Real Analysis Lecture Notes

Real Analysis
Dr. B. Surendranath Reddy

&
Dr. Rupali S. Jain
Assistant Professor
School of Mathematical Sciences
Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded
Note: This notes is prepared based on the lectures delivered

to our M.Sc.Students. There may be some typographical errors
or there may be some mistakes. You are most welcome to send
corrections or suggestions to [email protected]
Most of the content is based on the following text books:
Real Analysis, N.L. Carothers,Cambridge University Press
1
A Basic Course in Real Analysis, Ajit Kumar and S.
Kumaresan, Taylor & Francis Group.
Contents
1 LUB Axiom and Archimedian property 4
2 Countability 14
3 Sequences 23
4 lim sup And lim inf of an 38
5 Metrics and Norms 44
6 Open and Closed sets 62
7 Continuity 83
2
8 Connectedness 91
9 Totally Bounded 99
10 Complete Metric Space 105
11 Compactness 114
12 Uniform Continuity 123
13 Sequence of functions 127
14 The Weierstrass Theorem 139
15 Equicontinuity 148
Dr. Rupali S. Jain 3 Dr.B. S. Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedian property
1 LUB Axiom and Archimedian prop-

erty
Definition 1.1. Upper Bound

Let A be a non empty subset of R. Then an element α ∈ R is
said to be an upper bound of A if x ≤ α ∀ x ∈ A.
Remark 1.2. 1. α ∈ R is not an upper bound of A if

∃ x ∈ A such that α < x.
2. If α is an upper bound of A and β > α, then β is also an

upper bound of A.
Definition 1.3. Bounded above Set

Let A be a non empty subset of R. Then A is said to be
bounded above if ∃ α ∈ R such that α is an upper bound of A
(i.e. ∃ α ∈ R such that x ≤ α ∀ x ∈ A).
Remark 1.4. ϕ ̸= A ⊂ R is said to be not bounded above if

given α ∈ R, ∃ x ∈ A such that α < x.

Definition 1.5. Least Upper Bound

Let ϕ ̸= A ⊂ R. Then α ∈ R is said to be least upper bound
of A or supremum of A if
1. α is an upper bound of A.
2. If β is an upper bound of A then α ≤ β.
and is denoted by α = lub A or α = sup A.
Remark 1.6. If an upper bound α ∈ R of A belong to A then

α is called maximum of A.
Lemma 1.7. If α and β are lub of A then α = β.
Proof. By consider α as an upper bound and β as a lub, we

get β ≤ α.
Similarly, as β is an upper bound and α is a lub of A, we get
α ≤ β.
⇒ α = β.
Lemma 1.8. If α is the lub of A then for given ϵ > 0, α − ϵ

is not an upper bound of A.

Proof. Given that α = lub A. Since ϵ > 0, α−ϵ < α. Suppose

α − ϵ is an upper bound of A. Since α is lub of A, α ≤ α − ϵ
which is a contradiction.
∴ α − ϵ is not an upper bound.
Example 1.9. Let A = (0, 1) then lub = 1.
Proof. Clearly 1 is an upper bound for A.Let β be an upper

bound of A.
We have to show that 1 ≤ β. Suppose not i.e. β < 1. Take
β+1
x= 2 then 0 < x < 1.
⇒x∈A
β+1 β+1−2β
Now x − β = 2 −β = 2
1−β
x−β = 2
1−β
Since β < 1 ⇒ 2 >0
∴x−β >0
⇒ x > β, which is a contradiction to x ≤ β.
∴ 1 ≤ β ⇒ 1 is the lub of A.
Remark 1.10. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define sup A =

+∞.
2. If A = ∅, then sup A = −∞ as every real number is an

upper bound for A.
Definition 1.11. Lower Bound

Let A be a nonempty subset of R then an element β ∈ R is
said to be a lower bound if x ≥ β ∀ x ∈ A.
Definition 1.12. Bounded Below

Let A be a non empty subset of R then A is said to be bounded
below if ∃ β ∈ R such that β is a lower bound of A i.e. ∃ β ∈ R
such that x ≥ β ∀x ∈ A
Example 1.13. Let A = (0, 1) = {x ∈ R|0 < x < 1} then 0

is an lower bound of A.
Definition 1.14. Greatest Lower Bound

Let ϕ ̸= A ⊂ R then β ∈ R is said to be greatest lower bound
of A or infimum of A if
1. β is an lower bound of A.

2. If γ is a lower bound of A then β ≥ γ.
and is denoted by β = glb A or β = inf A.
Example 1.15. Let A = (0, 1) then glb A = 0.
Proof. Let β be an lower bound of A. We have to show that

0 ≥ β. Suppose not i.e. β > 0,
take x = β2 .
Then 0 < x < 1 ⇒ x ∈ A (∵ β ≤ 1 ⇒ x < 1)
β
x−β = 2 − β = − β2
Since β > 0 ⇒ − β2 < 0.
∴x−β <0
∴x<β
Which is an contradiction.
∴0≥β
⇒ 0 is glb of A.
Remark 1.16. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define inf A =

−∞.

2. If A = ∅, then inf A = +∞ as every real number is a

lower bound for A.
Lemma 1.17. For any subset A of R sup(−A) = − inf A

where −A = {−a|a ∈ A}.
Proof. Let α = sup(−A)

⇒ −a ≤ α ∀ a ∈ A
⇒ a ≥ −α ∀ a ∈ A.
− α is a lower bound of A. Let β be a lower bound of A
⇒ β ≤ a∀a ∈ A
⇒ −β ≥ −a ∀ a ∈ A.
⇒ −β is an upper bound of −A.
Since α = sup(−A)
⇒ α ≤ −β
⇒ −α ≥ β
⇒ −α is the glb of A.
⇒ α = − inf A
∴ sup(−A) = − inf A

Definition 1.18. Completeness Axiom or LUB Axiom

Any non empty subset A of R with an upper bound has the
least upper bound.
Theorem 1.19. Archimedian Property

If x, y ∈ R with x > 0 then ∃ n ∈ N such that nx > y.
Proof. We prove by contradiction.

