝑃𝑐 = 0 𝑘 𝜇 𝛼=0 𝑘 /𝜇
𝑢𝑗 = 𝑢 = ෍ 𝑢𝑗 𝑓𝑗 = ෍ 𝑓𝑗 = 1 1 + 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝜇𝑤 1 + 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝜇𝑤 1 + 𝑘 𝑟𝑜 /𝜇𝑜 𝛼 = rsvr dip angle
*Oil-Wet Rock is inverse 𝐴 𝑢 𝑟𝑤 𝑜 𝑟𝑤 𝑜 𝑟𝑤 𝑤

𝑆𝑤𝑟 1-𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑤 3-Phase Permeability Fractional Flow – 1D Water Flood

𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Water

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

Water Saturation (𝑆𝑤 )
1-𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑤 Water Wet Rock Mobility Ratio 𝑥𝑑 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑓𝑤′ 𝑆𝑤
Saturation 𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑘𝑟𝑤 is a function of 𝑆𝑤 𝜆𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 Τ𝜇𝑤 𝑆መ𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤,𝐵𝑇
ҧ 1 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟
𝑀= = 𝜆 = relative mobility 𝜕𝑓𝑤 𝜕𝑓𝑤 𝜕𝑆
𝑘𝑟𝑜 Τ𝜇𝑜 𝑟𝑗 𝑓𝑤′ = = 𝑆መ𝑤
Relative Permeability

𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 , 𝑆𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 𝜆𝑟𝑜 Shock Front

𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝜕𝑆𝑤 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆𝑤 Draw BT
average 𝑆𝑤
Oil Wet Rock tangent line
𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑔 Corey Equations 𝑆𝑤𝑖 behind shock 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤𝑟 𝑆𝑤𝑓
from
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑜 𝑥𝑑𝑓
𝑆መ𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆 𝑤𝑝
𝑥𝑑𝑓 initial 𝑆𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑜 𝑆𝑛 𝑜 (1 − S)𝑚
𝑘𝑟𝑜 = 𝑘𝑟𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑔 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 Dimensionless Distance (𝑥𝑑 ) 𝑥𝑑𝑓 Dimensionless Distance (𝑥𝑑 ) Water Saturation (𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟
𝑆= Effect of Wettability Effect of Gravity Before Breakthrough
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑔 Mixed-Wet Rock 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

Increasing Increasing

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑜 , 𝑆𝑤 As 𝑓𝑤 curve 𝑓𝑤𝑗 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
water
shifts right,
reservoir α = − 15∘ 𝑆መ𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤𝑓 + (𝑓𝑤𝑗 usually 1)
𝑆𝑙𝑟,𝑔 1-𝑆𝑔𝑟 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑜 Fractional Flow wettability dip angle α = 0∘ 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑓
𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 breakthrough
Liquid 1-𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛 1− 𝑁𝑔𝑜 𝑚
1 − 𝑆 sin𝛼 if α = 15∘
𝑆𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛 Saturation 𝑘𝑟𝑔 𝑆𝑔 1 OW
occurs later At Breakthrough
𝑓𝑤 = WW and produce
1−𝑆 𝑚 𝛼=0 1−𝑆 𝑚 *Gas flood would 1
1+ 1+ oil quicker be inverse effect 𝑡𝑑,𝐵𝑇 =
Capillary Pressure 𝑀𝑜 𝑆 𝑛 𝑀𝑜 𝑆 𝑛 ′
𝑓𝑤𝑓 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
2𝜎cos𝜃 WW Rock 𝑜 𝛥𝜌𝑔
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜
𝑜 Τ𝜇
𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑤 Effect of Mobility Ratio
Effect of 𝑀𝑜 on Oil Recovery
𝑁𝑃𝑑,𝐵𝑇 = 𝑡𝑑,𝐵𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑖 = 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑀𝑜 =
𝑟 𝑁𝑔𝑜 = 𝑜 Τ𝜇 Breakthrough

Cumulative Oil (𝑁𝑃𝑑)

𝑢𝜇𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑜 Decreasing
After Breakthrough

Fractional Flow (𝑓𝑤 )

𝑃𝑐 (𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝑃𝑛𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 𝑀𝑜
Important Definitions 1
𝑛𝑤 = non-wetting phase 𝑡𝑑 = ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑁𝑃𝑑 = 𝑆𝑤
𝑥 𝑢𝑡 Pore Volumes 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝑥𝑑 = t𝑑 = [=]PVI Injected Mo =100
𝑃𝑐 (𝑧) = 𝛥𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑧 𝐿 𝜙𝐿 Mo =10 𝑓𝑤𝑗 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝
Mo =1
ҧ = 𝑆𝑤𝑝 +
𝑆𝑤 (𝑓𝑤𝑗 usually 1)
𝐵𝑜 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑃𝑑 Decreasing 𝑀𝑜 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝑃𝑐 𝑘 𝑊𝑂𝑅 = 𝑁𝑃 = [=]STB Mo =0.1
𝐽(𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝐵𝑤 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 𝐵𝑜
𝜎 𝜙 Pore Volumes Injected (t 𝑑 ) ҧ = avg. 𝑆𝑤 in swept area
𝑆𝑤

𝑃𝑐1 𝑘2Τ𝜙2 Well Patterns Buckley-Leverett Extension to 2-D

= Rules of Thumb Definitions 𝑊𝑖 < 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 < 𝑊𝑖 < 𝑊𝑖,100 𝑊𝑖 > 𝑊𝑖,100 𝐸𝐴 = 1
𝑃𝑐2 𝑘1 Τ𝜙1
- For viscous oil (NI/NP) < 1 𝑊𝑖 1 .0317 0.30223 1−𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇
𝑄𝑖∗ = = 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 = 0.546 + + − .005097𝑀𝑠ҧ 𝑄𝑖∗ = 𝑄𝑖,𝐵𝑇
∗
1 + 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝑎1 𝐸𝑖 𝑎2 − 𝐸𝑖 𝑎1 0.274
Permeability Variations Darcy’s Law Variations - For low viscosity oil or 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴 𝑓𝑤′ |𝑆𝑤2 𝑀𝑠ҧ 𝑒 𝑀𝑠ത 𝑊𝑖,100 = 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑒
condensate (NI/NP) > 1 𝑎1 = 3.65𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑎2 = 𝑎1 + ln 𝑊𝑖 Τ𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇
𝑘 𝜕𝛷 𝑄𝑖∗ = effective 𝑡𝑑 ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 = 𝑁𝑃,𝐵𝑇
𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑖,100
σ 𝐿𝑖 Horizontal 𝑢=− 𝛷 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ - For similar fluid viscosities 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 + 0.274ln 𝑊𝑖 Τ𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑄𝑖∗ = 𝑄𝑖,100
∗
+
𝑘ത = Variation
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 (NI/NP) = 1 𝜆𝑟𝑤 + 𝜆𝑟𝑜 |𝑆𝑤𝑓
ҧ 𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑉𝑝
𝐿 𝑀𝑠ҧ = ∗ ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
෍ 𝑘𝑖 Forcheimer 𝜆𝑟𝑤 + 𝜆𝑟𝑜 |𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑄𝑖,𝐵𝑇 = = 𝑆𝑤𝑓 ҧ = 𝑆𝑤2 + 𝑄𝑖∗ 1 − 𝑓𝑤2
ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝐸𝐴 𝑉𝑝 ; 𝑆𝑤2
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑆𝑤2
𝑖 Producer 𝑉𝑝 𝐸𝐴 𝑊𝑂𝑅
(valid at high flow rates, Re>1) 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤2 =
Injector ҧ = 𝑆𝑤5
𝑆𝑤2 ҧ = 𝑆𝑤
ҧ ҧ = 𝑆መ𝑤
𝑆𝑤𝑓 𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢 1 0.274𝑊𝑖,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢
1− ൗ𝜕𝑊 𝑊𝑂𝑅 + 1
σ 𝑘𝑖 ℎ𝑖 Vertical 𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝑢 𝑖
𝑘ത = − = + 𝛽𝜌𝑢2 5-spot =
ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑊𝑂𝑅 =
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁𝑃𝑢
σ ℎ𝑖 Variation 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑆𝑤2 = 𝑆𝑤5 = 𝑆𝑤𝑝 = 𝑆𝑤 |𝑥𝑑 =1 𝜕𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖 𝐸𝐴,𝐵𝑇 𝑆𝑤𝑓 1 − 𝑓𝑤 |𝑆𝑤𝑝 1 − 𝑃𝑢ൗ𝜕𝑊 + ൗ𝜕𝑊 ҧ − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑉𝑝
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑆𝑤2
(NI/NP) = 1 𝑖 𝑖
𝛽 material constant; depends on pore structure

