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Unit 6: Global issues & Policies

Dr. Urvashi Sanwal
Rajdhani College
University of Delhi

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

1. Ozone is a tri atomic molecule of oxygen (O3).

2. Most of the atmospheric ozone occurs in the stratosphere .

3. The sun emits energy over a broad spectrum of wavelengths

a) visible light that we see

b) infrared radiation that you feel as heat

c) ultraviolet (UV) radiation that we can’t see or feel.

d) UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and higher energy than visible light

• Ozone layer depletion, is reduction of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere.

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• Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere. Ultra violet radiation from the sun
breaks up these CFCs.

Ozone depleting substances (ODS)are chemicals that destroy the earth’s protective ozone layer. They
include:

a) Chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFC)

b) Halons (HCFC)

c) Carbon tetra chloride (CCl4)

d) Methyl chloroform (CHCl3)

The main uses of ozone depleting substances:

1. CFCs and HCFCs in refrigerators and air conditioners,

2. HCFCs and halons in fire extinguishers,

3. CFCs and HCFCs in foam,

4. CFCs and HCFCs as aerosol propellants, and

5. methyl bromide for fumigation of soil, structures and goods to be imported or exported.

Ozone depleting potential is a measure of how much damage a chemical can cause to the ozone
layer compared with a similar mass of trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11). CFC-11, with an ozone
depleting potential of 1.0, is used as the base figure for measuring ozone depleting potential. The
higher the number, the more damage a chemical can cause to the ozone layer.
Bromotrifluoromethane (halon-1301) has an ozone depleting potential of 10.0. Carbon dioxide
(CO2), a naturally occurring greenhouse gas, has an ozone depleting potential of 0.
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GLOBAL WARMING
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Four important Factors determine the temperature of atmosphere near earth such as:

1. Received sunlight

2. Reflected sunlight

3. Retained heat in atmosphere

4. Energy released or trapped during evaporation and condensation of water vapour

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. The main gases responsible for
the greenhouse effect include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor (which all
occur naturally). Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C
(59 °F)

Effects of Global Warming

1. Regional Climate change

2. Glacial melting

3. Sea level rise

4. Sinking or submergence of islands

5. Increased environmental hazards

6. Disease dissemination
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7. Food insecurity

8. Habitat destruction

9. Effect on biodiversity

Indira Paryavaran Bhawan – First On-site Zero Net Energy Building, India

CLIMATE CHANGE
1. The term climate refers to the general weather conditions of a place over many years.

2. Climate change is a significant variation of average weather conditions—say, conditions

becoming warmer, wetter, or drier—over several decades or more.

Causes of Climate Change

1. Regional and global variation

2. General circulation of ocean water

3. Solar cycle: Changes occurring in the sun itself can affect the intensity of the sunlight that
reaches Earth’s surface. The intensity of the sunlight can cause either warming (during periods
of stronger solar intensity) or cooling (during periods of weaker solar intensity). The sun follows
a natural 11-year cycle of small ups and downs in intensity, but the effect on Earth’s climate is
small.

4. Anthropogenic change in atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG): GHG emissions are the leading
cause of the earth’s rapidly changing climate. GHG play an important role in keeping the planet
warm enough to inhabit. But the amount of these gases in our atmosphere has skyrocketed in
recent decades. Concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides have increased.
Atmosphere’s share of carbon dioxide—the planet’s chief climate change contributor—has risen
by 40 % since preindustrial times. The burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas for electricity,
heat, and transportation is the primary source of human-generated emissions. A second major
source is deforestation. Logging, clear-cutting, fires, and other forms of forest degradation
contribute up to 20 % of global carbon emissions. Other human activities that generate air
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pollution include fertilizer use (a primary source of nitrous oxide emissions), livestock
production (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats are major methane emitters), and certain industrial
processes that release fluorinated gases. Activities like agriculture and road construction can
change the reflectivity of the earth’s surface, leading to local warming or cooling, too.