Suppose ∄ n ∈ N such that nx > y then ∀ n ∈ N, nx ≤ y.
Let A = {nx : n ∈ N} then A ̸= ϕ and y is an upper bound
of A.
By Completeness axiom A has a least the upper bound say
α ∈ R i.e. ∃ α ∈ R such that α = lub A
⇒ nx ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N.
⇒ (n + 1)x ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ nx + x ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ nx ≤ α − x ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ α − x is an upper bound of A.
Since α is lub A ⇒ α ≤ α − x

which is a contradiction to α − x < α. (∵ x > 0 ⇒

α − x < α)
∴ ∃ n ∈ N such that nx > y.
Lemma 1.20. N is not bounded above i.e.

∀ x ∈ R ∃ n ∈ N such that x < n.
Proof. Suppose N is bounded above i.e. ∃ x ∈ R such that

n ≤ x ∀ n ∈ N.
By Completeness axiom N has the least upper bound say α.
⇒ n ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N.
⇒ n + 1 ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N (∵ n + 1 ∈ N)
⇒ n ≤ α − 1∀n ∈ N
⇒ α − 1 is an upper bound on N.
Since α = lub N, α ≤ α − 1 which is a contradiction.
∴ N is not bounded above.
Remark 1.21. The above lemma is also one version of Archi-

median principle.

Theorem 1.22. Prove that both the version of Archimedian

principle are equivalent.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose for given any x, y ∈ R with x >

0, ∃ n ∈ N such that nx > y.
In particular, for x = 1 > 0, y ∈ R, ∃ n such that n.1 > y ⇒
n > y.
∴ Given any y ∈ R, ∃ n ∈ N such that n > y.
⇒ N is not bounded above.
(2) ⇒ (1). Assume that N is not bounded above.
Let x, y ∈ R with x > 0. We have to prove that there exists
n ∈ N such that nx > y.
Suppose nx ≤ y ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ n ≤ xy ∀ n ∈ N
y
⇒ x is an upper bound of N, which is a contradiction. Hence
there exists n ∈ N such that nx > y.
Theorem 1.23. Density of Q

If a and b are real numbers with a < b then ∃ r ∈ Q such

that a < r < b.
Proof. Since a < b, b − a > 0, by Archimedian principal ∃ n ∈

N such that n(b − a) > 1
nb − na > 1
Take m = k + 1 where k = [na] then m ∈ Z.
Since for any x, [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
⇒ na < [na] + 1
⇒ na < m.
Suppose m ≥ nb then 1 = k + 1 − k
i.e. 1 = m − k ≥ nb − na (k ≤ na ⇒ −k ≥ −na)
⇒ nb − na ≤ 1, which is a contradiction.
∴ m < nb
⇒ na < m < nb
m
⇒a< n <b
m
∴ ∃r = n ∈ Q such that a < r < b.
Exercise: For any a, b ∈ R with a < b, show that there

exists s ∈ R \ Q such that a < s < b.

2 Countability
2 Countability
Definition 2.1 (Equivalent Sets). Two sets A and B are said

to be equivalent if there is a one-one correspondence between
the sets A and B.
i.e. ∃ a bijective map f : A → B and is denoted by A ∼ B.
Example 2.2. Exercise

Show that the relation ∼ is an equivalence relation.
Definition 2.3. A set X is said to be finite if either X = ϕ or

X is equivalent to {1, 2, , 3, ...n} for some natural number n.
Definition 2.4. A set X is said to be infinite if ∄ n ∈ N such

that X ∼ {1, 2, ..., n}.
Definition 2.5. A set X is said to be countable if either X is

finite or is equivalent to N .
e.g.1) N is countable as N ∼ N.
2) Z is countable i.e. Z ∼ N.
Define f : Z → N

2 Countability

 2n, n≥1
f (n) =
 1 − 2n, n ≤ 0.
To show f is one-one, let f (n1) = f (n2)
⇒ 2n1 = 2n2 or 1 − 2n1 = 1 − 2n2
⇒ n1 = n2
To show that f is onto, let m ∈ N. Suppose m is odd.
⇒ m = 2n − 1, n ∈ N
1−m
⇒1−n= 2 ≤0
Then f (1 − n) = 1 − 2( 1−m
2 ) =m
Now suppose m is even.

⇒ 2|m
m
Then take x = 2 ∈Z
f (x) = 2x = 2( m2 ) = m
∴ f is onto.
Z ∼ N and hence it is countable.
Example 2.6. Show that N×N is countable. i.e. N×N ∼ N.
Proof. Given any natural number k ∈ N, ∃ m, n ∈ N such

2 Countability
that
k = 2m−1(2n − 1)
Define f : N → N × N by
f (k) = (m, n).
Let f (k1) = f (k2)
⇒ 2m1−1(2n1 − 1) = 2m2−1(2n2 − 1)
⇒ m1 = m2 and n1 = n2
∴ f is one to one.
To show onto, let (m, n) ∈ N × N then take k = 2m−1(2n − 1)
and
f (k) = (m, n)
⇒ f is onto.
∴N×N∼N
N × N is countable.
Theorem 2.7. If A and B are countable then A × B is

countable.
Proof. Since A and B are countable, ∃ bijective maps f : A →

2 Countability
N and g : B → N.
Define h : A × B → N × N by
h ((a, b)) = (f (a), g(b))
then h is well defined.
Let h ((a1, b1)) = h ((a2, b2))
⇒ (f (a1), g(b1)) = (f (a1), g(b2))
⇒ f (a1) = f (a2) and g(b1) = g(b2)
⇒ a1 = a2 and b1 = b2
⇒ (a1, b1) = (a2, b2).
∴ h is 1-1.
To show onto, let (m, n) ∈ N × N. Since f and g are onto
∃ a ∈ A and b ∈ B such that f (a) = m and g(b) = n
h ((a, b)) = (f (a), g(b)) = (m, n)
⇒ h is onto.
∴ h is bijective.
A × B ∼ N × N.
Since N × N ∼ N
⇒ A × B is countable.

