DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

A TERM PAPER BY GROUP ONE

ON

PRACTICAL STEAM GENERATION: SOLID-FIRED

BOILERS
(ChE516.2)

MEMBERS:
U2017/3030001
U2017/3030002
U2017/3030003
U2017/3030004
U2017/3030005
U2017/3030006

SEPTEMBER, 2023
 ABSTRACT
Steam generation through solid fuel boilers involves the combustion of solid fuels
such as coal, wood, or biomass to produce high-temperature heat. This heat is used to
convert water into steam, which can then be utilized for various industrial processes or
electricity generation. Solid fuel boilers have been a traditional and reliable method for
steam generation, but advancement in technology have led to more efficient and
environmentally friendly designs. These boilers play a vital role in industries like
power generation, manufacturing, and heating, with a focus on optimizing combustion
efficiency and reducing emissions to meet modern environmental standards.

1
 INTRODUCTION

Steam generation is the process of converting water into steam. This is typically done
by heating water to its boiling point, at which point it turns into steam. Steam is a very
useful form of energy, as it can be used to generate electricity, run machinery, and heat
buildings. The most common method of steam generation is through the use of boilers,
which heat water using either coal, natural gas, or other fuels.

Steam Generator

The name “steam generator” is also still called “boiler,” but modern steam generators
in the supercritical class do not involve the “boiling” phenomenon. A steam generator
or a boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by
burning of fuel in presence of air at desired temperature, pressure and at desired mass
flow rate.

The steam produced may be supplied at low pressure for industrial process work in
cotton mills, sugar industries etc. and for producing hot water which can be used for
heating installations at much low pressure. Logically a steam boiler should have a
minimum capacity of containing 10 liters of water and its minimum working pressure
should be 3.4 Kgf/cm2.

Steam

2
Steam is the gas formed when water passes from the liquid to the gaseous state. At the
molecular level, this is when H2O molecules manage to break free from the bonds (i.e
hydrogen bonds) keeping them together. In liquid water, H2O molecules are constantly
being joined together and separated. As the water molecules are heated, however, the
bonds connecting the molecules start breaking more rapidly than they can form.
Eventually, when enough heat is supplied, some molecules will break free. These 'free'
molecules form the transparent gas we know as steam, or more specifically dry steam.
Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common applications for steam are, for
example, steam heated processes in plants and factories and steam driven turbines in
electric power plants, but the uses of steam in industry extend far beyond this.

The steam generated is employed for the following purposes

 Used in steam turbines to develop electrical energy

 Used to run steam engines
 In the textile industries, sugar mills or in chemical industries as a cogeneration
plant
 Heating the buildings in cold weather
 Producing hot water for hot water supply

The primary function of a steam generator is to generate steam under pressure, but
modern steam generators are also required to do the following:

i. Ensure generation of exceptionally high-purity steam by eliminating all

impurities from saturated steam.
ii. Raise the degree of superheat of supplied steam as specified and maintain the
same temperature over a defined range of load.

3
 iii. In large power stations after partial expansion in the turbine steam is returned
to the steam generator for further superheating and then transmitted to the
turbine for complete expansion. This new degree of superheat is called “reheat”
and should also be maintained constant over a defined range of load.
iv. While executing the above duties, a steam generator must utilize the heat of
combustion of fuel as efficiently as possible

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM BOILERS

The different ways to classify the boilers are as follows:

1. According to location of boiler shell axis.

2. According to the flow medium inside the tubes.
3. According to Boiler Pressure.
4. According to Boiler Mobility.
5. According to the draft used.
6. According to method of water circulation.
7. According to Furnace position.
8. According to number of Tubes.
9. According to type of fuel used.

SOLID FIRED STEAM BOILERS

Solid fired steam boilers are a type of steam generation system that use solid fuel, such
as coal, wood, or biomass, to produce steam. These boilers have been widely used in
industries that require high temperature steam for various processes, including power
generation, chemical processing, food processing, textile manufacturing.

In a solid fired steam boiler, the solid fuel is burned to generate heat which is used to
convert water into steam. This steam can then be used for various industrial
applications such as heating, power generation and industrial processes.