5. Astronomical changes: Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit as well as the tilt and position of
Earth’s axis can also affect the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface

6. Change in Land use pattern: When sunlight reaches Earth, it can be reflected or absorbed. The
amount that is reflected or absorbed depends on Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Light-colored
objects and surfaces, like snow and clouds, tend to reflect most sunlight, while darker objects
and surfaces, like the ocean, forests, or soil, tend to absorb more sunlight. The term albedo
refers to the amount of solar radiation reflected from an object or surface, often expressed as a
percentage. Earth as a whole has an albedo of about 30%, meaning that 70% of the sunlight that
reaches the planet is absorbed. Absorbed sunlight warms Earth’s land, water, and atmosphere.
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ACID RAIN

The term acid rain was coined in 1872 by British chemist Robert Angus Smith. Acid rain describes any
form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form
of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth.

The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with the wet components
of rain, which are found in two ways either man-made i.e as the emissions are given out from industries
or by natural causes like volcanic eruptions. The oxides of nitrogen and sulphur are blown away by the
wind along with the dust particles. They settle on the earth’s surface after coming down in the form of
precipitation.

The regular clean rain, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide react together to form
weak carbonic acid which is not extremely harmful.

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)

The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature.

Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water resulting in the
formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively.
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2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)

Effects on Aquatic Ecosystem Acid rain makes lakes, streams, wetlands, and other aquatic environments
more acidic, which results in more aluminum absorption from soil, which is carried into lakes and
streams thus making water toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic animals. Without pollution or
acid rain, most lakes and streams would have a pH level near 6.5. In addition, aluminum that is released
into the soil eventually ends up in lakes and streams. Increase in acidity and aluminum levels can be
deadly to aquatic wildlife, including phytoplankton, mayflies, rainbow trout, small mouth bass, frogs,
spotted salamanders, crayfish, and other creatures that are part of the food web.

Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystem Acid rain and fog also damage forests, especially those at higher
elevations. Acid rain that seeps into the ground can dissolve nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium,
that trees need to be healthy. Acid rain also causes aluminum to be released into the soil, which makes
it difficult for trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also harmed by acids. The effects of
acid rain leave trees and plants less healthy, more vulnerable to cold temperatures, insects, and disease.
The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Trees that are located in mountainous regions
at higher elevations, such as spruce or fir trees, are at greater risk because they are exposed to acidic
clouds and fog, which contain greater amounts of acid than rain or snow. The acidic clouds and fog strip
important nutrients from their leaves and needles. This loss of nutrients makes it easier for infections,
insects, and cold weather to damage trees and forests.

Effects on monuments and buildings Acid deposits damage physical structures such as limestone
buildings, statues, monuments, and cars. The chemicals found in acid rain can cause paint to peel and
stone statues to begin to appear old and worn down, which reduces their value and beauty. Statue of
Liberty which is made of copper has also been damaged by the cumulative action of acid rain &
oxidation for over 30 years and is, therefore, becoming green. Taj Mahal, one of the 7 wonders of the
world, is largely affected by acid rain. The city of Agra has many industries which emit the oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Acid rain has the following reaction with the marble (calcium
carbonate):

CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

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The concept of sustainable development received its first major international recognition in 1972 at the
UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. The term was popularized 15 years later
in Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, which
included what is deemed the 'classic' definition of sustainable development: "development which
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meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs"

Principles of Sustainable Development:

1. Principle of Equity:
A. Inter-generational Equity:
B. Intra-generational Equity:

2. The precautionary principle

3. The ―polluter pays‖ principle
4. Principle of Public Trust Doctrine
5. Principle of Common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR)

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

1. India released National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) to mitigate and adapt to
climate change on June 30th, 2008.
2. It focuses on eight national missions, which are as follows:

1) National Solar Mission: Aims to promote the use of solar energy in India by making it
competitive with fossil fuels. It will promote activities to encourage research and
development to improve efficiency and affordability of solar power and energy storage
systems.

2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Aims to improve energy efficiency
of domestic, commercial and industrial sectors in India by creating an enabling policy
regime and encouraging innovative business models for improving energy efficiency.

3) National Mission for Sustainable Habitat: Aims at encouraging sustainable urban

planning in India with the help of policy, infrastructural and research interventions in
sectors such as buildings, waste management, water resources and transportation.
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4) National Water Mission: Aims to ensure sustainable water supply by conserving water,
minimizing waste and ensuring equitable distribution of water resources throughout
India.

5) National Mission for Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change: Aims to create a

comprehensive knowledge system that informs and supports climate change action in
India with the help of research and communication-based actions.

6) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Aims at improving sustainability,

productivity, remuneration and climate resilience of agriculture in India. These goals will
be achieved by capacity building, research, infrastructural and institutional interventions
in the Indian agricultural sector.

7) National Mission for Green India: Aims to protect, enhance and restore forests and
respond to climate change with appropriate adaptation and mitigation activities. It plans
to increase green cover and focuses on multiple ecosystem services—especially
biodiversity, water, biomass, mangroves, wetlands and critical habitats, with carbon
sequestration as a co-benefit.

8) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Aims to enhance

understanding of climate change impacts and adaptations required in the Himalaya. The
information obtained from this mission will feed into policy formulation for suitable
management practices for the Himalayan ecosystem.

Main milestone / timeline in evolution of International

Environmental law:

I. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference): It was an

international conference held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. It was the UN's first
major conference on international environmental issues, and marked a turning point in the
development of international environmental politics. Concept Sustainable development argued as
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the solution to dilemma of environment vs. development. It lead to creation of UNEP. It

contained 27 principles:
1) Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned
2) Natural resources must be safeguarded
3) The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained
4) Wildlife must be safeguarded
5) Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted
6) Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
7) Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented
8) National institutions must plan development of states' natural resources
9) Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
10) Environmental education is essential
11) Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries
12) States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others
13) Compensation is due to states thus endangered
14) Each nation must establish its own standards
15) There must be cooperation on international issues
16) International organizations should help to improve the environment
17) Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated
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II. Creation of UNEP: As a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(Stockholm Conference), the General Assembly established the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). UNEP represents the agency responsible for coordinating the UN
environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound
policies and practices. UNEP’s has had a key role in developing international environmental
conventions, promoting environmental science and information and illustrating the way those can
be implemented in conjunction with policy and its implementation with national governments,
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).UNEP has also been active in funding and
implementing environment related development projects.

III. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development - Our Common
Future: The General Assembly, in 1983, established a special commission that proposed
strategies for sustainable development, World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED) or Brundtland commission. Brundtland commission in 1987 released the document Our
Common Future or Brundtland report. Document includes meaning of sustainable development.

IV. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Earth Summit:
After 20 years of Stockholm conference, this Conference was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June
3–14, 1992), to review outcomes of principles adopted in Stockholm 1972. The Earth Summit
was the largest gathering of world leaders as of 1992, with 117 heads of state and representatives
of 178 nations in all attending. By means of treaties signed at the conference, most of the world’s
nations committed themselves to the pursuit of economic development in ways that would protect
the Earth’s environment and nonrenewable resources. The FIVE documents agreed upon at the
Earth Summit are as follows:

1) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) also called Biodiversity Treaty is a binding
treaty requiring nations to take inventories of their plants and wild animals and protect their
endangered species. India became a signatory in 1993. Three primary goals:
a. conservation of biodiversity;
b. sustainable use of the components of biodiversity; and
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c. a fair and equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from using genetic resources

Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity. CBD has two supplementary agreements - Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya
Protocol. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international treaty governing the
movements of living modified organisms (LMOs); (possesses a novel combination of genetic
material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology), resulting from modern
biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted on 2000. Ensuring an adequate
level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of 'living modified organisms
resulting from modern biotechnology' that may have adverse effects on the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and
specifically focusing on transboundary movements. The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic
Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization
provides a transparent legal framework for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of
the utilization of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan
and entered into force in 2014 Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity.

2) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), or Global

Warming Convention, is a binding treaty that requires nations to reduce their emission of carbon
dioxide, methane, and other ―greenhouse‖ gases thought to be responsible for global warming;
Binding targets for emission reductions were eventually established in an amendment to the
UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol (1997), which was superseded by the Paris Agreement on
climate change (2015).

a. The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that seeks to aim to reduce the
emission of gases that contribute to global warming by setting internationally
binding emission reduction target. The Kyoto Protocol requires developed countries to
reduce their greenhouse-gas emissions and places a heavier burden on developed nations
for two reasons. First, these nations have the economic resources to pay for a reduction in
greenhouse-gas emissions through technological advancements. Second, developed
nations have historically produced more greenhouse-gas emissions under principle of
common but differentiated responsibilities. However, the agreement was widely believed
to be ineffective because the world’s two top carbon dioxide-emitting countries, China
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and the United States, chose not to participate. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), affect the energy balance of
the global atmosphere in ways expected to lead to an overall increase in global average
temperature, known as global warming.