2 Countability
Theorem 2.8. If An’s are countable then ∪∞

n=1 An is also
countable.
i.e.Countable union of countable sets is countable.
Proof. Since each An is countable, we can represent An’s as

follows
A1 : {a11, a12, a13, ...}
A2 : {a21, a22, a23, ...}
An : {an1, an2, an3, ..}.
Then ∪∞
n=1 An = {aij |(i, j) ∈ N × N}
Now define f : ∪∞
n=1 An → N × N by
f (aij ) = (i, j).

Suppose f (aij ) = f (alm)
(i, j) = (l, m)
i = l, j = m
⇒ f is 1-1.
To show onto, let (i, j) ∈ N × N.
Then aij ∈ ∪∞
n=1 An such that f (aij ) = (i, j) and hence f is

2 Countability
onto
⇒ ∪∞
n=1 An ∼ N × N
⇒ ∪∞
n=1 An is countable.
Theorem 2.9. The set of rational numbers Q is countable.
∞
Proof. For n ≥ 1, define An = { m
n |m ∈ Z}. Clearly ∪n=1 An ⊂
m
Q Since for any q ∈ Q, we can write q = n,m ∈ Z, n ≥ 1.
⇒ Q ⊂ ∪∞
n=1 An
Therefore, Q = ∪∞
n=1 An
Now we will show that each An is countable.

Define f : An → Z by
f (m
n ) = m.
Suppose f ( mn1 ) = f ( mn2 )

⇒ m1 = m2
⇒ f is one-one.
k
Let k ∈ Z. Then n ∈ An
∴ f ( nk ) = k
⇒ f is onto.

2 Countability
⇒ An ∼ Z.
Since Z is countable, An is also countable.
Since Q = ∪∞
n=1 An and each An is countable, Q is also count-
able.
Theorem 2.10. If A is an infinite subset of N then A is

countable.
Proof. Let A ⊂ N be an infinite set.

Since A ̸= ∅, by well ordering principle there exists a least
element say x1.Then x1 ≥ 1
Also A \ {x1} =
̸ ∅ again by well ordering principle, let x2 be
the least element of A \ {x1}.
Then x1 < x2 and x2 ≥ 2
By repeating this same arguments, we get, x1 < x2 < x3 < ...
such that xn ≥ n is the least element of A \ {x1, x2, ...xn−1}.
We will show that A \ {x1, x2, ...} = ∅.
Suppose not. Then ∃ m ∈ A such that m ̸= xi ∀ i.
Take S = {k ∈ N|xk > m}.

2 Countability
Since xm ≥ m and m ̸= xm, we get xm > m and so m ∈ S.

∴ By well ordering principle S has least element say n
⇒ 1, 2, ..., n − 1 ∈
/ S and n ∈ S
⇒ x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < m and xn > m
⇒ x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < m < xn.
Since xn is the least element of A \ {x1, x2, ..., xn−1}
⇒ xn ≤ m, which is a contradiction.
∴ A \ {x1, x2, ...} = ∅
⇒ A = {x1, x2, ...}.
∴ A is countable.
Corollary 2.11. Any subset of a countable set is countable.
Theorem 2.12. (0, 1) is uncountable where (0, 1) = {x|0 <

x < 1}.
Proof. Suppose (0, 1) is countable, then (0, 1) = {x1, x2, ...}.

We can write each xi in decimal expansion as follows:
x1 = 0.a11a12a13...
x2 = 0.a21a22a23...

2 Countability
x3 = 0.a31a32a33....
Define y = 0.b
11 b22 b33 ...
 2, if ann = ̸ 2;
Where bnn =
 3, if a = 2.
nn
⇒ ann ̸= bnn ∀ n
Then y ∈ (0, 1) but y ̸= xn ∀n
Which is a contradiction.
∴ (0, 1) is uncountable.
Theorem 2.13. R is uncountable.
Proof. We know that (0, 1) is uncountable. Suppose R is count-

able then (0, 1) ⊂ R is also countable. Which is a contradiction.
⇒ R is uncountable.
Theorem 2.14. R/Q is uncountable.
Proof. Suppose R/Q is countable then R = Q ∪ (R/Q) is also

countable. Which is a contradiction.
⇒ R/Q is uncountable.

3 Sequences
3 Sequences
Definition 3.1. Let X be a non-empty set. A sequence in

X is a function f : N → X and is denoted by (xn) where
xn = f (n).
1
e.g. f (n) = n is a sequence whose elements are 1, 12 , 13 , 14 , ....
Definition 3.2. A sequence (xn) is said to be increasing(non

decreasing) if xn ≤ xn+1 ∀ n i.e. x1 ≤ x2 ≤ x3... and is said to
be decreasing(non increasing) if xn ≥ xn+1 ∀ n i.e. x1 ≥ x2 ≥
x3 ≥ ...
Definition 3.3. A sequence (xn) is said to be monotone if

(xn) is either increasing or decreasing.
Definition 3.4. A sequence (xn) in R is said to be bounded

if ∃ M ∈ R such that |xn| ≤ M ∀ n ∈ N, otherwise it is called
unbounded.
1
Example: xn = n is bounded where as xn = n is unbounded.
Definition 3.5. A sequence (xn) in R is said to be converge