Klinkenberg Effect
Reservoir Simulation
ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 Radial
𝑘ത = (valid for gas flow at low pressure) Analytical (Continuous) Solution Numerical (Discrete) Solution Heterogeneities
ln 𝑟𝑖 Τ𝑟𝑖−1 Variation
෍ 𝑘𝐿 = liquid perm 𝑃, 𝛷, 𝑆𝑤 , 𝐵
𝑘𝑖 𝑏
𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝐿 1+ P P Pi n==grid
time step
𝐴, 𝑘, 𝜇
𝑃 𝑘𝑔 = gas perm P ( x, t ) block 𝒊 𝒊+𝟏 𝒊+𝟐 𝑖=1
Geometric
𝑘ത = 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 . . . 𝑘𝑛 1Τ𝑛 Mean 𝑘𝐿 [=]𝑘∞ b factor important when k < 10md
𝑘𝑟 (𝑆𝑤,𝑖 ൯ 𝑘𝑟 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴 Variables
𝑇𝑖+1 = 𝑇= change from
Miscible Displacement x 𝑘𝑟 (𝑆𝑤,𝑖+1൯ 2 𝜇𝐵 1 𝛥𝑥 1 𝜇𝐵𝑤 𝛥𝑥 block to block
𝑖+2 𝑖+2
Mechanisms of Mixing Convection - Dispersion Finite Differences Approximation Upwinding Harmonic Mean
1. Molecular Diffusion 𝐷𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝐷 𝜕𝐶𝐷 1 𝜕 2 𝐶𝐷 1 ″ 1
𝐷𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝑎 + − =0 Taylor Series: 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓 (𝑥)𝛥𝑥 2 + 𝑓"′(𝑥)𝛥𝑥 3 +. . . 𝑘𝑟 𝑆𝑤,𝑖+1
𝐷𝑒 = = 𝐹= 𝑚 𝜕𝑡𝑑 𝜕𝑥𝑑 𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝜕𝑥𝑑2 2! 3! if 𝛷𝑖+1 > 𝛷𝑖
𝑘𝑟 𝜇 𝑃𝑖+1 𝐵 𝑃𝑖+1 𝑘𝐴 2𝑘𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 𝐴𝑖+1
𝜏 𝐹𝜙 𝜙 = =
𝜏 = tortuosity 1 𝑥𝑑 − 𝑡𝑑 Type Deriv. FD Approximation Error 𝜇𝐵 𝑖+1 𝑘𝑟 𝑆𝑤,𝑖 𝛥𝑥 1
𝑖+2
𝑘𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝛥𝑥𝑖+1 + 𝑘𝑖+1 𝐴𝑖+1𝛥𝑥𝑖
𝐶𝐷 (𝑥𝑑, 𝑡𝑑 ) = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2 if 𝛷𝑖 > 𝛷𝑖+1
Diffusion and Dispersion 2 2 𝑡𝑑 Τ𝑁𝑝𝑒 𝜕𝑃 𝑃(𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡) 𝜇 𝑃𝑖 𝐵 𝑃𝑖
Forward 𝑂(𝛥𝑡)
Dispersion 𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝛥𝑡
Diffusion controls 𝑣= 𝑒 𝑥𝑑𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝑥𝑑 + 𝑡𝑑 2nd term Radial Solution
𝐾𝐿 controls 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2 𝑡𝑑 Τ𝑁𝑃𝑒 negligible 𝜕𝑃 𝑃(𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡 − 𝛥𝑡) 𝑞𝑤 𝜇𝐵𝑤 𝛥𝑥 req 𝛥𝑥
𝐾 = dispersion Backward 𝑂(𝛥𝑡) 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑙 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑞𝑤 = −𝐽𝑙𝑤 (𝑃𝑙 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 ൯
coefficient 𝜕𝑡 𝛥𝑡 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(𝑛) = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑛)
ln(𝑣)
𝜕𝑃 rw q2 𝛥𝑥
𝑃(𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡) − 𝑃(𝑡 − 𝛥𝑡)
2. Convective Mixing (Dispersion) 𝑐 − 𝑐𝑖 𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶𝐷 |𝑋𝑑 =1 Centered 𝑂(𝛥𝑡 2 )
𝜕𝑡 2𝛥𝑡
Longitudinal 𝐾𝐿 = 𝐷𝑒 + 𝛼𝐿 𝑣 𝛽𝐿 𝐶𝐷 = 𝜋 2𝜋ℎ 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦
𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑐𝑖 𝐶𝐷 = 0.5 when 𝑡𝑑 = 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝛥𝑥𝑒 −2 ≈ 0.2𝛥𝑥 𝐽𝑙𝑤 = P2
𝜕2 𝑃 𝑃(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) − 2𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝛥𝑥) 𝜇𝐵𝑤 ln 𝑟𝑒𝑞 Τ𝑟𝑤 + 𝑠
Transverse 𝐾𝑇 = 𝐷𝑒 + 𝛼 𝑇 𝑣 𝛽𝑇 Centered 𝑂(𝛥𝑥 2 ) Pl
Pulse/Slug Injection (from time 0 to 𝑡𝑠 ) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝛥𝑥 2
𝛼 = dispersivity 𝐾𝐿 >> 𝐾𝑇 Pwf
1 𝑥 − 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 ) 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 1ൗ
𝐷𝑒 = effective diffusivity 𝛽𝑇 ≅ 1.2 1ൗ 1ൗ 2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛
Explicit: ֊ =֊
𝑷 + 𝛥𝑡𝑩−1 ֊
𝑸 − 𝑻֊
2 2
2 𝑷 𝑷 Boundary Condition 𝑘𝑦 Τ𝑘𝑥 𝛥𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 Τ𝑘𝑦 𝛥𝑦 2 rw req 𝛥𝑥
3. Small Scale Permeability Variations
4𝐾𝐿 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 ) 4𝐾𝐿 𝑡
r𝑒𝑞 = 0.28 1ൗ 1ൗ
−1 Dirichlet 𝑃(0, 𝑡) = 𝑃𝐵1 𝑘𝑦 Τ𝑘𝑥 4
+ 𝑘𝑥 Τ𝑘𝑦 4
Effect of Peclet Number 𝑢𝐿 𝐿 ֊𝑛+1 1 1 ֊𝑛 ֊
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = ≡ Implicit: 𝑷 = 𝑻+ 𝑩 𝑩𝑷 +𝑸 𝑃0 + 𝑃1
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 10 𝜙𝛫𝐿 𝛼𝐿 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 0 1 𝑃𝐵 = ; 𝑃0 = 2𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃1 IMPES (Implicit Pressure and Explicit Saturation)
2
Concentration 𝐶𝐷

𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 100 𝑥 𝑢𝑡
𝐶𝐷 = 0.9
𝑁𝑃𝑒 = 1000 𝑥𝑑 = 𝑡𝑑 = Crank-Nicholson 𝜃 = 0.5 Pressure (solve implicitly) Saturation (solve explicitly)
𝐿 𝜙𝐿 Neumann 𝜕𝑃Τ𝜕𝑥 = 0
1 𝑛+1 1 𝑛 𝐁 𝑛+1 𝐁
𝑩 ֊ 𝑩 − 𝜃𝑻 ֊
𝑷 +֊
𝑡𝑑 = 0.5 𝑃𝑁 − 𝑃𝑁+1 𝐓+𝐉+ 𝐏 = 𝐏𝑛 + 𝐐 𝑛+1 = 𝐒𝑛 + 𝐝−1 −𝐓 𝐏𝑛+1 + 𝐐
𝐒𝑤 𝑤 − 𝐂𝑡𝑤 𝐏
𝑛+1 − 𝐏𝑛
𝑥𝑑 |𝐶𝐷=0.1 − 𝑥𝑑 |𝐶𝐷=0.9 = 𝛥𝑥𝑑
1−𝜃 𝑻+ 𝑷 = 𝑸 N N+1 = 0; 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑃𝑁+1 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝑤 12 𝑤
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑥
𝛥𝑥𝑑 = width of mixing zone 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑉𝑖 𝜙𝑖 𝑐𝑡,𝑖
𝐶𝐷 = 0.1 Stability 𝐓 = 𝐓𝑤 + 𝐓 𝐉 = 𝐉𝑤 + 𝐉 𝐐 = 𝐐𝑤 + 𝐐 𝐁𝑖 =
Explicit Method CFL Condition 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤 𝑜 𝐵𝑤
𝑡𝑑
𝛥𝑥𝑑 = 3.625 𝛼𝛥𝑡 𝑢𝛥𝑡 **Necessary for 𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝜙𝑖
𝑁𝑃𝑒 𝜂≡ ≤ 0.5 (1D) <1 𝐂𝑡𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑆𝑤,𝑖 𝑐𝑤,𝑖 + 𝑐𝑟,𝑖 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤 + 𝑐𝑜 𝑆𝑜 + 𝑐𝑅 𝒅12,𝑖 =
Dimensionless Distance 𝑥𝑑 𝛥𝑥 2 𝛥𝑥 stability of IMPES 𝐵𝑤,𝑖 𝛥𝑡

Improved Oil Recovery

Stages of Recovery Effect of Trapped Capillary Desaturation Curve
Primary Recovery 3D Cumulative Oil Recovery
Gas on Residual Oil
𝑁𝑝𝑑 = 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝐼 (𝑆𝑜𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟 ൯ Water-Wet (Lake, 2014)
Natural Flow Artificial Lift Hydraulic Fracturing WF
𝐸𝐴 = Areal Sweep Efficiency 𝐸𝐷 = Displacement Efficiency O
Secondary Recovery w W O

𝐸𝐼 = Vertical Sweep Efficiency

WF
Waterflooding Pressure Maintenance O W O
Area contacted by fluid Amount of oil displaced w G G
Tertiary Recovery (EOR) EA = ED =
IOR

Total area Total moveable oil Oil-Wet

Cross−sectional area contacted by fluid WF
Prod. Thermal Gas Injection Chemical Other EI = O W
Total cross−sectional area W O
- Steam - Carbon Dioxide - Alkali - Microbial
- Hot Water - Hydrocarbon - Surfactant - Acoustic 𝑆𝑜𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜ҧ WF
- Combustion - Nitrogen Flue - Polymer 𝐸𝐴 is a 𝑓 𝑀𝑠ҧ , 𝑡𝑑 , pattern 𝐸𝐷 = W 𝑢𝜇
**Oil Saturation constant during Primary Recovery IOR: Improved Oil Recovery Adapted from SPE-SPE-8490B, 87864 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑟 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟 O W
G O G 𝑁𝑣𝑐 = [=] (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠Τ𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠)
𝜎
Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff and contributions from Jenny Ryu and Matt Mlynski Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Fundamentals of Petrophysics
Conversions and Constants Sedimentary Rock Properties Clay Mineralogy
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 lbm = 453.59 g Clay Group Structure Swelling
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C 1 cp = 1 mPa-s Class Formation Name Mineralogy 𝜌 𝑔Τ𝑐𝑐
Kaolinite 1:1 No
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32 Rock fragments compacted Sandstone Quartz 2.65 Smectite 2:1 Yes
1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal Clastic
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 mile = 1,609 m and cemented together Shale Clay minerals 2.2-2.7 Illite 2:1 No
1 bar = 1 x 106 dynes/cm2 1 Darcy = 9.8692 x 10−9 cm2 Gas Constant = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3 Τlbmol ⋅ R Dissolution and Limestone Calcite 2.71 Chlorite 2:2 No
Carbonate precipitation of calcite
1 Newton = 1 x 105 dynes 1 mD/cp = 6.33 x 10−3 ft2/psi−day Water density at SC = 62.37 lbmΤft 3 Dolomite Dolomite 2.87 2:1 structure lacks hydrogen bonding
−6
1 dyne = 2.248 x 10 lbf Τ Τ
1 lbm gal = 0.052 psi ft Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol Gypsum Gypsum 2.32 2:1 Structure
IG Evaporite Evaporation of water Anhydrite Anhydrite 2.98 1:1 Structure Silica
Standard Temperature = 60°F Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia Silica Alumina
Salt -- 1.87-2.03 Alumina Silica
Single Phase Flow Coal -- 0.64-0.93 Water can enter
Accumulation of organic Silica
and clay swells
Continuity Equation Darcy’s Law Organic debris Peat -- -- Alumina
Strong hydrogen Silica
Diatomite -- 0.224
Mass balance leads to Continuity Equation 𝑞 𝑘 Fluid flows from higher potential bonds between layers
Alumina
𝛷 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑢= 𝑢 = − 𝛻𝛷 Silica
Mass of
−
Mass of
=
Fluid 𝐴 𝜇 to lower potential (not pressure)
fluid in fluid out accumulation Porosity
𝛷 = flow potential 𝑞 = flow rate = 𝐿3 Τ𝑡
Porosity Definition Packing Structures
𝑢 = fluid velocity = 𝐿/𝑡 𝜇 = viscosity Seal ratio of pore volume to bulk volume Cubic Packing Hexagonal Close Pack
𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 𝑘 = permeability[=]𝐿2 Water 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 = solid 3 ABA Sequence
−𝛻(𝜌𝑢) = 𝜙= =1− 𝑉𝑏 = 2𝑟 = 8𝑟 3 Layer B
𝑉𝑠 = 6 𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 8𝜋𝑟 3
𝜕𝑡 Aquifer 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 volume
𝐴 = cross sectional area perpendicular to flow Oil 𝛷2 A
𝑉𝑠 = 4Τ3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝛷1 Effective Porosity B
A porous medium has a permeability of Permeable Zone interconnected porosity 4Τ3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑉𝑏 = 6𝑟 2 3 4𝑟 2Τ3
𝜙 = 1− A
𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 1 𝜕(𝜌𝑟𝑢𝑟 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm residual 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙 𝑇 − 𝜙𝐸 8𝑟 3 Top View
8𝜋𝑟 3
− = − = creates a velocity of 1 cm/sec for a 1 cp fluid. 𝛷2 > 𝛷1 Creates hexagon with 𝜙 = 1− = 0.26
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 Water flows towards oil zone 𝜙 𝑇 = total or absolute 𝜙𝐸 = effective 𝜙 = 0.476 tetrahedron above & below 24𝑟 3 2