b. Paris Agreement, in full Paris Agreement Under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, also called Paris Climate Agreement or COP21,
international treaty, adopted in 2015, which aimed to reduce the emission of gases that
contribute to global warming. It entered into force on November 4, 2016, and has been
signed by 197 countries and approved by 185 as of January 2019. The objective was
reducing global GHG emissions so as to limit the earth's temperature increase in this
century to 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels while taking steps to limit the
increase to 1.5 degrees. The Paris Agreement also provides a way for developed nations
to assist developing nations in their efforts to adapt climate control and it creates a
framework for monitoring and reporting countries’ climate goals transparently.

3) The Declaration on Environment and Development, or Rio Declaration, laid down 27

principles for environmentally sound development. The Rio Declaration states that nations have
the right to exploit natural resources within their borders if their actions do not affect the
environment in other nations. It also calls on all national and local governments to develop and
implement plans that preserve the environment and natural resources for future generations.

4) Agenda 21 is a blue print for global strategies for sustainable development requiring cleaning up
the environment and encouraging environmentally sound development. It is a comprehensive plan
for intergovernmental agencies, national governments, local governments, and NGOs to work
together to protect the environment through sustainable development.

5) The Declaration on Forest principles and principles in forestry conservation, aimed at

preserving the world’s rapidly vanishing tropical rainforests and assess the impact of
development on their forest resources and take steps to limit the damage done to them.
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V. World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), Johannesburg Summit; Earth

Summit 2002; Rio + 10: took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, from August 26 through
September 4, 2002. It was convened to discuss sustainable development. 11 Millennium
Development Goals:
a. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
b. Achieve universal primary education
c. Achieve gender equality and empower women
d. Reduce child mortality
e. Improve maternal health
f. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria
g. Ensure environmental sustainability
h. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs
i. reverse loss of environmental resources
j. Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water
k. Develop a global partnership for sustainability

VI. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20

1. The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD)- or Rio+20 – or Earth

Summit 2012- took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 13-22 June 2012.
2. Rio+20 was the third international conference on sustainable development aimed at reconciling
the economic and environmental goals of the global community. Rio+20 was a 20-year follow-up
to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in the
same city, and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) in Johannesburg. High-level UN conference included participation from 192 UN
members, private sector companies, NGOs and other groups.
3. Rio+20 focused on two themes: a) green economy in the context of sustainable development
and poverty eradication and b) institutional framework for sustainable development. A green
economy is an economic model that is based on sustainable development.
4. The primary result of the conference was the nonbinding document, "The Future We Want," a
49-page work paper where governments in attendance renewed their political commitment to
sustainable development and declared their commitment to the promotion of a sustainable future.
Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals
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(SDGs) also known as the Global Goals, which are a collection of 17 global goals and the
associated 169 targets set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030.
5. The Sustainable Development Goals are:

1) No Poverty 10) Reducing Inequality

2) Zero Hunger 11) Sustainable Cities and Communities
3) Good Health and Well-being 12) Responsible Consumption and
4) Quality Education Production
5) Gender Equality 13) Climate Action
6) Clean Water and Sanitation 14) Life Below Water
7) Affordable and Clean Energy 15) Life On Land
8) Decent Work and Economic Growth 16) Peace, Justice, and Strong
9) Industry, Innovation, and Institutions
Infrastructure 17) Partnerships for the Goals

6. The Nations participating in RIO 20 summit, agreed on following things.

1) We urge Parties to the UNFCCC and Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to fully implement their
commitments.
2) We reaffirm the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. (similar in Kyoto)
3) We’ll explore alternatives to GDP as a measure of wealth that take environmental and social
factors into account.
4) We’ll phase out fossil fuel subsidies.
5) We agree that Eradicating poverty is the greatest global challenge facing the world today and it is
essential for sustainable development.
6) We reaffirm our commitment to fully implement following conventions/protocols (and or take
follow up action on them)
I. Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with
regards to sustainable development. It is a product of the Earth Summit held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
II. Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
III. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
IV. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
V. Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
VI. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
VII. Convention on Biological Diversity
VIII. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources
IX. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora)
X. Basel Convention, the Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm Convention. (Related to
Chemical and Waste disposal)
XI. United Nations Convention against Corruption.