3 Sequences
to x ∈ R if given ϵ > 0 ∃ n0 ∈ N such that |xn − x| < ϵ ∀ n ≥

n0.i.e. xn ∈ (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ∀ n ≥ n0
and is denoted by xn → x.
1
Example 3.6. Show that n → 0.
Proof. Let ϵ > 0. We want to find n0 ∈ N such that ∀n ≥

n0 | n1 − 0| = 1
n < ϵ.
1
By Archimedian property ∃ n0 ∈ N such that n0 < ϵ.
1 1
Let n ≥ n0 then n ≤ n0 <ϵ
1
⇒ n <ϵ
1
∴ n < ϵ ∀ n ≥ n0
⇒ | n1 − 0| < ϵ
1
⇒ n → 0.
1
Example 3.7. Show that xn = n+1 →0
Proof. Let ϵ > 0. We want to find n0 ∈ N such that n ≥

1
n0 | n+1 − 0| < ϵ.
1
i.e. ∀ n ≥ n0, n+1 <ϵ

3 Sequences
1
By Archimedian property ∃ n0 ∈ N such that n0 < ϵ.
Let n ≥ n0
1 1 1
∴ n+1 ≤ n ≤ n0 <ϵ
1
⇒ n+1 <ϵ
1
∴ n+1 < ϵ ∀ n ≥ n0
1
⇒ | n+1 − 0| < ϵ
1
⇒ n+1 → 0.
Theorem 3.8. Every convergent sequence in R is bounded.
Proof. Suppose xn → x. Then for ϵ = 1, ∃ k ∈ N such that

|xn − x| < 1 ∀ n ≥ k
Now |xn| = |xn − x + x| ≤ |xn − x| + |x|
Therefore,|xn| ≤ 1 + |x| ∀ n ≥ k
Take M = max{|x1|, |x2|, ...|xk−1|, 1 + |x|}
Then, |xi| ≤ M 1 ≤ i ≤ k − 1 and
|xn| < 1 + |x| ≤ M ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ |xn| ≤ M ∀ n
∴ (xn) is bounded.

3 Sequences
Remark 3.9. The converse of the above theorem is false. For

example, consider the sequence xn = (−1)n. As |xn| ≤ 1 for
all n, xn is bounded.
Now suppose xn converges to some x ∈ R.
Then for ϵ = 1, there exists k ∈ N such that |xn − x| < 1 for
all n ≥ k.
In particular for n = 2k, we get |1 − x| < 1 ⇒ x ∈ (0, 2).
Similarly, for n = 2k + 1, we get | − 1 − x| < 1 ⇒ x ∈ (−2, 0),
which is a contradiction.
Hence xn is not convergent.
Theorem 3.10. A monotone bounded sequence of real num-

bers converges.
Proof. Let (xn) ⊂ R be a bounded monotone sequence.

Firstly, we assume that (xn) is increasing.
Let A = {xn | n ≥ 1}.
Since (xn) is bounded, A is bounded and sup A exists, say x =
sup A.

3 Sequences
We will show that xn → x.

Let ϵ > 0. Since x = sup A, x − ϵ is not an upper bound for
A.
∴ ∃ k ∈ N such that x − ϵ < xk .
Let n ≥ k. Since (xn) is increasing xn ≥ xk .
Implies, x − ϵ < xk ≤ xn ≤ x ≤ x + ϵ
⇒ |xn − x| < ϵ
⇒ xn → x.
Now suppose (xn) is decreasing
⇒ (−xn) is increasing.
⇒ (−xn) → sup(−A)
⇒ (−xn) → − inf(A) (∵ sup(−A) = − inf A)
xn → inf(A)
Therefore in either case, xn converges.
Remark 3.11. If S ⊂ N is infinite then the elements of S can

be listed as n1 < n2 < n3... < nk ....
Proof. Since S is infinite, S is non empty, and so by Well Or-

3 Sequences
dering Principle, S has the least element say n1.

Also S \ {n1} is no empty, and again by Well Ordering Princi-
ple, S \ {n1} has the least element say n2.
Then n1 < n2(∵ n1 ≤ n2 and n1 ̸= n2). By repeating this pro-
cess infinitely many times, we get that S = {n1, n2, · · · , }.
Definition 3.12 (Subsequence). Let x : N → X be a se-

quence in X. Then the map x restricted to an infinite subset
of N is called a subsequence of x i.e. if S < N is infinite
then x : S → X is a subsequence. But S can be listed as
n1 < n2 < n3 < ....
∴ subsequence is denoted by (xnk ) where n1 < n2 < n3 < ...
e.g. If xn = x and S=Set of even numbers then xnk = (2, 4, 6, 8, ...)
is a subsequence of xn.
Remark 3.13. What is meant by subsequence (xnk ) con-

verges?
Let yk = xnk then xnk → x if and only if yk → x.
If and only if for ϵ > 0 ∃ p ∈ N such that |yk − x| < ϵ ∀ k ≥ p

3 Sequences
Therefore, xnk → x if and only if ∀ϵ > 0, ∃ p ∈ N such that

|xnk − x| < ϵ ∀ k ≥ p.
Remark 3.14. Let (xnk ) be a subsequence of (xn) then nk ≥

k ∀ k ∈ N.
Proof. Since (xnk ) is a subsequence of (xn), we have n1 < n2 <

n3... < nk ∈ N.
Clearly, n1 ≥ 1
As n1 < n2 ⇒ 1 ≤ n1 < n2
⇒ n2 ≥ 2
Suppose assume that nk ≥ k
Then nK+1 > nk ≥ k implies nk+1 ≥ k + 1.
Therefore by mathematical induction, nk ≥ k ∀ k ∈ N.
Theorem 3.15. Every sequence of real numbers has a mono-

tone subsequence.
Proof. Let (xn) be a sequence in R.