1-Dimensional Flow Effect of Compaction Lab Measurement of Porosity

Porosity Values (%) Isothermal Gas Expansion Method
Incompressible Fluid – Flowing at Steady State Slightly Compressible Fluid Effective stress 𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝛼𝑃𝑝 𝑃𝑝 = pore pressure Sands and
10 − 40 Boyle’s Law
Horizontal flow at steady state 𝜎𝑣 = overburden stress − typically on the order of 1 psi/ft Sandstones 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Horizontal Flow Non-Horizontal Flow Radial Flow
1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝜌 𝛼 = poroelastic constant − usually assume it′s 1 Limestones and Chamber Chamber
5 − 25
𝑃2

Sample
𝑃1

Expansion
Drainage Compressibility 𝑐 = − = Dolomites
Boundary 𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝜌 𝜕𝑃 Increasing the effective stress, decreases porosity 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
Wide Grain Size
10 − 15
𝛥𝑉
𝑃2 𝜌 = 𝜌0 exp 𝑐𝛥𝑃 ≈ 𝜌0 + 𝜌0 𝑐𝑃 Compressibility Distribution
𝐿
Wellbore

1 𝜕𝑉𝑝 Similar Grain Valve Valve

re Rewrite Darcy’s Law ≈ 2 𝑥 10−6 − 50 𝑥 10−6𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1 20 − 30
𝑘 𝑑𝑃 𝜃 Fluid pore volume 𝑐𝑝 = − Sizes
h 𝑉𝑝 𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 Gas
𝑢=− 𝑃1 Random Close
𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴𝜌 𝑑𝑃 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝑠 36 − 40
rw re 𝜌𝑞 = − =− Pack of Spheres Most common method for measuring 𝑉𝑠
𝛷2 = 𝑃2 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜇𝑐 𝑑𝑥 bulk 𝑐𝑏 = − 1Τ𝑉𝑏 𝜕𝑉𝑏 Τ𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 matrix 𝑐𝑟 = −
Continuity Equation 𝜕𝑢 𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑃2 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 + 𝛥𝑉
reduces to
𝜌 =0
𝛷1 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔 𝐿sin𝜃 𝑘 𝑑𝑃 Introduce base flow rate 𝑞0
𝜕𝑥 𝑢=− 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝜇 𝑑𝑟 some base pressure 𝑃0 The Bundle of Tubes Model
𝑘𝐴 𝛥𝑃 𝑘 𝜕𝛷 𝑘𝐴 𝛥𝛷 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑃 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑘𝐴 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 Hagen-Poiseuille Porosity and Permeability Blake-Kozeny Equation
𝑞=− 𝑢=− 𝑞=− 𝑞=− =− 𝑞0 = −
𝜇 𝐿 𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝜇 𝐿 𝜇 𝑑𝑟 𝜇 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 𝜇 𝐿 Flow in a single tube 𝑆𝐴 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 2
Pore Volume 𝑛 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 Bundle of Tubes: = 2 =
=𝜙= 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 𝑙 𝑟
Deviations from Darcy’s Law 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 Total Volume 𝐴𝐿
𝑞𝑖 =
8𝜇𝑙 𝜙𝐴𝐿 Packed bed of spherical particles
High Flow Rates Non-Newtonian Fluid Klinkenberg Effect 𝑛=
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 𝑆𝐴 𝜋𝑑𝑝2 6 1−𝜙
𝜌𝑢𝐿 viscosity not constant 𝜏 ≠ 𝜇𝛾ሶ gas flow at low pressure 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = =
𝑉 1 3 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙
𝑘ൗ 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 𝜙𝐴𝐿 𝑘𝐴𝛥𝑃
Re > 1 Re =
𝜇
𝐿= 𝜙 Power Law Fluid 𝑏
𝑟 2 𝛥𝑃 𝑞𝑇 = = 6 𝜋𝑑𝑝 1 − 𝜙
𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝐿 1 + 8𝜇𝑙 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 𝜇𝐿
𝑃𝑚 slope = 𝑘∞ 𝑏 𝑢=
Forcheimer Equation apparent viscosity 𝜇𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝛾ሶ 𝑛−1 8𝜇𝑙 Equate the two models above
2 2
𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝛾ሶ = shear rate 𝑎 = consistency index 𝑘𝑔 = gas k 𝑘𝐿 = liquid k k For ‘n’ parallel tubes, 𝜙𝑟 2 𝐿 2 𝑙 𝜙𝑟 2 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙
− = 𝑢 + 𝛽𝜌𝑢2 𝑘= 𝜏= 𝑘= 𝑘= 𝑟=
𝑛 = flow behavior index − typically 0.4 − 0.7 the total flow rate 8 𝑙 𝐿 8𝜏 8𝜏 3 1 − 𝜙 3 1−𝜙
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 b factor important
𝑘∞[=]𝑘𝐿
𝛽 = inertial flow coefficient 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑃 when k < 10md 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 25 𝑑𝑝2 𝜙 3 𝑑𝑝2 𝜙 3
q=− 𝑞𝑇 = 𝑛 Empirical Approximation 𝜏= 𝑘= 𝑘≈
𝛽 depends on pore structure 𝜇𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑃𝑚 = mean flowing pressure 1/Pm 8𝜇𝑙 12 72𝜏 1 − 𝜙 2 150 1 − 𝜙 2

Average Permeability Interfacial Tension

Parallel Layers Layers in Series Force Balance Contact Angle
Radial Flow Linear Flow 𝜎𝑜𝑠 = 𝜎𝑤𝑠 + 𝜎𝑜𝑤 cos𝜃𝑐 [=] 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Τ𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑜𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠
cos𝜃𝑐 =
𝜎𝑜𝑤 Oil Water 𝜎𝑜𝑤
q1 k1 Fluid
𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑐 = contact angle
k1 k2 k3 k4 Oil 𝜃𝑐
h1 q Oil Water
q2 k2 q h
𝜎𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑐 𝜎𝑤𝑠 Oil-Wet Surface Intermediate-Wet Water-Wet Surface
q3 h2 k1 k 2 k3 k4 L1 L2 L3 L4
k3 𝜃𝑐 > 90° 𝜃𝑐 ≈ 90°
h3 Solid 𝜃𝑐 < 90°
L σ 𝐿𝑖
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = interfacial tension between phases i and j 𝜎𝑜𝑠 < 𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝜎𝑜𝑠 ≈ 𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝜎𝑜𝑠 > 𝜎𝑤𝑠
rw r1 r2 r3 re 𝑘ത =
σ ℎ𝑖 𝑘𝑖 Wellbore 𝐿
෍ 𝑖ൗ𝑘
Average Permeability 𝑘ത =
σ ℎ𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 𝑖 Capillary Pressure
𝑘ത = If horizontal and vertical variations, can use
Radial flow and linear flow produce ln 𝑟𝑖 Τ𝑟𝑖−1 Laplace Equation Capillary Rise Capillary Pressure Curves for Rocks
෍
same 𝑘ത when have parallel layers 𝑘𝑖 Geometric Average 𝑘ത = 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 . . . 𝑘𝑛 1Τ𝑛
1 1 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝜎Τ𝑅 r 2𝜎cos𝜃 𝑃𝑐 (𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝑃𝑛𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 𝑛𝑤 = non-wetting phase
Multiphase Flow – Relative Permeability 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎 + 𝑃𝑐 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑟 = 𝑅cos𝜃 θ 𝑟
Air R
Darcy’s Law Relative Permeability Curves 𝑅 = radius of curvature
non-wetting phase
θ
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑑𝑃𝑗 Capillary displacing wetting phase
Spherical Interface
Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability

𝑢𝑗 = − 𝑗 = phase 𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 h Tube
𝜇𝑗 𝑑𝑥 𝑟 Air
𝑜 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
𝑘𝑗 𝑘𝑟𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑔 cos𝜃
𝑘𝑟𝑗 = = relative permeability Liquid
𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑔 2𝜎 2𝜎cos𝜃
𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑐 = =
Wettability 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑔 𝑅 𝑟
the strongest influence on 𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝜎cos𝜃 Τ𝑟 = 𝛥𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔ℎ wetting phase displacing
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑔 𝜎cos𝜃 non-wetting phase
𝑟𝑒𝑠
Water-Wet Oil-Wet 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐𝐿𝑎𝑏 ℎ = 2𝜎cos𝜃 Τ 𝑟𝑔𝛥𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜎cos𝜃 𝐿𝑎𝑏
Frequency

𝑆𝑤𝑟 1-𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑤 𝑆𝑙𝑟,𝑔 1-𝑆𝑔𝑟

𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Water 1-𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Liquid 1-𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛 Influence of Pore Size Distribution
O O 𝑆𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛 Saturation
W W Saturation
𝑃𝑐 curves are closely related to pore size distribution Depth vs Water Saturation Curve
Pore radius 𝑜 < 𝑘𝑜
Water-Wet Rock: 𝑆𝑤 > 0.5 when curves intersect and 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑜𝑤 (inverse for Oil-Wet)
Non-wetting phase occupies 𝑃𝑐 𝑆𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑔ℎ
2
larger pores so it flows easier Influences on Relative Permeability
Frequency