7) E-governance
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 Information and communication technology (ICT) is important for the flow of information
between governments and the public. So we’ll work toward improved access to ICT, especially
broad-band network and services, and bridge the digital divide.
 We’ll strengthen UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and give it more voluntary fund (money).
 We encourage each country to consider the implementation of green economy policies
 We decide to establish a universal intergovernmental high level political forum: This forum will
provide political leadership, guidance, and recommendations for sustainable development.

8) Transport
 We’ll improve Public Mass transport system (bus, railway) with clean fuels and vehicles for
efficient movement of people and goods, particularly from in rural areas. Because
environmentally sound, safe and affordable transportation is important for sustainable
Development.
 In cities, we’ll try for affordable housing, clean drinking water and sanitation; healthy air
quality; generation of decent jobs; and improved urban planning and slum upgrading.

9) Healthcare
 We’ll try to provide universal health coverage.
 We’ll strengthen our fight against communicable diseases like AIDS, malaria,
tuberculosis, influenza, polio and other
 We’ll strengthen our national policies for the prevention and control of non-communicable
diseases (NCDs) like cancers, heart attack, high BP and diabetes.
 We recognize that reducing water and chemical pollution leads to positive effects on
health.
 We commit to reduce maternal and child mortality, and to improve the health of women,
men, youth and children
 We’ll encourage family planning because it is essential for women’s health and advancing
gender equality.

10) Jobs
 We recognize the importance of job creation
 We call on countries to enhance infrastructure investment
 we support national efforts to provide new job opportunities to the poor in both rural and urban
areas
 workers should have access to education, skills, healthcare, social security, fundamental
rights, occupational safety and health.
 We’ll promote and protect the human rights and fundamental freedom of all migrants regardless
of the migration status

11) Oceans
 We therefore commit to protect, and restore, the health, productivity of oceans and marine
ecosystems.
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 We are committed to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), provides the
legal framework for the conservation and the sustainable use of the oceans.
 We recognize the importance of the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity
beyond areas of national jurisdiction.
 We’ll take initiatives to fix ocean acidification and the impacts of climate change on marine
and coastal ecosystems.
 We’ll take action against illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities.
 Health of oceans and marine biodiversity are negatively affected by marine pollution,
including marine debris like plastic, organic pollutants, heavy metals, and nitrogen-based
compounds, from a number of marine and land-based sources, including shipping and land
runoff.
 We commit to take action to reduce the incidence and impacts of such pollution on marine
ecosystems.
 We note that sea level rise and coastal erosion are serious threats for many coastal regions
and islands particularly in developing countries and, in this regard, we call on the international
cooperation.
 We’ll help small island developing States (SIDS) in fixing coastal erosion under Barbados
Programme of Action and Mauritius Strategy for Implementation.
 We’ll help Least developed countries (L.D.C) in mass transport and energy infrastructure.
 We’ll establish early warning systems as part of effective disaster risk to reduce economic and
social damages
 We’ll launch the Green Climate Fund. It’ll help technology development and transfer and
capacity-building in developing countries

12) Wildlife
 We’ll encourage investment in sustainable tourism, eco -tourism and cultural tourism,
 We’ll fight illicit trafficking in wildlife (under CITES)
 We’ll fight Desertification, land degradation and drought.
 Mountain ecosystems play a crucial role in providing water resources to a large portion of the
world’s population. But Mountain Ecosystem is in threat due to climate change, deforestation
and forest degradation, land use change, land degradation, and natural disasters; and mountain
glaciers around the world are retreating and getting thinner.

13) Chemical waste

 We’ll make national polices on sound management of chemicals and waste- such as electronic
waste and plastics
 We are committed to chemicals and waste conventions, namely the Basel Convention, the
Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm Convention,
 We reduce, reuse and recycle waste (3Rs) the electronic waste and plastics
 We’ll phase-out of ozone depleting substances (ODS) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

14) Mining
 minerals and metals make a major contribution to the world economy and modern societies.
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 governments need strong capacities to develop, manage, and regulate their mining industries in
the interest of sustainable development.
 We’ll prevent the illicit financial flows from mining activities.

15) Agriculture
 We’ll enhance agricultural research, training and education to improve agricultural productivity
 We’ll take microcredit initiatives for the poor.
 We underline the need to address floods, droughts, and water scarcity.