Consider S = {n ∈ N|xn > xm for m > n}

3 Sequences
(Recall the example of Volcano discussed in the class for the

description of the set S)
Then S may be finite or infinite.
Suppose S is finite. Then ∃ m ∈ S such that s ≤ m ∀ s ∈ S.
We can choose n1 ∈ N such that n1 > m and so n1 ∈
/ S.
⇒ ∃ n2 ∈ N with n2 > n1 such that xn1 ≤ xn2 .
Since n2 > n1 ⇒ n2 ∈
/S
So ∃ n3 ∈ N with n3 > n2 such that xn2 ≤ xn3 .
By repeating this process we get, n1 < n2 < n3 < ... such that
xn1 ≤ xn2 ≤ xn3 < ...
∴ (xnk ) is a increasing subsequence of (xn).
Suppose S is infinite. Since S ̸= ∅, by well ordering principle
S has the least element say n1,
i.e. n1 ≤ n ∀ n ∈ S.
Applying well ordering principle to S \ {n1} =
̸ ∅ there exists
n2 ∈ N, which is least element of S \ {n1}
⇒ n2 > n1 and hence xn1 > xn2 .
Again as S \ {n1, n2} =
̸ ∅, it has the least element say n3.

3 Sequences
∴ n3 > n2 and so xn2 > xn3 .

By repeating this process we get,n1 < n2 < n3... such that
xn1 > xn2 > xn3 ...
∴ (xnk ) is a decreasing subsequence of (xn).
∴ In either case there exists a subsequence (xnk ) of xn which is
monotone.
Theorem 3.16. Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

Every bounded sequence of real number has a convergent
subsequence.
Proof. Step1: First we prove that every sequence in R has a

monotone subsequence.
(Write the proof of theorem 2.16)
Step2: Next we show that that every monotone bounded se-
quence converges.
(Write the proof of theorem 2.11)
Let xn be a bounded sequence. Then by step1, there exists a
monotone subsequence xnk .

3 Sequences
Since xn is bounded, xnk is also bounded.

Then by step2, xnk converges and hence the result.
Lemma 3.17. If xn → x and (xnk ) is a subsequence of (xn),

then xnk → x.
Proof. Let ϵ > 0. Since xn → x, ∃ p ∈ N such that |xn − x| <

ϵ ∀ n ≥ p.
Let k ≥ p then nk ≥ k ≥ p.
Implies, |xnk − x| < ϵ as nk ≥ p
Therefore,|xnk − x| < ϵ ∀ k ≥ p
⇒ x nk → x
Definition 3.18. Cauchy Sequence

Let (xn) be a sequence in R, then (xn) is said to be Cauchy if
given
ϵ > 0 ∃ p ∈ N such that |xn − xm| < ϵ ∀ n, m ≥ p.
Theorem 3.19. Every Cauchy sequence is bounded.
Proof. Let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence.

3 Sequences
Then for ϵ = 1, there exists p ∈ N such that |xn − xm| <

1 ∀ n, m ≥ p.
In particular, |xn − xp| < 1 ∀ n ≥ p
Now |xn| = |xn − xp + xp| ≤ |xn − xp| + |xp|
⇒ |xn| < |1 + |xp| ∀ n ≥ p.
Take M = max{|x1|, |x2|, ...|xp−1|, 1 + |xp|}.
Then |xn| ≤ M ∀ n ∈ N
∴ (xn) is bounded.
Next we prove the important property of Cauchy sequence

that if a subsequence of a cauchy sequence converges, then the
sequence also converges.
Theorem 3.20. If (xn) is Cauchy and xnk → x then xn →

x.
Proof. Let ϵ > 0. Since (xn) is Cauchy ∃ p1 ∈ N such that

|xn − xm| < 2ϵ ∀ n, m ≥ p1.
Also xnk → x so ∃ p2 ∈ N such that |xnk − x| < 2ϵ ∀ k ≥ p2
Take p = max{p1, p2} and let n ≥ p. Then

3 Sequences
|xn − x| = |xn − xnp + xnp − x| ≤ |xn − xnp | + |xnp − x|

ϵ
Since n ≥ p ≥ p1 and np ≥ p ≥ p1, we get |xn − xnp | < 2
ϵ
Similarly as np ≥ p ≥ p2, we get |xnp − x| < 2
∴ |xn − x| < 2ϵ + 2ϵ = ϵ
⇒ xn → x.
Theorem 3.21. If (xn) converges then it is Cauchy.
Proof. Let xn → x and ϵ > 0.

Then ∃ p ∈ N such that |xn − x| < 2ϵ ∀ n ≥ p.
Let n, m ≥ p. Then
|xn −xm| = |xn −x+x−xm| ≤ |xn −x|+|xm −x| < 2ϵ + 2ϵ = ϵ
∴ (xn) is Cauchy.
Theorem 3.22. Completeness of R

Every Cauchy sequence in R converges in R.
Proof. Let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence. Then it is bounded.

By Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, there exists a subsequence xnk
such that xnk → x.

3 Sequences
Since (xn) is Cauchy and xnk → x then xn → x.

(Write the proof of theorem 3.20).

3 Sequences
Theorem 3.23. Nested Interval Theorem

If (In) is a sequence of closed bounded non empty intervals
in R with I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ I3 ⊃ ..., then ∩∞
n=1 In ̸= ϕ. If length
(In) → 0, then ∩∞
n=1 In contains precisely one element.
Proof. As each In is closed and bounded interval, we denote it

by In = [an, bn].
Since In ⊃ In+1, we get an ≤ an+1 ≤ bn+1 ≤ bn
Therefore, (an) is increasing and (bn) is decreasing.
Now (an) is bounded above as an ≤ bn ≤ b1, ∀ n.
∴ an converges to a = sup an.
Similarly, bn converges to b = inf bn.
Now we show that each bk is an upper bound for the sequence
(an).
Let k ∈ N.
If k < n, then an ≤ bn ≤ bk .
If k > n, then an ≤ ak ≤ bk .
Therefore, an ≤ bk for all n ∈ N and hence bk is an upper

