UNIT 4

Current Environmental Issues of Importance

GLOBAL WARMING AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Definition Steady increase in the Earth's average lower atmosphere (near surface) temperature due
to heat retention caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases (including water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs) is termed as the greenhouse
effect.

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the sun are absorbed by the
greenhouse gases and not reflected back into space. This insulates the surface of the
earth and prevents it from freezing.”

Mechanism

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form UV, visible, and near IR radiation, most of
which passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed. Of the total amount of energy
available at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), about 50% is absorbed at the Earth's surface. Because
it is warm, the surface radiates far IR thermal radiation that consists of wavelengths that are
predominantly much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed (the overlap between the
incident solar spectrum and the terrestrial thermal spectrum is small enough to be neglected for
most purposes). Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and re-radiated both
upwards and downwards; that radiated downwards is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This trapping
of long-wavelength thermal radiation leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the
atmosphere were absent.

Greenhouse gases

“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse effect.
For eg., carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.” By their percentage contribution to the
greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are as follows:
water vapour, 36–70%, carbon dioxide, 9–26%, methane, 4–9%, ozone, 3–7%

The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc. The
increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape from the earth and increase the
surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.
Causes of enhanced Greenhouse Effect- The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to produce
electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the
utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a
considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

Industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere. Landfills also
release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases.

Environmental effects of enhanced Greenhouse Effect

1. Global Warming- The gradual increase in temperature due to the greenhouse effect caused
by pollutants, CFCs and carbon dioxide is called global warming. This phenomenon has
disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth.
 2. More extreme weather, causing hotter and drier summers and colder winters
3. Melting of polar ice and oceanic expansion. This results in flooding of coastal areas,
swamps, wetlands and river deltas.
4. Increase in number and severity of tropical storms and cyclones
- Flooding and erosion of agricultural plots. This damage crops and soils and decreases
harvest.
5. Major shifts in ecosystems and decreasing biodiversity
6. Evaporation of water supplies, causing drinking water scarcity.
7. Saltwater penetration of groundwater zones.
8. More contagious diseases because the environment is more positive for pathogens and some
dangerous insects, such as the malaria mosquito.

The following is a list of steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:

1. Apply 4’R’Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

2. Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning
3. Replace Your Light Bulbs
4. Drive Less and Drive Smart
5. Buy Energy-Efficient Products
6. Use Less Hot Water
7. Use the "Off" Switch
8. Plant Trees- Afforestation
ACID RAIN
The term ‘Acid Rain’ was first used by Robert A. Smith in 1872 from his studies of air in
Manchester, England. Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic,
i.e., elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH).

In the atmosphere, sulfuric and nitric acids are generated when SO2 and NOx, respectively, react
with water. The simplest reactions are:

SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 ←→ H+ + HSO4 ←→ 2H+ + SO42

NO2 + H2O → HNO3 ←→ H+ + NO3

Causes of Acid Rain

Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release
of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are
discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present
there to form sulphuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large
areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of
precipitation.

Adverse Effects

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect
and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

1. Surface waters and aquatic animals. Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in
surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals.
At pH lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish.

2. Soil. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of
these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid.

3. Forests and other vegetation. The acid takes important minerals away from the leaves and the
soil. Without these minerals, trees and plants cannot grow properly. Damaged trees lose their
leaves, have stunted growth and damaged bark. This makes it easier for fungi and insects to attack
the tree, and as a result the tree may die.

4. Human health effects. Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater
is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do
contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.

5. Other adverse effects on Monuments. Acid rain can also damage buildings and historic
monuments and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble that contain
large amounts of calcium carbonate.
 CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) <==> CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (1)

Famous buildings like the Statue of Liberty in New York, the Taj Mahal in India and St. Paul’s
Cathedral in London have all been damaged by this sort of air pollution.

Acid rain can also damage stained glass windows in churches, railway lines and steel bridges. The
acid rain slowly eats away them all. Building materials crumble away, metals are corroded.

Control of Acid Rain

1. Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution
control equipment’s such as scrubbers in the smokestacks of factories. These spray a mixture of
water and limestone into the polluting gases, recapturing the sulphur.

2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.

3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes for
drinking water.