Effect of Pore Structure Effect of Interfacial Tension 1 1 Oil-water contact is depth at

1.0 Pc which 𝑆𝑤 first deviates from 1
3-Phase Permeability 1.0
High Perm Sandstone
1.0
Low Perm Sandstone
0.8 Minimal 𝜎
W: wetting phase 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 2 Normalizing Capillary Pressure Curves
Frequency

0.8 0.8
IW: intermediate 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤
0.6 𝑃𝑐1 𝑘2 Τ𝜙2
NW: non-wetting 0.6 0.6 Pore radius Water Saturation 𝑃𝑐 𝑘
IW 𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝐽(𝑆𝑤 ) = =
𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝜎 𝜙 𝑃𝑐2
W NW 0.4 0.4
0.4 Uniform pore size distribution creates sharp capillary pressure curve 𝑘1 Τ𝜙1
Pore radius
0.2 0.2 0.2
Elastic Properties of Rocks
𝑘𝑟𝑤 is only a function of 𝑆𝑤
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Basic Definitions Linear Elasticity Subsurface Stresses
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑆𝑛𝑤 𝐒𝐰 𝐒𝐰 𝐒𝐰
𝜎𝑣 , 𝜎𝐻max , 𝜎𝐻min are the principal stresses
Low 𝑘 has negative effect – NW phase less sensitive to grain size Decreasing 𝜎, reduces 𝑆𝑤𝑟 & 𝑆𝑛𝑤𝑟 Hooke’s Law 𝜎 = −𝐸𝜀 𝐸
Bulk modulus 𝐾=
𝐹 𝛥𝐿 3 1 − 2𝜐 𝜎𝑣 = vertical stress 𝜎𝑣 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑏 = bulk density
Effect of Hysteresis Lab Measurement of Relative Permeability 𝜎= 𝜀=
𝐴 𝐿 1+𝜐 𝜐 Neglecting 𝜐 𝜐
Wetting phase stays connected Steady State (more reliable) and Unsteady State (more common) methods
𝜀𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 − 𝜎 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 tectonic 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎 + 𝑃𝑝 1 −
during PD and IM cycles 𝐸 = Young′s Modulus[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐸 𝐸 𝑥 stresses 1−𝜐 𝑣 1−𝜐
Steady State flows two
𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝑘𝑟𝑤,𝑃𝐷 ≈ 𝑘𝑟𝑤,𝐼𝑀 𝑞𝑜 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑦, or 𝑧 𝜎𝐻 = horizontal stress 𝑃𝑝 = pore pressure
fluids simultaneously 𝜐 = Poisson′s Ratio
Pumps Core Separator
NW phase becomes disconnected 𝑞𝑤 transversal expansion 𝐸 Tectonic stresses create differences between 𝜎𝐻min & 𝜎𝐻max
Unsteady State displaces a 𝜐= Shear modulus 𝐺=
𝐒𝐰 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤,𝑃𝐷 > 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤,𝐼𝑀 fluid by injecting another axial compression 2 1+𝜐 Fracture orientation controlled by direction of 𝜎𝐻min

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Fundamentals of Drilling Engineering
Conversions and Constants Drilling Fluid Considerations Nomenclature
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 lbm = 453.59 g Fluid Pressure Gradient Filtration Rate – API Tests Adjusting Weight with Barite Common Variables
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C 𝑂𝐷, 𝐼𝐷 = outer, inner diameter
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32 𝛻𝑃 = 𝜌Τ144 [=] 𝑝𝑠𝑖 Τ𝑓𝑡 𝑉30 = 2 𝑉7.5 − 𝑉𝑠𝑝 + 𝑉𝑠𝑝 𝑚𝐵𝑎 = 42 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 𝜌𝐵𝑎 [=]𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜌𝑚 = mud density[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal 1 cp = 1.0 mPa-s 𝜌[=] 𝑙𝑏𝑚Τ𝑓𝑡 3 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑖
𝑉30 = API vol. collected at 30 mins 𝑞 = flow rate[=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 [=]𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝜌𝐵𝑎 = 35𝑝𝑝𝑔
1 bar = 1 x 106 dynes/cm2 1 lbm Τgal = 0.052 psiΤft Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑓
𝛻𝑃Τ0.052 [=] 𝑙𝑏 Τ𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑉 = volume collected at 7.5 mins 𝑚 7.5 𝜎𝑦 = min. yield strength[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖
1 Newton = 1 x 105 dynes 1 mD/cp = 6.33 x 10−3 ft2/psi−day Standard Temperature = 60°F 𝐸 = Young ′ s modulus
Rotational Viscometer 𝑉𝑠𝑝 = spurt vol. collected at 0 mins Mud Quality Control
1 dyne = 2.248 x 10−6 lbf 1 Darcy = 9.8692 x 10−9 cm2 Gas Constant = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3Τlbmol ⋅ R 𝑓𝑠 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑚 + 𝜌𝑤 − 𝑓𝑜 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 𝐸 = 30𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for steel
𝜇 = 𝜃600 − 𝜃300 [=]𝑐𝑝 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑓𝑙𝑔 =
1 hp = 0.7457 kw Water density at SC = 62.37 lbm Τft 3 𝑉𝑠𝑝 = 𝑉1 − 𝑡 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑙𝑔 𝐼 = moment of inertia
1 g/cm3 = 62.428 lbm /ft3
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 1
1 hp = 33,000 ft ⋅ lbfΤmin Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol 𝐽 = polar moment of inertia
𝜏𝑦 = 𝜃300 − 𝜇[=] 𝑓𝐵𝑎 = 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝑙𝑔 𝜌𝑙𝑔 = 21.7𝑝𝑝𝑔
1 kgΤl = 8.347 lbm Τgal IG 100 𝑓𝑡 2 When conducting HPHT test, 𝑆𝐹 = safety factor
1 BTU = 778 ft ⋅ lbf VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia 𝑉𝑠𝑝 & 𝑉30 must be multiplied by WBM Maximum Solids Fraction
Viscosity is Newtonian 4 due to smaller HPHT filter cell 𝐷𝐹 = design factor
Casing Design Rig Power Requirements if yield point is zero, if 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.0289𝜌𝑚 − 0.139 𝑡 = pipe wall thickness[=]𝑖𝑛
not it’s plastic viscosity
Recommended Clearance Ratio Hoisting Power Typical WBM In general, the OBM 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is about 30% Drilling Fluid Considerations
Clearance between 𝑊𝑣𝑏 Hoisting Efficiency
𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑂𝐷𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = [=]ℎ𝑝 Plastic Viscosity Limits V Limits for Yield Point 𝜃# = reading at # rpm
tube centered in 0.13 ≤ ≤ 0.18 𝐶 = 𝐸(33,000) n E API
larger tube 𝑂𝐷𝑖𝑛 2 6 0.874 𝜇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.94exp(0.164𝜌𝑚 ) Typical OBM/SBM −1.15 𝜏
𝜏𝑦 = yield point
𝑊 = hook load[=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝜏𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 353𝜌𝑚 𝑦,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.07𝜌𝑚 − 0.45
𝑂𝐷𝑖𝑛 = inside tube 𝑂𝐷 𝐼𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 = outer tube 𝐼𝐷 8 0.841 𝑉𝑠𝑝 𝑚𝐵𝑎 = Barite mass to add
10 0.810
𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.58exp(0.171𝜌𝑚 )
𝑣𝑏 = velocity of blocks[=] 𝑓𝑡 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 Altering suspended low 𝛾 solids normally keeps
𝜌𝐵𝑎 = Barite density
Mud Window and Casing Point Selection 𝐸 = hoisting efficiency 12 0.770 𝜇 [=]𝑐𝑝 time mud parameters within recommended ranges
14 0.740 𝜌𝑖 = initial mud density[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
Equivalent Mud Density
Surface Casing
𝑛 = number of lines strung through blocks Routine Pipe Calculations Well Trajectory 𝜌𝑓 = final mud density[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
Rotating Power Pumping Power Capacity and Volume Directional Drilling Definitions 𝑓𝑙𝑔 = low gravity solids fraction
𝑤𝑇 𝑞𝑃𝑑 N = 0° N DF
𝑃𝑇 = [=]ℎ𝑝 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = [=]ℎ𝑝 𝐼𝐷2 𝑂𝐷2 − 𝐼𝐷2 DF = Derrick Floor 𝜌𝑤 = base water [=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
33,000 1714𝜂 𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 =
1029.4 1029.4 𝜌𝑜 = oil density[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
270° 90° 𝛼1 𝑀𝐷
𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑁[=] 𝑟𝑎𝑑 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑞 = flow rate[=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τmin 𝜀
Depth

Intermediate Casing 1 𝑓𝑠 = fraction of total solids

𝑁 = rotary speed[=]𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑃𝑑 = discharge pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐶[=] 𝑏𝑏𝑙 Τ𝑓𝑡 𝑉[=]𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝐼𝐷, 𝑂𝐷[=]𝑖𝑛 𝐿[=]𝑓𝑡 180° 𝜀 = azimuth 𝛼 = inclination 𝑓𝑜 = oil fraction
TVD
𝑇 = rotary torque[=]𝑓𝑡 ⋅ 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝜂 = overall pump efficiency 𝐼𝐷2 𝐿 𝑂𝐷2 − 𝐼𝐷2 𝐿 𝜌𝑙𝑔 = drilled low gravity solids
KOP = Kick-Off Point 𝛼2
𝑃𝑇 = torque horespower normally 𝜂 = 0.9 𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 =
1029.4 1029.4 𝛽 = Dog Leg Angle 𝑀𝐷2 𝜏𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦,𝑚𝑖𝑛 [=] 𝑙𝑏𝑓 Τ100 𝑓𝑡 2

Production Casing
Pumps Using Pipe Weight OD 𝑅𝑐 Rig Power Requirements
ID KOP 𝛽 𝑤 = angular velocity
Pore Pressure Gradient Single Acting Pumps 𝑂𝐷2 𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑅𝑐
THD
”Bottom-Up” Casing Selection 𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = − THD = Departure
Pore Pressure + Trip Margin Well Trajectory
Fracture Gradient
can also do
𝑞 = 0.0034 𝑑𝑝2 𝑁𝑝 𝐿𝑠 𝑁𝜂𝑣 [=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 1029.4 5.615𝜌𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
“Top-Down” Casing Selection N
Frac Gradient – Kick Margin 5729.6 deg. BHL 𝑅𝑐 = radius of curvature