4
Solid fired steam boilers operate by combining solid fuels in a combustion chamber,
which then transfers heat to water through a series of tubes. As the water absorbs the
heat, it turns into steam, which can be utilized for various industrial processes or to
generate electricity using a steam turbine.

One of the key advantages of solid fired steam boilers is their ability to burn a variety
of solid fuels, making them Flexible and adaptable to different fuel sources. This
allows industries to choose the most cost effective and readily available fuel option
based on their specific requirement.

Solid fired steam boilers also offer high efficiency and reliability. With advancement
in boiler technology, these systems can achieve high combustion efficiency, ensuring
maximum use of the fuel and minimizing Waste. Additionally, well designed boilers
are built to withstand high pressures and temperature providing reliable and
continuous steam supply.

Moreover, solid fired steam boilers have low emissions and can be equipped with
various control devices to further reduce environmental impact. Technologies like
electrostatic precipitators and flue gas desulfurization systems can be integrated into
these boilers to capture particulate matter and remove harmful gases.

Fig 1.0 A solid fired steam boiler

5
 TYPES OF SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS

1. COAL FIRED BOILERS:

Coal fired boiler is a type of boiler that uses coal as fuel to heat water and provide
heat (steam) for industrial production and processes. Coal combustion greatly
depends on its chemical composition. The properties of coal combustion can be
classified as physical properties and chemical properties. The major factor that
contributes to releasing heat in steam boilers is the oxidation reaction that converts
the element of coal into their respective oxides. Therefore, Coal combustion
involves the evolution of volatile matter and bringing about physical and chemical
changes as a result of heating.

Classification of Coal:

There are a number of distinct types of coal, each with different physical properties.
These properties affect the suitability of the coal for power generation and they
include;

i. Anthracite coal: This coal contains the highest percentage of carbon (up to 92%)
and very little volatile matter or moisture. When burnt, it produces little ash and a
relatively low level of pollution, its energy density is generally higher than other
coals. Anthracite is typically slow in burning and often difficult to fire in a power
station boiler unless it is mixed with another fuel, although its energy content
makes it attractive as a power plant fuel the difficulty with firing it and its cost
does not, and it has traditionally been used for heating rather than industrial use.
ii. Bituminous coal: this is the most abundant of the coals, these coals contain
significant amounts of volatile matter. When they are heated, they form a sticky
6
 mass, from which their name is derived. Bituminous coals normally contain
between 76% and 86% carbon (dry content). Moisture content when mined is
between 8% and 18%. They burn easily, especially when ground or pulverized.
This makes them ideal fuels. Bituminous coals are further characterized,
depending on the amount of volatile matter they contain, as high, medium or low
volatile bituminous coals. Some bituminous coals contain high levels of Sulphur
which can be a handicap for power generation purposes.
iii. Sub-Bituminous Coals or Soft Coals: this type of coal is black or black-brown,
they contain between 70% and 76% carbon (dry content) and 18%-38% water as
mined, even though they appear dry. They burn well, making them suitable power
plant fuels, and sulphur content is low.
iv. Lignite coal: this type of coal is a widely used fuel, they are brown rather than
black and have a carbon content of 65%-70% (dry content). Moisture content is
53%-63% when taken from the ground. Lignite are formed from plants which
were rich in resins and contain a significant amount of volatile material. The
amount of water in mined lignite, and its consequent low carbon content, makes
the fuel uneconomic to transport over any great distance. Lignite-fired power
stations are usually found adjacent to the source of fuel. The fuel must also be
dried before use.

Advantages of Coal Fired Boilers:

i. Abundant supply of coal.

ii. Easy to operate, maintain and clean.
iii. The source of heat generated by coal fired boilers is large enough for industries.
iv. Simple burning process.
v. During the operation of the boiler, it does not make large noises or unpleasant
noises.

7
vi. Coal fired boilers have a variety of structures, design and capacities to choose
from.