16) Women
 Women have a vital role to play in achieving sustainable development. we resolve to promote
gender equality and women’s empowerment and to ensure their full and effective participation
in sustainable development policies, programmes and decision-making at all levels
 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
 Commit to creating an enabling environment for improving the situation of women and girls
everywhere, particularly in rural areas and ethnic minorities.
17) We invite donors, international organizations like the UN to support gender equality and
women’s empowerment projects in developing countries
18) We’ll promote Sustainable Development awareness among youth, for non-formal education.

19) SDGs

20) Corruption
 We’ll fight corruption and illicit financial flows at both the national and international levels
because it vital for poverty eradication, the fight against hunger and sustainable development.
 We’ll fully implement the United Nations Convention against Corruption.

21) International Trade

 We urge the Members of the WTO to conclude the Doha Development Agenda.
 We also urge them to addressing important issues affecting international trade, such as, trade
distorting subsidies and trade in environmental goods and services. (JUST LIKE India
WANTED)

VII. Paris agreement (discussed before)

VIII. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals 2030 (discussed before)

IX. The United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on
June 5th-9th 2017 for conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.
New York UN headquarters.
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The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985

It provided frameworks for international reductions in the production of chlorofluorocarbons due to their
contribution to the destruction of the ozone layer, resulting in an increased threat of skin cancer. The
objectives of the Convention were for Parties to promote cooperation by means of systematic
observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human activities on the ozone layer and
to adopt legislative or administrative measures against activities likely to have adverse effects on the
ozone layer. The meeting called for international cooperation in research involving ozone-depleting
chemicals (ODCs) and empowered the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to lay the
groundwork for the Montreal Protocol.The countries of the world agreed the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer under the Convention to advance that goal.

Montreal Protocol, formally Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone
Layer,

a) international treaty, adopted in Montreal on Sept. 16, 1987, that aimed to to protect the earth’s
ozone layer by eliminating use of ozone depleting substances (ODS), which would otherwise
allow increased UV radiation to reach the earth, resulting in higher incidence of skin cancers and
eye cataracts, more-compromised immune systems, and negative effects on watersheds,
agricultural lands and forests.
b) The transition from CFCs (high ozone depleting potential or ODP) to intermediate HCFCs (with
lower ODP) has been completed, and the final transition is to alternatives that have zero ODP.
The challenge is to develop/select alternatives (mainly in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and foam
products) that are also climate-friendly.
c) Reduce and completely phase out CFCs and halons, as well as the manufacture and use of carbon
tetrachloride, trichloroethane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), methyl bromide, and other ODCs.
d) India became Party to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on 18th March, 1991 and
19thJune 1992 respectively. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEF&CC) has set up an Ozone Cell as a National Ozone Unit (NOU) to render necessary
services for effective and timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its ODS phase-out
program in India.
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Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

India is a signatory and party to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). It is a disarmament treaty
which prohibits the development, production, stock-piling and use of chemical weapons and monitors its
elimination in order to secure chemical weapons free world. 1997.

Convention on Wetlands

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International is an international treaty for the conservation and
sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after the city of
Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971. Wetlands are among the most diverse and
productive ecosystems. They provide essential services and supply all our fresh water. However they
continue to be degraded and converted to other uses. The Convention uses a broad definition of
wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers, underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet
grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas,
coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs. Under the ―three
pillars‖ of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:

a) work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;

b) designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance (the ―Ramsar
List‖) and ensure their effective management;
c) cooperate internationally on trans boundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.

There are currently over 2,300 Ramsar Sites around the world. They cover over 2.1 million square
kilometres, an area larger than Mexico. The Ramsar Convention's broad aims are to halt the worldwide
loss of wetlands and to conserve, through wise use and management, those that remain. This requires
international cooperation, policy making, capacity building and technology transfer. The Ramsar
Convention encourages designation of sites containing representative, rare or unique wetlands, or
wetlands that are important for conserving biological diversity and once designated, such sites are
known as Ramsar sites. Wetlands can be included on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
because of their ecological, botanical, zoological or hydrological importance. India currently has 41
sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites):
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The List of Wetlands of International Importance Published 11 December 2020

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and

Flora)