4. In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over metal coated beads that convert harmful
chemicals into less harmful ones.
OZONE DEPLETION
Scientific evidence indicates that stratospheric ozone is being destroyed by a group of manufactured
chemicals, containing chlorine and/or bromine. These chemicals are called "ozone-depleting
substances" (ODS). ODS are very stable, nontoxic and environmentally safe in the lower
atmosphere. However, their very stability allows them to float up, intact, to the stratosphere. Once
there, they are broken apart by the intense ultraviolet light, releasing chlorine and bromine. Chlorine
and bromine demolish ozone at an alarming rate, by stripping an atom from the ozone molecule. A
single molecule of chlorine can break apart thousands of molecules of ozone.

The main ODS are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs), carbon

tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. Halons (brominated fluorocarbons) also play a large role.
Their application is quite limited: they're used in specialized fire extinguishers. But the problem
with halons is they can destroy up to 10 times as much ozone as CFCs can.

O2---(hv)-------> O+ O
O + O2 -------->O3
O3 ----(hv)----> O + O2

The O atom then typically joins with an O2 molecule to reform O3. The O3 goes on to dissociate
and reform many times, usually until it collides with a free O atom, forming two relatively stable
O2 molecules.

O3 + O --------> 2O2 (conversion to relatively stable O2)

That is, O3 formation and destruction are normally in a steady state in the stratosphere.

ODS release the chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere. The reactions are as follows-

(1) CCl3F ----hv------> CCl2F + Cl

(cfc11)

This chlorine is highly reactive:

(2) Cl + O3 ---------> ClO + O2 (ClO is chlorine monoxide)

Basically, the chlorine steals ozone's third O atom, hastening the conversion of O3 into the
relatively stable O2 molecule. (Incidentally, F is not effective in this process; it is released, but is
not effective at scavenging O3.)

The chlorine, importantly, acts catalytically -- that is it is unchanged in the process:

(3) ClO + O --------> Cl + O2

The net effect of the reactions above is:

 O + O3 ---> O2 +O2 (That is, one ozone is consumed directly, and the reactions take up an
O atom, which might otherwise have formed another O3 molecule.)

Each chlorine atom can destroy as many as 100,000 O3 molecules before it is inactivated or
eventually returned to the troposphere, where precipitation and other processes remove it from the
atmosphere, usually as HCl.

THE ANTARCTIC OZONE "HOLE"

The British Antarctic Survey announced the discovery of a massive "hole" in the ozone over
Antarctica. The British had been monitoring stratospheric O3 over Antarctica for decades, used
ground-based detectors. They had first noticed a puzzling seasonal drop in O3 levels each spring
since 1977. The team reported that each October (Antarctic spring), O3 levels dropped by as much
as 40% below 1960's baseline levels before recovering by November. The conditions of the
Antarctic winter and spring are conducive to O3 destruction:

1) NO2 and CH4 are frozen.

2) Thus they can't tie up Cl.
3) Reactions that free Cl from relatively stable reservoirs (HCl or ClONO2) take place faster
on surfaces, as provided by PSC's, than they do in a gaseous environment
4) With the first sun, atomic Cl is freed (Cl2 and HOCl photodissociate)
5) But, NO2 is still frozen
6) Thus, Cl attacks O3 unimpeded as long as sunlight and frozen conditions co-occur.
POPULATION GROWTH
A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area is called a population. The
measurement of the size of a population change over time is called the population growth rate,
and it depends upon the population size, birth rate, and death rate. As long as there are enough
resources available, there will be an increase in the number of individuals in a population over time,
or a positive growth rate. However, most populations cannot continue to grow forever because they
will eventually run out of water, food, sunlight, space, or other resources. As these resources begin
to run out, the population growth will start to slow down. When the growth rate of a population
decreases as the number of individuals increases, this is called logistic population growth.

Graph

If we look at a graph of a population undergoing logistic population growth, it will have a

characteristic S-shaped curve. The population grows in size slowly when there are only a few
individuals. Then the population grows faster when there are more individuals. Finally, having lots
of individuals in the population causes growth to slow because resources are limited. In logistic
growth, a population will continue to grow until it reaches carrying capacity, which is the
maximum number of individuals the environment can support.

Population growth rate

The "population growth rate" is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population
increases in a given time period as a fraction of the initial population. Specifically, population
growth rate refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a
percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period.

A positive growth ratio (or rate) indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth
ratio indicates the population is decreasing. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the
same number of people at the two times—a growth rate may be zero even when there are significant
changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age distribution between the two
times.