Annular Space
Annular Space
𝑑𝑝 = plunger diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑝 = number of plungers 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 [=] 𝜌𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 [=] 3 𝐷𝐿𝑆 = [=] 𝑇𝑉𝐷 = true vertical depth
Common Bit Sizes Conventional Casing Strings 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑅𝑐 100 𝑓𝑡
𝑁 = pump speed[=] 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑠 = stroke length[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐷 = measured depth
Casing Size Common Bit CSG BIT 2
𝐷𝐿𝑆 = Dog Leg Severity DF Departure
(OD in.) Sizes (in.) in. in. 𝜂𝑣 = volumetric efficiency which is usually between 0.8 − 0.9 𝑂𝐷 𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = total horizontal distance
𝐼𝐷 = 24 − 𝛼2 − 𝛼1 𝜀2 − 𝜀1
24 𝜋𝜌𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝛽 = 2arcsin sin2 + sin𝛼1 sin𝛼2 sin2 𝐵𝐻𝐿 = bottom hole location
4 12 6,6 18 ,6 14 5 5 12 Down Hole Motors 2 2
5 6 12 ,6 3 4 Routine Pipe Calculations
6 12 7 78 Output Shaft Torque Cement 𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = pipe air weight
5 12 7 7 8 ,8 38 𝑞𝜂𝑣 𝛥𝑃
𝑇 = 3.064 [=]𝑓𝑡 ⋅ 𝑙𝑏𝑓 Leak-Off Test – Good Cement Common Properties 24 Hour Compressive Strength (psi) Pumps
6 7 7 8 ,8 38 ,8 12 7 58 8 58 9 58 𝑁 API Class A H Curing Temperature and Pressure (psi) 𝑞 = flow rate under load 𝛥𝑃
6 58 8 12 ,8 58 ,8 34 𝛥𝑃 = 𝛥𝑃 through motor 𝑁[=]𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝜂𝑣 = volumetric efficiency Desired Pressure
12 Reached Water (%) by
9 78 11 1
46 38 60°F 80°F 95°F 110°F 140°F Down Hole Motors
Drill Pipe Pressure

7 8 58 ,8 34 ,9 12 4
Key Notes on Motors Cement Weight Class A 0 0 800 1600 3000
7 58 9 78 ,10 58 ,11 Cement 𝑁 = shaft speed
10 3 4 13 38 - Motor provides torque at the bit depending on 𝑞 and 𝛥𝑃 Water
5.19 4.29 3000 4050 5500 6700 8400
8 58 11,12 14 (gal/sack) Drill String Considerations
- A motor is a speed multiplier, adding to top drive or rotary speed
15 17 12 Slurry Density 95°F 110°F 140°F 170°F 200°F 𝐹𝐷 = drag due to friction
9 58 12 14 ,14 3 4 - Torque from the motor helps the bit drill in highly deviated 15.6 16.4 Class H 800 1600 3000 3000 3000
sections where it’s difficult to apply WOB (ppg) 𝑊𝑇𝐸 = traveling equipment
10 3 4 15
20
Cement
16 Slurry Yield 615 1905 2085 2925 5050 𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝑆 = buoyed drill string
13 38 17 12 - 𝑞, 𝛥𝑃, and 𝑁 are interrelated and depend on how motor is made Pumping Shut-in & Bleed-off
ft 3Τsack
1.18 1.06
16 20 20 26 - If motor cannot supply the required torque to break rock, the 0 Time (mins) 20 𝛼 = hole inclination[=]deg
20 24,26 motor will stall and motor damage can occur 𝑇 = rotating torque
Casing Loads
Drill String Considerations Collapse Pressure Burst Pressure Worst Case Scenario for Collapse and Burst
𝑊𝑐𝑟 = critical weight on bit

Weight Indicator Buoyed Pipe Weight Casing Loads

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑆𝐹 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑆𝐹 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑇 Collapse: Lost Circulation During Drilling
𝑃𝑒 = external pressure
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝑆 + 𝐹𝐷 + 𝑊𝑇𝐸 [=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑊 − 𝑊𝑓 [=] 𝑙𝑏𝑓 Τ𝑓𝑡 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑊 1 − 𝜌𝑚 Τ𝜌𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑆𝐹 0.052𝜌𝑚 𝐷 𝐷 = csg shoe depth = 𝑓𝑡
𝑆𝐹 = 1.125 𝑃𝐵𝑅 = burst resistance 𝑃𝑖 = internal pressure
𝐹𝐷 − value moving down 𝐹𝐷 + value moving up Collapse resistance
𝑊 = pipe air weight 𝑊𝑓 = fluid weight 𝑊𝐵 = 𝑊 1 − 0.0153𝜌𝑚 determined by four 2𝜎𝑦 𝑡 Burst: Gas Kick Fills Casing 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃 due to temp change
Required Drill Collar Length different eqns based
𝑃𝐵𝑅 = 𝐷𝐹 Pressure high enough to fracture rock at shoe of the casing 𝐹𝑡 = tensile load
𝑊𝐵 = buoyed pipe weight 𝜌𝑚 [=]𝑝𝑝𝑔 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 65.5 𝑝𝑝𝑔 𝑂𝐷
𝑆𝐹 ⋅ 𝑊𝑂𝐵 on the 𝑂𝐷Τ𝑡 ratio 𝑃𝑖𝑆 = 𝑃𝑖𝐷 − 𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑖𝑆 = 𝑃 inside casing at the surface 𝑊 = casing air weight
𝐿𝐷𝐶 = [=]𝑓𝑡 𝐷𝐹 = 0.875 𝑂𝐷, 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝐶 cos𝛼 Buckling – Vertical Hole (more info: API Bulletin 5C3)
𝑃𝑖𝐷 = 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐 + 𝛥𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑖𝐷 = pressure inside casing at D 𝐷𝑏 = depth below bend
𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝐶 = buoyed drill collar 𝑊𝑂𝐵 = weight on bit 𝑊𝑐𝑟,1 = 1st order buckle = 1.94𝑚𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝐶 [=]𝑙𝑏𝑓
Casing in Tension
3 𝐸𝐼 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐 = fracture pressure at D 𝐹𝑇 = force due to temp change
𝛥𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ≈ 0.015𝐷
𝑚= 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑆𝐹 𝑊 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝐵 [=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑆𝐹 = 1.8 𝐹𝐵 = force due to bending
Linear Pipe Drag 𝑊𝑐𝑟,2 = 2nd order buckle = 3.75𝑚𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝐶 [=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑊𝐵,𝐷𝐶
𝑃𝑖𝐷 𝛾𝑔 𝑃𝑔 = estimated 𝐶𝐻4 gas column 𝑃
6𝐾𝐿𝑗 𝐿𝑗 = 𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑔 = 0.0187𝐷 𝐷𝐿𝑆 = dogleg severity
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜇𝑁 = 𝜇𝐹sin𝛼 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎𝑥 − 𝑊𝐵 𝜋 𝐹𝐵 = 64(𝐷𝐿𝑆)(𝑂𝐷)𝑊 𝑇𝐷 𝑇𝐷 = temperature at D[=]𝑅
Critical WOB for deviated hole usually outside tanh 6𝐾𝐿𝑗 𝐾 = bending constant
𝐹𝑎𝑥 = axial force
𝐼= 𝑂𝐷4 − 𝐼𝐷4 𝐾[=]𝑖𝑛−1
𝑁 = normal force recommended range for effective drilling 64 𝐾 = 𝑊𝐷𝑏Τ 𝐸𝐼 𝑇𝐷 = 𝐷𝛼 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝛼𝑇 = local temperature gradient 𝐿𝑗 = joint length
𝜇 = friction coefficient and is usually 0.15 − 0.6
Maximum Pull on Pipe Depth to Stuck Point Well Control 𝛥𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃 to overcome friction
Rotational Pipe Drag 𝜎𝑦 𝛾𝑔 = gas specific gravity
𝐹max = 𝐴[=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝛥𝑙 Pressure Balance Kick Indicators Kick Control Methods
𝑂𝐷 𝑆𝐹 𝐿=𝐸 𝐴[=]𝑓𝑡
𝑇=𝜇 𝐹sin𝛼[=]𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝛥𝐹 - Flow rate/pit volume increase Driller’s Method Well Control
2 𝑃𝐵𝐻 = 𝑃𝑑𝑝 + 0.052𝜌𝑚 𝑇𝑉𝐷 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜎𝑦 = pipe min. yield strength[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝛥𝑙 = drill pipe stretch[=]𝑓𝑡 𝜌𝑚 [=] - Pump pressure decrease along - Two circulations 𝑃𝐵𝐻 = 𝑃 at depth TVD = 𝑝𝑠𝑖
When rotating pipe up or down while 𝑔𝑎𝑙 with pump stroke increase 1. Circulate out kick
𝑃𝐵𝐻 = 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑔 + 0.052𝜌𝑚 𝑇𝑉𝐷 𝑃𝑑𝑝 = shut−in drill pipe 𝑃
circulating mud, the overall drag is 𝜋 𝛥𝐹 = incremental force pulled 2. Kill the well
𝐴= 𝑂𝐷2 − 𝐼𝐷2 [=]𝑖𝑛2 against stuck drill pipe[=]𝑙𝑏𝑓
- Improper hole fill-up on trips
Weight & Wait 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑔 = shut−in casing 𝑃
normally reduced and not additive 4 Post-Kick Calculations - Change in drill string weight - One circulation
𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑏𝑙 - Unexpected drilling rate increase 𝛼 = average inclination angle
Von Mises Effective Stress Criterion ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 = = 𝑓𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛 [=] 1. Circulate out kick and kill well
𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑉𝐷 = true vertical depth
𝜋 2
𝜋 2 2
Circulating Pressures Equivalent Circulating Density
𝐹𝑎𝑥 + 𝛥𝑃 4 𝐼𝐷2 𝐹𝑎𝑥 + 𝛥𝑃 4 𝐼𝐷2 𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑡 = mud pit gain[=]𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝑚𝐵𝑎 = Barite mass to add
𝛥𝑃 𝑂𝐷 𝛥𝑃 𝑂𝐷 𝑇 𝑂𝐷
𝜎𝑒 < 0.8𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑒 = 𝜋 − 𝜋 + +3 ′
𝑃𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑𝑝 + 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑟 𝛻𝑃 ⋅ 𝑇𝑉𝐷 + 𝛥𝑃𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑠𝑣𝑟 = formation 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑂𝐷 2 − 𝐼𝐷 2 2𝑡 𝑂𝐷 2 − 𝐼𝐷 2 2𝑡 2𝐽 ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 = ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 cos𝛼 𝐸𝐶𝐷 = [=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
4 4 𝑃𝑓𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑟 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 Τ𝜌𝑚 0.052𝑇𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 = kill mud density
′
𝛥𝑃 = pump pressure to overcome pipe friction and bit nozzle losses[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐽 = 2𝐼[=]𝑖𝑛 4 ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 = true vertical height of kick
𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑟 = circulating pressure Effective mud weight during 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐 = volume increase
dynamic circulating conditions
Hydraulics 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 = 𝜌𝑚 +
𝑃𝑑𝑝 − 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑔
[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
at slow pump rate 𝑃𝑖𝑐 = initial circulating 𝑃
′
Pump Pressure Viscosity Hole Cleaning 0.052ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑐𝑘 Number of Pump Strokes 𝑃𝑓𝑐 = final circulating pressure