International agreement adopted in March 1973 to regulate worldwide commercial trade in wild
animal and plant species. The goal is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of
any species. In addition to plants and animals and their parts, the agreement also restricts trade in items
 25

made from such plants and animals, such as clothing, food, medicine, and souvenirs. By 2019 more than
5,800 animal and 30,000 plant species had been classified. CITES classifies plants and animals according
to three categories, or appendices, based on how threatened they are.

a) Appendix I lists endangered species that are at risk of extinction. It also prohibits outright the
commercial trade of these plants and animals; however, some may be transported internationally
in extraordinary situations for scientific or educational reasons.
b) Appendix II species that are not threatened with extinction but that might suffer a serious decline
in number if trade is not restricted; their trade is regulated by permit.
c) Appendix III species are protected in at least one country that is a CITES member and that has
petitioned others for help in controlling international trade in that species.

Indian Constitution and Environment

Article 48 A: The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the
forests and wild life of the country.

Article 51 A: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India, to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures.

1. THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

2. THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

3. THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

4. THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972

5. THE FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

6. THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF

FOREST RIGHTS) ACT, 2006
 26

THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Screening

Scoping

Impact Analysis

Mitigation

Reporting

Review of EIA

Decision making

Post monitoring
27
28
 29

1. Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exists among and
between them and human beings, all other living organisms and property.

2. Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in
such concentration, as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment.

3. Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-chemical

properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living organisms, property
or environment.

The most important functions of Central Govt. under this Act include setting up of:

1. The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.

2. The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including

noise) for different areas.

3. The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.

4. The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas.

5. The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and
operations in different areas.
 30

6. The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause environmental
pollution and providing for remedial measures for such accidents.

The State Pollution Control Boards have to follow the guidelines :

1. They have to advise the Industries for treating the waste water and gases with the best available
technology to achieve the prescribed standards.

2. The industries have to be encouraged for recycling and reusing the wastes.

3. They have to encourage the industries for recovery of biogas, energy and reusable materials.

4. While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment, the State
Boards have to take into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.

5. The Central and State Boards have to emphasize on the implementation of clean technologies
by the industries in order to increase fuel efficiency and reduce the generation of environmental
pollutants.

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

• It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and
controlling its pollution.

• It provides establishment of central and state boards for prevention and control of water
pollution.

• Water Pollution is defined as such contamination of water, or changes of physical, chemical or

biological properties of water, or discharge which causes a nuisance or makes water harmful or
injurious to public health and safety or harmful for any other use or to aquatic plants and other
organisms or animal life.

The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows:

1. It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground water.

2. It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
 31

3. It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution.

4. The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State Pollution
Control Boards.

5. The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same.

The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have the following duties and
powers:

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

1. It advises the central govt. in matters related to prevention and control of water pollution.

2. Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical
assistance and guidance.

3. Organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution.

4. Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through mass media.

5. Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to pollution.

6. Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.

7. Lays down standards for water quality parameters.

8. Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.

9. Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluent sample.

The State Pollution Control Boards also have similar functions to be executed at state level and are
governed by the directions of CPCB.

1. The Board advises the state govt. with respect to the location of any industry that might pollute
a stream or a well.

2. It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream, well or
trade effluent or sewage passing through an industry.
 32

3. The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the
procedure laid down in the Act. The sample taken in the presence of the occupier or his agent is
divided into two parts, sealed, signed by both parties and sent for analysis to some recognized
lab. If the samples do not conform to the prescribed water quality standards (crossing maximum
permissible limits), then .consent. is refused to the unit.

4. Every industry has to obtain consent from the Board (granted for a fixed duration) by applying
on a prescribed Proforma providing all technical details, along with a prescribed fee following
which analysis of the effluent is carried out.

5. The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents.

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

Salient features of the act are as follows:

1. The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

2. In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
harmful to human beings or any other living creatures or plants or property or environment.

3. Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in 1987.

4. Pollution control boards at the central or state level have the regulatory authority to implement
the Air Act. Just parallel to the functions related to Water Act, the boards performs similar
functions related to improvement of air quality.

5. Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and
function of Pollution Control Boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.

6. The state government may declare an area within the state as “air pollution control area” and
can prohibit the use of any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No
person shall, without prior consent of State Board establish any industrial unit in the air
pollution control area.
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7.