3 Sequences
bound.
Since a = sup an, we get that a ≤ bk for all k.
Implies a is a lower bound for (bn).
As b = inf bn, we get that a ≤ b.
We now show that ∩∞
n=1 In − [a, b].
Let x ∈ ∩∞
n=1 In
⇒ x ∈ In ∀ n
∴ an ≤ x ≤ bn ∀ n
⇒ limn an ≤ x ≤ limn bn
⇒a≤x≤b
⇒ x ∈ [a, b]
⇒ ∩∞
n=1 In ⊂ [a, b].
Let x ∈ [a, b] ⇒ a ≤ x ≤ b
⇒ an ≤ a ≤ x ≤ b ≤ bn ∀ n
⇒ an ≤ x ≤ bn ∀ n
⇒ x ∈ In ∀ n
⇒ x ∈ ∩∞
n=1 In
∴ [a, b] ⊂ ∩∞
n=1 In

4 lim sup And lim inf of an
∴ ∩∞
n=1 In = [a, b] ̸= ϕ.
Suppose l(In) → 0 i.e. bn − an → 0

On other hand bn − an → b − a
∴b−a=0
⇒ a = b.
∴ ∩∞
n=1 In = {a}.
Consider a bounded sequence (xn).

Let tn = inf{xn, xn+1, ...} = inf k≥n xk
and Tn = sup{xn, xn+1, ...} = supk≥n xk
Since tn ≤ xk ∀ k ≥ n
⇒ t n ≤ xk ∀ k ≥ n + 1
⇒ tn is a lower bound of {xn+1, xn+2, ...}.
As tn+1 is the glb of {xn+1, xn+2, ...}
⇒ tn ≤ tn+1 ∀ n
⇒ (tn) is an increasing sequence.

Similarly, (Tn) is a decreasing sequence.

As xn is bounded, (tn) and (Tn) are bounded and hence con-
verge.
∴ lim tn = sup tn and lim Tn = inf Tn.
Define limn→∞ inf xn = sup tn = supn≥1 inf k≥n xk and
lim sup xn = inf Tn = inf n≥1 supk≥n xk
If (xn) is not bounded above then define lim sup xn = +∞ and
if (an) is not bounded below, then lim inf xn = −∞.
Example 4.1. 1. an = (−1)n

⇒ Here tn = inf{(−1)n, (−1)n+1, (−1)n+2, ...}
tn = −1 ∀ n
∴ sup tn = −1
lim inf an = −1
and Tn = sup{(−1)n, (−1)n+1, ...} = 1, ∀ n
⇒ inf Tn = 1
lim sup an = 1.
1 2 1 4 1 6 1 n

2. an = 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , ..., n , n+1 , ...

t1 = inf{ 21 , 23 , 41 , ..., n1 , n+1

n
}=0
t2 = inf{ 23 , 14 , ..., n1 , n+1
n
}=0
tn = 0
lim inf an = sup tn = 0
Tn = 1, ∀ n
⇒ inf Tn = 1
∴ lim sup an = 1.
Theorem 4.2. If (an) converges, then limn→∞ inf an = limn→∞ sup an =

limn→∞ an.
Proof. Let limn→∞ an = a

α = lim inf an, β = lim sup an.
We have to show that α = β = a,
Let ϵ > 0 since an → a, ∃ k ∈ N such that
|an − a| < ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
a − ϵ < an < a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k.
Since a − ϵ < an ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ a − ϵ is a lower bound of {an|n ≥ k}.

⇒ a − ϵ < tk
⇒ a − ϵ < tn ∀ n ≥ k
and α = sup tn ⇒ tn ≤ α
∴ a − ϵ < tn ≤ α
⇒ a − ϵ < α.
Also an < a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
∴ a + α is an upper bound of {ak , ak+1, ...}
⇒ Tk ≤ a + ϵ
⇒ Tn ≤ Tk ≤ a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
Since β = inf Tn
⇒ β ≤ Tn ∀n
∴ β ≤ Tk ≤ a + ϵ
⇒β ≤a+ϵ
∴a−ϵ<α≤β ≤a+ϵ
|α − β| < 2ϵ
Since ϵ > 0 is arbitrary α − β = 0 ⇒ α = β.
Since α, β ∈ (a − ϵ, a + ϵ)
⇒ |a − α| < 2ϵ and |a − β| < 2ϵ

⇒ a = α and a = β
∴α=β=a
∴ lim inf an = lim sup an = lim an
Theorem 4.3. If (an) is bounded and lim inf an = lim sup an

then an converges and lim an = lim inf an = lim sup an.
Proof. Let a = lim inf an = lim sup an.

Since (an) is bounded a ∈ R.
Let ϵ > 0. Since a = sup tn, a − ϵ is not an upper bound of
(tn).
Then ∃ k1 ∈ N such that a − ϵ < tk1
⇒ a − ϵ < tk1 ≤ an ∀ n ≥ k1
a − ϵ < an ∀ n ≥ k1
Also a = lim sup an = inf Tn
⇒ a + ϵ is not a lower bound of (Tn) and hence ∃ k2 ∈ N such
that Tk2 < a + ϵ
⇒ an ≤ Tk2 < a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k2
∴ an < a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k2

Take k = max{k1, k2} then

a − ϵ < an < a + ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ |an − a| < ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
an → a
∴ lim an = a = lim inf an = lim sup an.