If fluid is a Bingham Plastic, This eqn estimates the added mass of rock 𝑃𝑟𝑠𝑣𝑟 = 𝑃𝑑𝑝 + 0.052𝜌𝑚 𝑇𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝑑𝑝 + 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉[=]𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝑉𝑑𝑝,𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝛻𝑃 = mud pressure gradient
2 2 𝑆𝑇𝐾𝑑𝑝 = 𝑆𝑇𝐾𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
𝜌 𝑞 𝑣ҧ 𝐿 calculate apparent viscosity 𝛥𝑃𝐴𝑛𝑛 = frictional 𝑃 loss in
𝑃𝑝 = +෎ 𝑓𝜌 [=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑚𝑟 = 𝑅𝑂𝑃 𝐴𝑏 𝜌𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 1 − 𝜙 42𝑞𝑝 𝑞𝑝 [=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 42𝑞𝑝
6704 𝑑𝑒4 25.8 𝐷 𝜏𝑦 𝐷 𝑃𝑟𝑠𝑣𝑟 annulus above point of interest
𝜇𝑎 = 𝜇𝑝 + 6.66 𝑚𝑟 [=]rock mass per time 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 ≥ [=]𝑝𝑝𝑔
𝑛 1ൗ
2 𝑣ҧ 0.052𝑇𝑉𝐷 Pressures During Driller’s Method 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = drill pipe volume
𝑅𝑂𝑃 = rate of penetration[=] 𝑓𝑡 Τℎ𝑟 Gas Kick circulated
𝑑𝑒 = equivalent nozzle diameter = ෍ 𝑑𝑖2 across choke 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = drill collar volume
Reynold’s Number 2
𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝐵𝑎 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 − 𝜌𝑚 Drillstring
𝑖=1 𝐴𝑏 = bit area[=]𝑓𝑡 𝜌𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 [=] 𝑙𝑏𝑚 Τ𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝐵𝑎 = [=]𝑙𝑏𝑚 Volume 𝑞𝑝 = pump output
𝐷𝑣𝜌 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 Annulus Volume
𝑑𝑖 = bit nozzle diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑐
𝑁Re = 928 If cuttings from shaker cleaned and 𝑆𝑇𝐾𝑑𝑝 = strokes to fill drill pipe
𝜌[=]𝑝𝑝𝑔 𝑞[=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣[=]
ҧ 𝑓𝑡 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐿[=]𝑓𝑡 𝐷[=]𝑖𝑛 𝜇 weighed as a function of time, a rough idea 𝑉𝑚 = total system mud volume = 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑟 𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑎𝑛𝑛 = drill collar annular 𝑉
*units same as Pump Pressure of the state of cleaning can be obtained
Optimizing Bit Hydraulics 𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 − 𝜌𝑚 𝑃𝑐𝑠𝑔 𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑎𝑛𝑛 = drill collar annular 𝑉
- Normally it’s only possible to optimize bit hydraulics 𝑁Re < 2100 : Laminar Flow Factors Influencing Deviated Hole Cleaning 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐 = [=]𝑏𝑏𝑙
42 𝜌𝐵𝑎 − 𝜌𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑇𝐾𝑎𝑛𝑛 = strokes to fill annulus
if drilling without a motor Pipe Flow Rate
𝑃𝑑𝑝
𝑁Re > 2100 : Turbulent Flow
Influence on Hole Cleaning

Eccentricity Hole 𝑃𝑓𝑐 Hydraulics

- Adjust bit nozzle diameters to consume 64% of total Deviation Pipe Post-Kick Important Actions Kick circulated
Pressure

Mud Density Rotation

𝑃𝑝 across the bit to maximize hydraulic power Friction Factor 𝑣ҧ = avg. fluid velocity in pipe
- Record shut-in drill pipe pressure out of the well
Cuttings Hole Size Fluid
- Adjust bit nozzles to consume 46% of total pump −𝑏 Density 𝑓 = friction factor
pressure across bit to maximize jet impact force
𝑓 = 𝑎𝑁Re Rheology - Record shut-in casing pressure 𝑃𝑓𝑐
Annulus Volume 𝐿 = pipe segment length
Laminar Turbulent - Record mud pit volume gain
𝛥𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑞 1.273𝐻𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑝 ROP/Cuttings
𝐷 = flow conduit diameter
𝐻𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 𝐻𝑆𝐼 = [=] 2 Generation Rate
- If shut-in pressures increase over time,
1714 𝑑𝑒2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 = 16 𝑎 = 0.0791 Cuttings Size
Sweeps 𝜇𝑎 = apparent viscosity[=]𝑐𝑝
reservoir fluid is gas First Circulation Phase 2nd Circulation 2nd Circulation
𝑞[=] 𝑔𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑃𝑏𝑖𝑡 = bit hydraulic horsepower 𝑏=1 𝑏 = 0.25 Active Control in Field Practice (SPE 132372, 2010) - If not, kick is liquid Phase 1 Phase 2 𝜌𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 = rock grain density

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Paul Bommer and Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions
 Fundamentals of Production Engineering
Nomenclature Flow in Pipes Corrosion
Corrosion Mechanical Energy Balance Friction Factor Reduces metal thickness which leads to a reduction in collapse, burst, and tensile forces
𝛥𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = mass lost Moody correlations based
Liquid Flow
on Reynolds Number
Corrosion Influences 1000
Approximate Material Selection Monitoring – Corrosion Coupon
𝛥𝑡 = test duration Consistent Units Corrosion Rate
In general, hard metal Max Temp 392°𝐹Max Temp 25Cr-
8𝑞2 1 𝑞𝜌

CO2 partial pressure (𝑎𝑡𝑚)

𝜌𝑐 = coupon density 1 𝑔 𝐿 𝑁Re = 1.478 with large 𝜎𝑦 will corrode 100 482°𝐹
− + 𝑔𝐿sin𝜃 + 𝑃 − 𝑃1 + 2𝑣ҧ 2 𝑓 = 0 𝐼𝐷𝜇 25 Cr 25Cr-35Ni-3Mo
50Ni-6Mo 𝛥𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝐴𝑠 = coupon surface area 𝜋 2 𝐼𝐷24 𝐼𝐷14 𝜌 2 𝐼𝐷 quicker than softer metal 10 13 Cr Max Temp 𝐶𝑅 = [=] =
25 Cr 20Cr-35Ni-5Mo 572°𝐹
𝜌𝑐 𝐴𝑠 𝛥𝑡 𝑦𝑟 𝑦𝑟 1000 𝑦𝑟
Flow in Pipes 𝛾𝑔 𝑞𝑠𝑐 with a smaller 𝜎𝑦 13 Cr duplex duplex
𝑁Re = 20.09 1
Kinetic energy Potential energy Expansion or Energy of 22Cr-42Ni-3Mo 𝐶𝑅[=] 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑓 = friction factor vertical flow 𝜃 = 90° Compression friction 𝐼𝐷𝜇
Increases Corrosion Rate 0.1 J-55 Pitting Rate
𝐼𝐷 = internal diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 Gas Flow L-80
Laminar Flow - Following variables increase 0.01 N-80
Cr Max Temp
𝐿 = pipeline length[=]𝑓𝑡 Consistent Units C-90 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑑 Τ𝛥𝑡 [=] 𝑚𝑖𝑙Τ𝑦𝑟
𝑃2 - Salt concentration P-110 Cr-Mo 300°𝐹 if
2 𝑁Re ≤ 2100 1E−3 T-95 not noted 𝑑 = deepest pit depth 𝛥𝑡 = test duration
𝛾𝑔 = gas specific gravity 𝑧𝑅𝑇 32𝑓𝐿 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝑧𝑇𝑃𝑠𝑐 - Dissolved gas Q-125
Flow in pipes
𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 = molar mass of air ඲ 𝑑𝑃 + 𝑔𝐿sin𝜃 + 2 5 =0 16 - Dissolved CO2 CR 𝑚𝑖𝑙 Τ𝑦𝑟 PR 𝑚𝑖𝑙 Τ𝑦𝑟 Severity
𝛾𝑔 𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃 𝜋 𝐼𝐷 𝑃𝑇𝑠𝑐 𝛥𝐾𝐸 negligible 𝑓= 1E−4 1E−3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
- Dissolved H2 S
𝜇 = fluid viscosity[=]𝑐𝑝 horizontal 𝑁Re H2 S partial pressure (𝑎𝑡𝑚) <1.0 <5.0 Low
𝑃1 𝜃 = 0° - Temperature
′ 1.0−4.9 5.0−7.9 Moderate
𝑁Re = Reynold s number 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 = 𝑧𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝐵𝐻 𝑃𝐻2𝑆 = 𝑃𝐵𝐻 𝐻2 𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑚Τ1𝑥106
Horizontal ҧ ത 𝑠𝑐
𝛾𝑔 𝑧𝑇𝑞 2
Turbulent Flow 5.0−10.0 8.0−15.0 Severe
𝑃1 = inlet pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖
Gas Flow
𝑃22 − 𝑃12 = 1.0068𝑥10−4 𝑓𝐿 + 𝐼𝐷ln 𝑃1 Τ𝑃2 (in a smooth tube)
- Decrease in pH
𝑧𝐶𝑂2 = CO2 fraction 𝑃𝐵𝐻 = static bottom hole 𝑃[=]𝑎𝑡𝑚 >10.0 >15.0 Very Severe
𝐼𝐷5
𝑃2 = outlet pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑞 = liquid rate[=] 𝑏𝑏𝑙Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 Inclined Gas Flow
𝑁Re > 2100 Scale
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = gas rate[=] 𝑀𝑠𝑐𝑓 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 ҧ ത 𝑠𝑐
𝑓 𝑧𝑇𝑞 −0.0375𝛾𝑔 𝐿sin𝜃 0.0791
𝑃22 = 𝑒 𝑠 𝑃12 + 2.685𝑥10−3 𝑒𝑠 − 1 𝑠= 𝑓= Calcium Carbonate Scale Sulfate Scale Tendencies
0.25
𝜌 = fluid density[=] 𝑙𝑏𝑚 Τ𝑓𝑡 3 𝐼𝐷5 sin𝜃 ҧത
𝑧𝑇 𝑁Re Calculate the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) to predict scale Calculate the solubility (S) of the ion to predict scale
𝑇ത = avg. flowing temp[=]𝑅
Flow Control at the Surface 𝑝𝐻𝑠 = pH at saturation 𝐿𝑆𝐼 = 𝑝𝐻 − 𝑝𝐻𝑠 𝑝𝐻 = actual pH 𝑆= 𝑋 2 + 4𝐾𝑠𝑝 − 𝑋 𝑋 = 𝐶 − 𝐴 [=] 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Τ𝐿
𝑣ҧ = avg. velocity[=] 𝑓𝑡 Τsec
𝑧ҧ = avg. z-factor Liquid Flow – Choke Gas Flow Through a Choke
Isothermal, steady-state 𝛾𝐻 𝑝𝐻𝑠 = 0.1log10 𝑇𝐷𝑆 − 13.12log10 𝑇 − log10 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐴𝑙𝑘 + 44.15 𝑆 = ion solubility[=] 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Τ𝐿 𝐶 = cation molarity
Flow Control 𝐶𝑝 𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝛾𝑔 መ 2 𝛾𝐻 − 1