Summary

Exponential phase:

1. Rapid increase in population growth.

2. Natality rate exceeds mortality rate.
3. Abundant resources available. (food, water, shelter)
4. Diseases and predators are rare.

Traditional phase:

 Natality rate starts to fall and/or mortality rate starts to rise.

 There is a decrease in the number of resources.
 An increase in the number of predators and diseases.
 Population still increasing but at a slower rate.

Plateau phase:

o No more population growth, population size is constant.

o Natality rate is equal to mortality rate.
o The population has reached the carrying capacity of the environment.
o The limited resources and the common predators and diseases keep the population numbers
constant.

Factors that set limits to population increase.

1- Shortage of resources (e.g. food)

2- Increase in predators
3- Increase in diseases and parasites.
AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION- The Environmental Impacts
of Transportation
From one side, transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for passengers and
freight, while on the other, transport activities are associated with growing levels of environmental
externalities. This has reached a point where transportation is a dominant source of emission of
most pollutants and their multiple impacts on the environment. These impacts fall are as follows: -

1. Climate change. The activities of the transport industry release several million tons of gases
each year into the atmosphere. These include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2; not a pollutant), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide
(N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon tetraflouride (SF6),
benzene and volatile components (BTX), heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper and cadmium)
and particulate matters (ash, dust).

2. Air quality. Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft are the sources of
pollution in the form of gas and particulate matters emissions that affects air quality causing
damage to human health. Toxic air pollutants are associated with cancer, cardiovascular,
respiratory and neurological diseases.

3. Noise. Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds. It is traumatizing
for the hearing organ and that may affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing
character. Long term exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and
affects human physical and psychological wellbeing.

4. Water quality. Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel,

chemical and other hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks and trains or
from port and airport terminal operations, such as de-icing, can contaminate rivers, lakes,
wetlands and oceans.

5. Soil quality. The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and
soil contamination. Soil contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the
transport industry.

6. Biodiversity. Transportation also influences natural vegetation. The need for construction
materials and the development of land-based transportation has led to deforestation. Many
transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and driving-out
water plant species.

7. Land take. Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. The
development of port and airport infrastructure is significant features of the urban and peri-
urban built environment.
BURNING OF PADDY STRAW- Stubble (parali) burning
Stubble (parali) burning is a method of removing paddy crop residues from the field to sow wheat
from the last week of September to November. Stubble burning is a process of setting on fire the
straw stubble, left after the harvesting of grains, like paddy, wheat, etc. It is usually required in
areas that use the combined harvesting method which leaves crop residue behind.

The process of burning farm residue is one of the major causes of air pollution in parts of north
India, deteriorating the air quality.

Along with vehicular emissions, it affects the Air Quality Index (AQI) in the national capital and
NCR. Stubble burning by farmers in Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and Punjab in north India is
considered a major cause of air pollution in Delhi and its adjoining regions.

Paddy stubble burning is practised mainly in the Indo-Gangetic plains of Punjab, Haryana, and UP
to clear the fields for rabi crop sowing. The paddy crop is harvested between the first and last weeks
of October in Punjab and Haryana. Then, farmers sow the wheat crop from the first week of
November until the middle of December.

The major reason behind the stubble burning is the short time available between rice harvesting and
sowing of wheat as delay in sowing wheat affects the wheat crop. Between the harvesting of the
paddy crop and the sowing of the next crop, there is only a two to three weeks’ time window is left.

The rice stubble burning is highest in the state of Punjab followed by Haryana, whereas Uttar
Pradesh ranks higher in wheat stubble burning.

Crop residue burning is practised by the farmers to prepare the land for the next cultivation.
Through this method, the remains of crops like straw which remains in the field as residue after
harvesting is burned. Therefore, stubble burning is considered one of the cheapest methods to clean
the field after the harvesting season.

Impact-

Pollution: Stubble burning emits toxic pollutants in the atmosphere containing harmful gases like
Carbon Monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile
organic compounds (VOC). These pollutants disperse in the surroundings and eventually affect air
quality and people's health by forming a thick blanket of smog.

Soil fertility: Soil becomes less fertile and its nutrients are destroyed when the husk is burned on the
ground

Heat penetration: Stubble burning generates heat that penetrates into the soil, causing an increase in
erosion, loss of useful microbes and moisture.