5 Metrics and Norms
5 Metrics and Norms
Definition 5.1 (Metric Space). Let M be a non empty set.

A function d : M × M → R is said to be a metric on M if
1. d(x, y) ≥ 0 ∀ x, y ∈ M
2. d(x, y) = 0 iff x = y
3. d(x, y) = d(y, x) ∀x, y ∈ M
4. d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) ∀x, y, z ∈ M
The pair (M, d) is called a metric space.
Example 5.2. Every set M admits a metric, d : M ×M → R

given by, 
 0, if x = y
d(x, y) =
 1, if x ̸= y
The above metric d is called discrete metric and (M, d) is called
a discrete space.
(Exer: Show that d is a metric)

5 Metrics and Norms
Example 5.3. Define d : R × R → R by d(x, y) = |x − y|,

then d is a metric called usual metric on R.
Example 5.4. Define d : (0, ∞) × (0, ∞) → R defined by

d(x, y) = | x1 − y1 | is a metric on (0, ∞).
Example 5.5. If d is a metric on M then show that ρ(x, y) =

d(x,y)
p
d(x, y), σ(x, y) = 1+d(x,y) and τ (x, y) = {min d(x, y), 1} are
also metrics on M .
Definition 5.6 (Normed Vector Space). Let V be a vec-

tor space over a field F . A norm on V is a mapping ||.|| : V →
R satisfying the following:
1. ||x|| ≥ 0 ∀x ∈ V
2. ||x|| = 0 iff x = 0
3. ||αx|| = |α|||x|| ∀x ∈ V, ∀α ∈ F
4. ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y|| ∀x, y ∈ V.

5 Metrics and Norms
Example 5.7. ||.|| : R → R define ||x|| = |x|. Then (R, ||.||)

is a normed vector space.
Example 5.8. On Rn = {(x1, x2, ..., xn)|xi ∈ R, ∀ i} define

the maps
n
X
||x||1 = |xi|
i=1
n
! 21
X
||x||2 = |xi|2
i=1
||x||∞ = max |xi|
1≤i≤n
then ||x||1, ||x||2 and ||x||∞ are norms on Rn
Definition 5.9 (lp-Space). For 1 ≤ p < ∞, define lp space as

∞
P∞
the space of all real sequences x = (xn)n=1 such that i=1 |xi|p <
∞.
i.e. lp = {x = (xn)| ∞ p
P
i=1 |xi | < ∞}
i.e. x ∈ lp iff ∞ p
P
i=1 |xi | < ∞}
P∞ 1
p p
Define ||.||p on lp as ||x||p = ( i=1 |xi| )

5 Metrics and Norms
Example 5.10. Show that (l1, ||.||) is a normed vector space.

∞
X
l1 = {x = (xn)| |xi| < ∞}
i=1
P∞
Proof. ||x||1 = i=1 |xi |.
P∞
1. Since |xi| ≥ 0 ⇒ i=1 |xi | ≥0
⇒ ||x||1 ≥ 0
P∞
2. ||x||1 = 0 ⇔ i=1 |xi | =0
⇔ |xi| = 0 ∀i
⇔ xi = 0 ∀i
⇔ x=0
3. αx = (αx1, αx2, ...)

P∞
||αx||1 = i=1 |αxi|
= ∞
P
i=1 |α||xi |
= |α| ∞
P
i=1 |xi |
= |α| ||x||.

5 Metrics and Norms
4. Let x, y ∈ l1, then x + y = (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, ...)

∞
X ∞
X
||x + y||1 = |xi + yi| ≤ (|xi| + |yi|)
i=1 i=1
X∞ ∞
X
≤ |xi| + |yi|
i=1 i=1
≤ ||x||1 + ||y||1
Definition 5.11 (Open Ball). Let (M, d) be a metric space.

Given x ∈ M and r > 0, the set Br (x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < r}
is called the open ball about x of radius r.
Remark 5.12. 1. If, on a set M , more than one metric is

defined say d1 and d2 then the open balls are denoted by
Brd1 (x), Brd2 (x).
2. x ∈ Br (x) as d(x, x) = 0 < r
Example 5.13. Let M = R, d(x, y) = |x − y|

5 Metrics and Norms
Let x ∈ R and r > 0,
y ∈ Br (x) ⇔ d(x, y) < r
⇔ |x − y| < r
⇔ x−r <y <x+r
⇔ y ∈ (x − r, x + r)
∴ Br (x) = (x − r, x + r)
Example5.14. Consider a discrete metric space (M, d) i.e.

 0, if x = y
d(x, y) = then
 1, if x ̸= y
1. Open ball B 1 (x)

2
1
B 1 (x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < }
2 2
= {y ∈ M |d(x, y) = 0}
= {y ∈ M |x = y}
∴ B 1 (x) = {x}
2

5 Metrics and Norms
2. Open ball B1(x)
B1(x) = {yM |d(x, y) < 1}
= {y ∈ M |d(x, y) = 0}
= {y ∈ M |x = y}
∴ B1(x) = {x}
3. For any 0 < r < 1
Br (x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < r < 1}
= {y ∈ M |d(x, y) = 0}
= {y ∈ M |x = y}
∴ Br (x) = {x} if 0 < r < 1
4. Open ball B2(x)
B2(x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < 2}
= {y ∈ M |d(x, y) = 0 or d(x, y) = 1}
= {y ∈ M |x = y or x ̸= y}
∴ B2(x) = M

5 Metrics and Norms
5. For any r > 1
Br (x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < r}
= {y ∈ M |d(x, y) = 0 or d(x, y) = 1}
= {y ∈ M |x = y or x ̸= y}
∴ Br (x) = M
Hence in a discrete metric space, open balls are either singleton

or whole space.
Remark 5.15. Closed ball Br (x) is defined as

Br (x) = {y ∈ M |d(x, y) ≤ r}.
1. If M = R, d(x, y) = |x − y| what is Br (x) ?
2. Let (M, d) discrete space, find B 1 (x), B1(x), B2(x)

2
Example 5.17. M = R2, d-Euclidean metric,

i.e.for any x = (x1, y1), y = (x2, y2) ∈ R2,

5 Metrics and Norms
p
d(x, y) = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2.
what is Br (x) =?
Proof.
(x2, y2) = y ∈ Br (x) ⇔ d(x, y) < r

p
⇔ (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 < r
⇔ (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 < r2
∴ Br (x) = {(x2, y2)|(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 < r2}
which is an open disc with center x = (x1, y1) and of radius

r.
Example 5.18. Let (V, ||.||) be a normed vector space. Define

d : V × V → R by d(x, y) = ||x − y||.
Br (x) = {y |d(x, y) < r}
= {y | ||x − y|| < r}
In particular Br (0) = {y | ||y|| < r}.