8.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF BOARDS:

DRAWBACKS OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS

1. The power and authority has been given to central government with little delegation of power
to state government. Excessive centralization very often hinders efficient execution of the
provisions of the Acts in the states. Illegal mining is taking place in many forest areas. In
Rajasthan alone, about 14000 cases of illegal mining have been reported. It becomes more
difficult to check such activities at the central level.

2. The provision of penalties in the Act is very insignificant as compared to the damage caused by
the big industries due to pollution. The penalty is much less than the cost of the treatment/
pollution control equipments. This always gives a loose rope to the industries.

3. The Act has not included the “right to information” for the citizens. This greatly restricts the
involvement or participation of the general public.

4. A person cannot directly file a petition in the court on a question of environment and has to give
a notice of minimum 60 days to the central government. In case no action is taken by the latter,
then alone the person can file a petition which certainly delays the remedial action.

5. Litigation, particularly related to environment is very expensive, tedious and difficult since it
involves expert testimony, technical knowledge of the issues and terminologies, technical
understanding of the unit process, lengthy prosecutions etc.

6. The State Boards very often lack adequate funds and expertise to pursue their objectives.

7. A tendency of out of the court settlements usually hinder the implementation of legal measures.

8. For small units it is very expensive to install Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) or Air pollution
control devices and sometimes they have no other option but to close the unit. The Act should
 34

make some provision for providing subsidies for installing treatment plants or common effluent
treatment plants for several small units.

9. The pollution control laws are not backed by sound policy pronouncements or guiding
principles.

10. The policy statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1992) of involving public in
decision-making and facilitating public monitoring of environmental issues has mostly remained
on paper.

THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972

1. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their powers, duties
etc.

2. Listing of endangered wild life species was done for the first time and prohibition of hunting of
the endangered species was mentioned.

3. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Slipper Orchid,
Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.

4. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.

5. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.

6. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.

7. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.

8. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.

9. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species.

Several Conservation Projects for endangered species like lion (1972) Tiger (1973), Crocodile (1974) and
Brown antlered Deer (1981) were started under this Act. The Act is adopted by all states in India except J
& K, which has it own Act.
 35

1. Mild penalty to offenders, illegal wild life trade in J & K, personal ownership certificate for
animal articles like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered wildlife, pitiable
condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant genetic resources.

THE FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. Except J & K, the act is adopted all
over India. The Act covers under it all types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests or
any forested land irrespective of its ownership.

The salient features of the Act are as follows:

1. The State Govt. has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry
purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of central
Government, after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non-
forest purposes (e.g mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by
economically important trees (reforestation).

2. It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests.

3. Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this Act.

Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of plants/crops or any
other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for wildlife or
forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water-holes, trench,
pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.)

1992 Amendment in the Forest Act

1. Made provisions for allowing some non-forest activities in forests, without cutting trees or
limited cutting with prior approval of Central Govt. These activities are setting of transmission
lines, seismic surveys, exploration, drilling and hydroelectric projects. The last activity involves
large scale destruction of forest, for which prior approval of the Centre is necessary.

2. Wildlife sanctuaries, National Parks etc. are totally prohibited for any exploration or survey
under this Act without prior approval of Central Govt. even if no tree-felling is involved.
 36

3. Cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber and plants which are cash-crops, are included under
non-forestry activity and not allowed in reserve forests.

4. Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of medicinal value in forest
area need to be first approved by the Central Govt. because newly introduced species in the
forest area may cause an imbalance in the ecology of the forest. If the species to be planted is a
native species, then no prior clearance is required.

5. Mining is a non-forestry activity and prior approval of Central Govt. is mandatory.

6. Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc from river-beds located within the forest area fall under
non-forest activity.

7. Any proposal sent to central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis and
Environmental Impact statement (EIS) of the proposed activity wrt to its ecological & socio-
economic impacts.

The Act has failed to attract public support because it has infringed upon the human rights of the
poor native people. They argue that the law is concerned about protecting the trees, birds and
animals, but is treating the poor people as marginal. Very poor community participation in the Act
remains one of the major drawbacks which affects proper execution of the Act. The forest-
dwelling tribal communities have a rich knowledge about the forest resources, their importance and
conservation. But, their role and contribution is neither acknowledged nor honoured.

THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS

(RECOGNITION OF FOREST RIGHTS) ACT, 2006
1. Constitutional rights

2. Legal rights