Disadvantages of Coal Fired Boilers

i. Coal is a non-renewable energy source with high carbon emission which can
cause harm to natural habitats.
ii. Coal fired boilers when operating has extremely high pressure, so it is easy
to explode causing great damage.

2. BIOMASS FIRED BOILER

Biomass fired boiler is a type of boiler that uses biomass as fuel to generate steam
for industrial purposes. The process involves burning the fuel in an excess of air
inside a furnace to generate heat.Biomass itself is a fuel derived from plants and
animals, the materials classified as biomass can include wood and wood
derivatives, a variety of agricultural and animal wastes, a part of urban waste and
some industrial wastes and byproducts.In addition, biomass power plants are
always linked to industries that can supply them with fuel. So, for example, the
wood processing industry would use the wood waste as a source of fuel to generate
steam.

Classification of Biomass

Biomass can be divided into two categories: biomass wastes and energy crops.

 Biomass waste: Biomass wastes are the most readily available forms of
biomass but their quantities are limited. They are further sub divided into four
categories which includes;

8
 Urban Waste: Urban biomass waste is a specialcategory, available in
relatively small quantities. It usually comprises timber waste from construction
sites and some organic household refuse together with wood and other material
from urban gardens. Most of this is cycled through an urban refuse collection
and processing infrastructure where the biomass waste must be separated from
the other refuse if it is to be burned as fuel.
 Agricultural Waste: Agricultural wastes, often referred to as agricultural
residues, are one of the most important sources of biomass today. These are
available throughout the world and they include a number of very important
biomass resources. Across Europe and North America, there are enormous
quantities of wheat and maize straw produced each year. These farming
residues are valuable fuels, but they are seasonal and so require storing if they
are to provide a year-round supply.
 Livestock Residues: Livestock residues are another special category of
biomass most of this is in the form of dung which has very low energy content
and is not considered as a cost-effective fuel (though it is used for heating in
some parts of the world). It is only where livestock is farmed intensively that it
becomes economical to utilize the waste.
 Wood Waste: they are materials that can beneficially be removed from natural
and managed forests to improve the health of the plantation, residues left in a
forest after trees have been logged and the waste produced during the actual
processing of wood in sawmills. Processed plant waste is the cheapest and most
economical to utilize. Many sawmills and most modern paper plants burn their
waste to produce heat.
 Energy Crops: An energy crop to be considered as a source of fuel are fast
growing trees and grasses that provide a high annual yield and are relatively
easy to harvest.

9
Advantages of Biomass Fired Boilers

i. Wastes (biomass) commonly available.

ii. The use of biomass as a source of fuel plays a role in area of waste
management.
iii. If managed correctly, biomass is considered to be greenhouse gas neutral.

Disadvantage f Biomass Fired Boilers

i. Biomass can only provide a limited capacity as regards steam generation, and if
the technology is to expand significantly, large plantations of fuel crops will be
required.
ii. Most existing sources of biomass are small and relatively inefficient.

10
 WORKING PRINCIPLES OF SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS

COAL-FIRED BOILERS:

Coal-fired boilers have the same operating principles as other boilers, which are to
heat water and provide heat for industrial production and processing. The amount of
heat that a coal-fired boiler produces is from burning coal and firewood fuel, and then
conduction of heat turns the heat energy into steam. Details of operation of coal fired
boiler are as follows:

The fuel used to burn and the heat passing through the nozzle is put into the fire
chamber to explode, heating the water pipes. Later, the water in the pipe boils up and
forms steam. This steam is actually a mixture mixed with water that is brought up to
the steam drum separating the steam from the water, the water that has not yet
evaporated will return to the tubes to continue the circulation process.

The amount of steam separated at the time of leaving the steam drum will reach the
superheater to form high temperature steam. Depending on the requirements of each
user, which chooses to go into separate operation, the amount of smoke will be passed
through the dust separator and discharged to the outside of the chimney. The unit uses
the excess heat of the smoke as it is separated from the superheater for heat-intensive
operation.