𝐷c = choke diameter[=]𝑖𝑛
mechanical energy balance specific
𝛾 ≈
heat ratio 𝐻 𝐶መ𝑃 𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝛾𝑔 − 1.99
→ critical
value
CV =
𝛾𝐻 + 1
𝑇𝐷𝑆 = total dissolved solids[=] 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿 𝑇 = temperature[=]𝐾 𝐾𝑠𝑝 = equilibrium coefficient 𝐴 = anion molarity
1 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 Compute equivalents per liter for cation and anion
𝐼𝐷𝑝 = upstream diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑣 − 𝑣12 = 𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑 = hardness = 1000 𝑀𝑊𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐶𝑎 + 𝑀𝑔 [=] 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿
2 2 𝜌 𝑃2 Compare solubility to minimum value
𝛥𝑃 = 𝛥𝑃 across choke[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑃2 uses measured 𝑃2
≤ CV 𝑃1 pressures from well > CV 𝐴𝑙𝑘 = alkalinity[=] 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿 𝑀𝑊𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = 100.09 𝑔Τ𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛 [=] 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Τ𝐿
𝐶መ𝑃 = constant pressure specific 8081.7𝐶 𝐷𝑐2 𝛥𝑃 𝑃1 𝑚 𝑚 𝑃1 𝑚 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑔Τ𝐿 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑞
heat capacity[=] 𝐵𝑇𝑈Τ𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝐹 𝑞= [=]
4 𝜌 Critical flow 𝑃1 = upstream pressure Critical flow 𝐴𝑙𝑘 = 500 𝑀𝑊𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + 2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻 𝐻 is negligible 1000(𝑀𝑊𝑖𝑜𝑛 ) 𝐿
𝐷64 = 64 𝐷𝑐 [=] 𝑖𝑛 Τ64 𝐷𝑐 achieved NOT achieved
1− 𝑃2 = downstream pressure
𝑇1 = upstream temp[=]𝑅
𝐼𝐷𝑝 Scale is likely to form if 𝐿𝑆𝐼 ≥ 0 Scale is likely to form if 𝑆 ≤ 𝑒𝑞 Τ𝐿

Pipeline Design Discharge Coefficient 𝐶

𝛾𝐻 CV − CV
2
𝛾𝐻
𝛾𝐻 + 1
𝛾𝐻 Pipeline Design
2
𝜎𝑦 = min. yield strength[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 actual flow rate 𝑞 = 0.238𝐶𝐷64 𝑃1 General Design Steps
𝐶= 𝛾𝑔 𝑇1 𝛾𝐻 − 1
𝑡 = wall thickness[=]𝑖𝑛 theoretical rate 1. Determine proper regulatory policy 5. Calculate 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑃𝑀𝑇 6. Determine test pressure 7. Final burst rating check
𝑂𝐷 = outer diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 Critical Flow Not Achieved
Empirical Estimate - Do not proceed until established 2𝜎𝑦 𝑡 - As specified by correct
𝑃𝑖 = internal pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 2 𝑆𝐹 𝜎𝑦 𝑡
2 𝛾𝐻 +1 - Design engineer’s responsibility 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑆𝐹 = 0.875 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐹𝐸𝑇 regulatory policy
𝑃𝑀𝑇 = mill test pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐷𝑐 𝛾𝐻 𝑃2 𝛾𝐻 𝑃2 𝛾𝐻 𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐷
𝐶 = 𝐶1 − 6.53 2
𝑞 = 0.238𝐶𝐷64 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑑 and 𝑃𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 < 0.85𝑃𝑀𝑇
𝑃𝑏 = burst pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐼𝐷𝑝 𝑁Re 2. Determine pipe diameter 𝑃𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 1.5𝑀𝐴𝑂𝑃 𝑜𝑟 1.25𝑃𝑑
𝛾𝑔 𝑇1 𝛾𝐻 − 1 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃𝑀𝑇 ≅ 0.8𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 [=] 𝑃𝑏
Example using ASME B31.8
𝑚 𝑚 - Based on flow rate and exit pressure whichever is greater
𝑃𝑑 = design pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐶1 = 0.9975
Construction Type F Joint Type E Flowing Temp T
IPR Inflow Performance Relation (IPR) 3. Determine 𝑀𝐴𝑂𝑃 for pipeline
Private right of way (PROW) 0.72 < 250 °F 1.0
𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 = oil rate[=] 𝑆𝑇𝐵 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 - Maximum allowed operating pressure Threaded seamless 1.0
Oil Productivity Index Single-Phase Oil IPR Gas Productivity Index PROW on fringe of populated areas 0.6 Threaded ERW 1.0
250 − 300 °F 0.967
𝑃𝑒 = boundary pressure[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 4. Estimate pipe 𝜎𝑦 and 𝑡
Decreasing 300 − 350 °F 0.933
𝑃𝑤𝑓 = flowing wellbore[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑞𝑔𝑠𝑐 𝑀𝑠𝑐𝑓 Sparsely populated residential areas 0.5 Furnace lap welded 0.8
𝑃𝑒 over time 𝐽𝑔 =
𝐽𝑜 = [=] 2 [=] 𝑝𝑠𝑖 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑎𝑦 2𝜎𝑦 𝑡 350 − 400 °F 0.900
𝑘𝑜 = oil permeability[=]𝑚𝐷 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ⋅ 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑃𝑒2 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 1.5 𝑀𝐴𝑂𝑃 = 𝐹𝐸𝑇 Populated areas and public roads 0.4 Furnace butt welded 0.6
𝑂𝐷 400 − 450 °F 0.867
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑡1 1
ℎ = reservoir thickness[=]𝑓𝑡 − Apply steady-state & radial flow
Steady-state & radial flow
𝐵𝑜 = oil FVF[=] 𝑅𝐵 Τ𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑡3
𝐽𝑜 Predicting Gas Production Flow Assurance
0.00708𝑘𝑜 ℎ 7.0225𝑥10−4 𝑘𝑔 ℎ
𝜇𝑜 = oil viscosity[=]𝑐𝑝 𝐽𝑜 = 0 𝐽𝑔 = - Gas decline curves are harder to predict due to the Common Issues
𝑟 1 𝑟 1
𝑟𝑒 = drainage radius[=]𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑜 𝜇𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑒 − 2 + 𝑠 0
𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 𝑆𝑇𝐵Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 ҧ ln 𝑟𝑒 − 2 + 𝑠
𝜇ҧ𝑔 𝑧𝑇 high expansivity of gas Damage Type Detection Methods Prevention Methods Removal Methods
𝑤 𝑤
If 𝐵𝑜 , 𝜇𝑜 , 𝑘𝑜 relatively constant, - Can lead to an overestimation of total recovery
𝑟𝑤 = wellbore radius[=]𝑓𝑡 Calcium Water analysis Scale inhibitor
Only good for single phase flow 𝐽𝑜 is a constant Gas properties evaluated at 𝑃ത HCl acid job
𝑠 = skin factor - Can use a P/z plot as another predictor Carbonate Scale Physical sample Scale squeeze
𝑃ത = avg. reservoir 𝑃[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 Two-Phase IPR 𝑃 < 𝑃𝐵𝑃 Gas IPR Curves - Developed from the Real Gas Law Barium Water analysis Mechanical removal
Decreasing 𝑃𝑒 over time Scale inhibitor
𝑘𝑔 = gas permeability[=]𝑚𝐷 Empirical correlation (Vogel, 1968) Sulfate Scale Physical sample Re-perforation
Decreasing 𝑃ത over time P/z Plot – OGIP Estimation
𝑞𝑔𝑠𝑐 = gas rate[=] 𝑀𝑠𝑐𝑓 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑞𝑜 ത Sodium Water analysis Reduce pressure drop Fresh H2 O circulation

= 1 − 0.2𝛸 − 0.8𝛸 2 P
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑡1 Absolute
𝜇ҧ 𝑔 = avg. gas viscosity[=]𝑐𝑝 Water influx Chloride Physical sample to reduce gas cooling Re-perforation
𝑞𝑜,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡1 𝑡2 Open Flow
𝑇 = reservoir temp[=]𝑅 𝛸 = 𝑃𝑤𝑓 Τ𝑃ത 𝑡2 𝑡3 z i No water influx Emulsions Physical sample Emulsion Emulsion breaker
𝑡3
Predicting Gas Production 0 0 and Sludge Lab analysis breaker Mutual Solvent
Can replace 𝑃ത with 𝑃𝑒 0 0
𝐺𝑃 = cumulative gas produced 𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 𝑆𝑇𝐵Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑞𝑔𝑠𝑐 𝑀𝑠𝑐𝑓Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 ഥ
𝐏 Liquid Block Well history Limit pressure
Mutual solvents
𝐺𝑟 = recoverable gas Vertical Lift Performance Decline Curve Analysis 𝐳
Gas Well Lab analysis drop at wellbore

𝐺 = original gas in place - Vertical lift performance can be developed 1000 Physical sample Inhibitors Inhibitors
Hyperbolic Decline 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1 Gab = Gr
Asphaltenes
Oil analysis Application of heat Application of heat
Production Rate (q)