11
Coal-fired boilers have many different types and structures as well as different
principal characteristics, so the boiler can be suitable for many different industrial
production and processing industries. The most popular applications of boilers such as:
Textile, garment, food, alcohol, soft drinks, seafood, chemistry. Mainly coal-fired
boilers are used in industrial plants to provide heat and steam to industrial production
machines.

Coal-fired boiler or you are using any other type of boiler, pay attention to safety
inspection, repair, and warranty periodically, first of all, the consequences of an
exploding boiler are more dangerous than ever. You must be very careful when
operating them.

BIOMASS FIRED BOILER:

A biomass-fired boiler works by burning organic materials, such as wood chips,

sawdust, or agricultural residues, to generate heat. Here's a simplified overview of its
working principle:

12
 Fuel Feed: Biomass fuel is stored in a hopper and fed into the boiler chamber
through a conveyor system or an auger. The feed rate can be controlled to
maintain a steady combustion process.
 Combustion Chamber: Inside the boiler, the biomass fuel is exposed to high
temperatures in the presence of oxygen. This combustion process releases heat
energy.
 Heat Transfer: The heat energy generated from the burning biomass is
transferred to water or a heat transfer fluid circulating through pipes or tubes
within the boiler. This heated fluid can be water, steam, or a thermal oil.
 Steam Generation: In some biomass-fired boilers, the heated fluid (usually
water) is converted into steam. This steam can be used for various industrial
processes or to generate electricity through a steam turbine.
 Heat Exchanger: The heat exchanger facilitates the transfer of heat from the
combustion chamber to the circulating fluid. It typically consists of coils or
tubes that come into direct contact with the hot gases produced during
combustion.
 Exhaust Gas Treatment: The exhaust gases produced during combustion may
contain pollutants like particulate matter and emissions. Some biomass boilers
are equipped with emission control systems to reduce environmental impacts.
 Ash Removal: As the biomass burns, it leaves behind ash and other residues.
These need to be periodically removed from the boiler to maintain efficiency
and prevent buildup.
 Heat Distribution: The heated fluid (water, steam, or thermal oil) is then used
to provide space heating, hot water, or other industrial processes, depending on
the specific application.

13
Biomass-fired boilers are considered a renewable energy source because the carbon
dioxide released during combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed by the
plants during their growth. They are a sustainable option for generating heat and, in
some cases, electricity, while also helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions when
compared to fossil fuels.

BENEFITS OF SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS

Solid fuel fired boilers are boilers that use solid fuels such as coal, wood, biomass, or
other renewable energy sources to generate steam or hot water. They have many
benefits over conventional boilers that use oil or gas as fuel sources. Some of the
benefits are:

1. Cost-Effective Fuel Source: Solid fuels, such as coal, wood, and biomass, are
often more cost-effective than other energy sources like natural gas or
electricity, making them an attractive option for heating and power generation.
2. Energy Independence: Using solid fuels can provide energy independence
because these fuels are typically locally sourced, reducing reliance on foreign
energy imports.
3. High Efficiency: Modern solid fuel-fired boilers are designed for high
efficiency, which means they can effectively convert a significant portion of the
fuel's energy into heat or electricity, reducing waste and operational costs.
4. Renewable Options: Biomass, a type of solid fuel, can be a renewable energy
source when sourced sustainably, contributing to environmental sustainability
and reduced carbon emissions.
14
5. Versatility: Solid fuel-fired boilers can burn a variety of materials, allowing for
flexibility in fuel selection based on availability and cost.
6. Reliable Heat Source: These boilers can provide a consistent and reliable
source of heat, making them suitable for both residential and industrial
applications.
7. Long Lifespan: Well-maintained solid fuel-fired boilers can have a long
operational life, providing value over many years.
8. Reduces Waste: Solid fuel combustion can help manage certain types of waste,
such as wood and agricultural residues, by converting them into useful energy.

However, it's essential to note that the environmental impact of solid fuel
combustion can vary significantly depending on the type of fuel used and the
efficiency of the boiler. Some solid fuels, like coal, can produce high levels of
greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants, so it's crucial to consider the
environmental implications and employ emission-reduction technologies when
using such fuels.

15
16