Decline Curve Analysis by using the mechanical energy balance (Arps, 1940) ഥ
P
𝑏 = hyperbolic exponent - VLP displays bottom hole pressure required 100 Physical sample Inhibitors Inhibitors
to flow to surface at varying flow rates 0<𝑏<1 z G = OGIP Paraffin
Oil analysis Application of heat Application of heat
𝑞 = future rate [=] 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ab
𝑞𝑖 = initial rate[=] 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 VLP & IPR 𝑞𝑖 10 Formation Limit production rate Re-perforation
𝑞= 𝐆𝐏 Physical sample
2.375” tbg 2.875” tbg 3.5” tbg IPR 1 Τ𝑏 Fines Gravel/frac pack Small frac job
𝑡 = time 1 + 𝑏𝐷𝑖 𝑡 As b-factor increases, well’s
5 economic life increases
𝐷 = decline rate[=] 1Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Smaller 𝐼𝐷 requires Clay Lab analysis Don’t introduce Re-perforation
𝑏 1
𝑃ത 𝑃ത 𝑃ത 1 𝐺𝑟
more pressure 1 𝑞𝑖 0 Time 𝑅𝐹 = Swelling Production rate drop incompatible water Small frac job
𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑖Τ1000

𝐷𝑖 = initial decline[=] 1Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 4 = − 𝐺

𝑡= −1 𝐺
𝐷𝑖 𝑏 𝑞 𝑧 𝑧 𝑖
ถ 𝑧 𝐺 𝑃 Physical sample Don’t introduce
𝑁𝑝 = cumulative production 3 𝑖 Recovery Bacteria Bacteriacides
factor Lab culture bacteria laden water
Recovery 𝑁𝑝

intercept slope
Artificial Lift 2
Need more 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑖𝑏 𝑞1−𝑏
𝑃𝐼𝑃 = pump intake 𝑃
1 than well provides 𝑁𝑝 =
𝐷𝑖 (1 − 𝑏) EL
Artificial Lift
𝑃𝐷𝑃 = pump discharge 𝑃 Common Issue Rod Pump ESP Gas Lift
0
Beam Lift
𝛥𝑃𝑆𝑉 = 𝛥𝑃 thru standing valve 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 𝑏 EL Sand Fair Fair Excellent
𝑞 𝑏=0 𝑏 = 0.5 𝑏=1 Pressure Differential Across Plunger Rod Loads
𝑃𝑠,𝑡𝑏𝑔 = tbg surface pressure 𝑞𝑜𝑠𝑐 𝑆𝑇𝐵Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖 0 Paraffin Poor Good Poor
IPR < VLP need artificial lift to flow to surface 𝑞𝑖 0 Time 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑃𝐷𝑃 − 𝑃𝐼𝑃 + 𝛥𝑃𝑆𝑉 𝑃𝐼𝑃 = 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝑊𝑟𝑓 + 𝐹𝑜 + 𝑊𝐷,𝑢𝑝
𝛻𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 = tbg fluid 𝑃 gradient High GOR Fair Fair Excellent

𝑆 = surface stroke length = 𝑖𝑛 Packer Forces Deviated Hole Poor Fair Good 𝑃𝐷𝑃 = 𝛻𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝐷𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 + 𝑃𝑠,𝑡𝑏𝑔 + 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝑊𝑟𝑓 − 𝑊𝐷,𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
Corrosion Good Fair Fair
𝑠𝑡𝑏𝑔 = tubing stretch = 𝑖𝑛 Tubing Movement Piston Forces Pump Displacement 𝜌𝑓 𝑊𝑟𝑓 = buoyed
High Volume Poor Excellent Good 𝑊𝑟𝑓 = 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑑 1 −
𝑠𝑟𝑜𝑑 = rod stretch = 𝑖𝑛 If tbg free to 𝜋 𝑞 = 0.1166𝑁𝑑𝑝2 𝑆𝑝 𝜂𝑝 [=] 𝑏𝑏𝑙 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝜌𝑟𝑜𝑑 rod weight
move, need to
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑆𝑂 + 𝑃𝑎 𝑂𝐷𝑏2 − 𝑂𝐷𝑠2 Depth Fair Fair Good
𝑀𝑃𝑅𝐿 = min. polish road load 4
make sure pkr Simple Design Yes Yes No 𝑁 = pump speed[=]𝑠𝑝𝑚 𝜂𝑝 = pump efficiency 𝑆𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑟𝑓 𝑇𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐹𝑜 + 𝑆𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝐿 = peak polish rod load stays sealed 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠,𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝐷𝑝𝑘𝑟 𝛻𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 Casing Size Fair Good Good 𝑑𝑝 = plunger diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 Pump Slippage (Patterson, et al, 2007)
𝐹𝑜 = fluid weight[=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 Flexibility Fair Poor Good
𝐹𝑆𝑂 = slacked off tubing weight
𝑊𝐷 = dynamic load[=]𝑙𝑏𝑓 Effective Stroke Length 𝑑𝑝 𝛥𝑃𝑐𝑝1.52 𝑏𝑏𝑙
Total Production Scale Good Poor Fair
𝛥𝐿 Movement 𝑂𝐷𝑏 = packer bore diameter[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑠 = 1 + 0.14𝑁 453
𝐿𝑝 𝜇𝑓
[=]
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿𝑝 = plunger seal length[=]𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝐷𝑠 = metal seal tube 𝑂𝐷[=]𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑆 + 𝑠𝑝𝑜 − 𝑠𝑡𝑏𝑔 − 𝑠𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛
Onshore Usage 84% 2% 11%
Packer Forces 𝐷𝑝𝑘𝑟 = packer true vertical depth Gas Lift much higher % offshore 𝑠𝑝𝑜 = plunger overtravel 𝑠𝑡𝑏𝑔 = 0 tbg anchored 𝑐𝑝 = plunger clearance = 𝑖𝑛 𝜇𝑓 [=]𝑐𝑝
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃 above the packer 𝑃𝑠,𝑎𝑛𝑛 = surface pressure in annulus
Resource Economics
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃 below the packer 𝛻𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 = annulus fluid pressure gradient
𝜋 Reserve Classification – Common Acronyms Time Value of Money
𝐼𝐷𝑠 = seals 𝐼𝐷[=]𝑖𝑛
Landed Piston Buckling Ballooning Temp 𝐹𝑏 = −𝑃𝑏 𝑂𝐷𝑏2 − 𝐼𝐷𝑠2 1. PDP: Proved Developed Producing – well is online and producing 𝑃𝑉 = present value 𝐷𝑅 = discount rate
𝐴𝑝𝑘𝑟 = cross sectional area length 4 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐹𝑉 𝐷𝐹
2. PDNP: Proved Dev. Non-Producing – reserves are behind pipe, well is 𝐹𝑉 = future value 𝐷𝑅[=] 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 Τ𝑦𝑟
𝛥𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 = avg. 𝛥𝑃 in annulus 𝛴𝐹 𝑀𝐷 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑠,𝑡𝑏𝑔 + 𝐷𝑝𝑘𝑟 𝛻𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 shut-in, or waiting on necessary equipment installation to produce 𝐷𝑅 −𝑡𝑛
𝛴𝐹 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑏𝑢 + 𝐹𝑏𝑎 + 𝐹𝑇 𝛥𝐿 = [=]𝑓𝑡 𝐷𝐹 = 1 +
𝛥𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 = avg. 𝛥𝑃 in the tubing 𝐴𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝐸 𝐷𝐹 = discount factor 𝑛 𝑡 = time in years
Permanent Buckling 3. PUD: Proved Undeveloped – offsetting wells or existing wells that
𝛿 = linear thermal expansion 𝐹𝑎 = force acting on seals from above 𝑀𝐷 = pkr measured depth would require a major recompletion 𝑛 = discounting periods per year
𝐹𝑏𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝𝑘𝑟 𝛥𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 − 𝛥𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔
Resource Economics 𝐹𝑏 = force acting on seals from below 𝐴𝑡𝑏𝑔 = cross sectional area Economic Limit Converting Production into Cash Flow
𝐷𝑝𝑘𝑟 𝛻𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 Net Revenue Tax Cash Flow Disc. Cash Flow
𝑁𝑅𝐼 = net revenue interest 𝛥𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝛥𝑃𝑠,𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑋[=] $Τ𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
- If tbg cannot move, need to check tensile strength of pkr and tbg 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑋 𝑊𝐼 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑂𝑃 = oil price 2 𝐺𝑅 𝑁𝑅𝐼 𝑁𝑅 𝑆𝑇 + 𝐴𝑉𝑇 𝑁𝑅 − 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑋 − 𝑇𝐴𝑋 𝐶𝐹 𝐷𝐹
𝑊𝐼 = working interest 𝐸𝐿 = [=]
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑀𝐷 𝑊𝐵 − 𝐹𝑇 − 𝐹𝑏𝑎 − 𝐹𝑆𝑂 𝐷𝑝𝑘𝑟 𝛻𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑅𝐼 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐺𝑅 = gross revenue = production gross price
𝐴𝑉𝑇 = ad valorem tax 𝑁𝑃 = net price
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑝 = force at top of tubing 𝑊𝐵 = buoyed tbg weigh𝑡[=] 𝑙𝑏𝑓 Τ𝑓𝑡 𝛥𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 = 𝛥𝑃𝑠,𝑡𝑏𝑔 +
𝐺𝑃 = gas price 2 Evaluating Potential Investments
𝑁𝑃𝑜 = 𝑂𝑃 1 − 𝑆𝑇𝑜 − 𝐴𝑉𝑇 + 𝐺𝑃 𝐺𝑂𝑅 1 − 𝑆𝑇𝑔 − 𝐴𝑉𝑇
𝐺𝑂𝑅 = gas−oil ratio Temperature Change (for steel) Tubing Ballooning Disc. Return on Investment Disc. Rate of Return Undiscounted Payout
𝑁𝑃𝑔 = 𝐺𝑃 1 − 𝑆𝑇𝑔 − 𝐴𝑉𝑇 + 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑌 1 − 𝑆𝑇𝑜 − 𝐴𝑉𝑇 𝐷𝐶𝐹 Discount rate that Time required to return
𝑁𝑃𝑔 = net gas price 𝐸 = 30 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜋 2 2 𝐷𝑅𝑂𝐼 = yields a net present initial investment using
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐴𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝛥𝑇 𝐸𝛿 = 207𝐴𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝛥𝑇 𝐹𝑏𝑎 = 0.6 𝛥𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑂𝐷𝑡𝑏𝑔 − 𝛥𝑃𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝐼𝐷𝑡𝑏𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝐶𝐹 = discounted cash flow 𝛿 = 6.9 𝑥 10−6 °𝐹 −1 4 𝑁𝑃𝑜 = net oil price 𝑆𝑇 = severance tax 𝑂𝑌 = oil yield value of zero undiscounted cash flow

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Paul Bommer and Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact [email protected] with comments/suggestions