5 Metrics and Norms
Example 5.19. For z = (x, y) ∈ R2, define,

p
||z||1 = |x|+|y|, ||z||2 = |x|2 + |y|2 and ||z||∞ = max{|x|, |y|}.
Find and draw the graphs of B1(0) in (R2, ||.||1), (R2, ||.||2) and
(R2, ||.||∞).
Example 5.20. Consider M = {(x, y) ∈ R2|x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0}.

p
For any z ∈ M, ||z||2 = x2 + y 2, find and draw the graph of
B1(0) in M .
Theorem 5.21. In a normed vector space (V, ||.||), Br (x) =

x + Br (0) and Br (0) = rB1(0)
Where x + Br (0) = {x + y|y ∈ Br (0)} and rB1(0) = {ry|y ∈
B1(0)}
Proof. First we will show that Br (x) ⊂ x + Br (0).

Let y ∈ Br (x) ⇒ ||x − y|| < r.

5 Metrics and Norms
Let z = y − x ⇒||z|| = ||y − x|| < r
||z|| < r
z ∈ Br (0)
y = x + z ∈ x + Br (0)
Br (x) ⊂x + Br (0)..........(1)
Conversely, let y ∈ x + Br (0) ⇒ y = x + z where z ∈ Br (0)

⇒ ||z|| < r
⇒ ||y − x|| < r
⇒ y ∈ Br (x)
⇒ x + Br (0) ⊂ Br (x)..........(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
Br (x) = x + Br (0)
Now to show that Br (0) ⊂ r.B1(0), let y ∈ Br (0).

⇒ ||y|| < r
⇒ || yr || < 1 ⇒ y
r ∈ B1(0)

5 Metrics and Norms
∴ y = r yr ∈ r.B1(0)
⇒ Br (0) ⊂ r.B1(0).................(3)
Let y ∈ r.B1(0) ⇒ y = rz where z ∈ B1(0) ⇒ ||z|| < 1.
∴ ||y|| = ||rz|| = r.||z|| < r
⇒ ||y|| < r ⇒ y ∈ Br (0)
⇒ r.B1(0) ⊂ Br (0)...........(4)
From (3) and (4),
Br (0) = r.B1(0)
Definition 5.22 (Bounded Set). Let (M, d) be a metric

space. A subset ′A′ of M is said to be bounded if A is contained
in some open ball i.e. ∃ x ∈ M and r > 0 such that A ⊂ Br (x)
Definition 5.23 (Diameter of a set). For a subset A of

M , the diameter of A is denoted by diamA and is given by,
diamA = sup{d(a, b) | a, b ∈ A}
Theorem 5.24. A subet ′A′ of M is bounded iff diamA <

∞

5 Metrics and Norms
Proof. Suppose A is bounded then ∃ x ∈ M and r > 0 such

that A ⊂ Br (x).
Let a, b ∈ A ⇒ a, b ∈ Br (x)
⇒ d(a, x) < r and d(b, x) < r
⇒ d(a, x) + d(b, x) < 2r
⇒ d(a, b) ≤ d(a, x) + d(b, x) < 2r
⇒ d(a, b) < 2r ∀ a, b ∈ A
⇒ supa,b∈A d(a, b) ≤ 2.r
⇒ diamA ≤ 2r < ∞
Conversely, suppose that diamA < ∞, say diamA = r
We will show that for any x ∈ A, A ⊂ B2r (x)
Let y ∈ A. Since x, y ∈ A ⇒ d(x, y) ≤ diamA = r
⇒ d(x, y) ≤ r < 2r
⇒ d(x, y) < 2r
⇒ y ∈ B2r (x)
∴ A ⊂ B2r (x)
⇒ A is bounded.

5 Metrics and Norms
Definition 5.25. Let (M, d) be a metric space. A sequence

(xn) in M converges to x ∈ M if for given ϵ > 0, ∃ N ∈ N such
that d(xn, x) < ϵ ∀n ≥ N Or xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∀n ≥ N.
Definition 5.26. Let (M, d) be a metric space. A sequence

(xn) in M is said to be Cauchy if for given ϵ > 0, ∃ N ∈ N such
that d(xn, xm) < ϵ ∀n, m ≥ N.
Theorem 5.27. Let (M, d) be a metric space. Then every

convergent sequence is Cauchy but not the converse.
Proof. Let (xn) be a convergent sequence, i.e. xn → x, for

some x ∈ M .
Let ϵ > 0.
ϵ ϵ
Since xn → x, for 2 > 0, ∃ N such that d(xn, x) < 2 ∀n ≥
N.
We will show that, d(xn, xm) < ϵ ∀ n, m ≥ N

5 Metrics and Norms
Let n, m ≥ N . Then by triangle inequality,
d(xn, xm) ≤ d(xn, x) + d(x, xm)

ϵ ϵ
⇒ d(xn, xm) < + = ϵ
2 2
⇒ (xn) is Cauchy.
Converse is not true in general.
1
Consider, xn = n in (M, d) = ((0, 1], |.|) .
To show (xn) is Cauchy, let ϵ > 0.
We have to find N such that ∀n, m ≥ N, d(xn, xm) < ϵ.
1 1 n−m
i.e.|xn − xm| = | − | = | |
n m nm
n 1
< = < ϵ.
nm m
By Archimedian property, there exists N such that N > 1ϵ .

1 1
Now, for m, n ≥ N , d(xn, xm) < m ≤ N < ϵ.
Therefore, (xn) is Cauchy in M.
Now Suppose xn → x, for some x ∈ (0, 1] since x > 0, by
1
Archimedian property, ∃N such that N < x.

5 Metrics and Norms
1
Let ϵ = x − N then ϵ > 0. For this ϵ > 0, as xn → x, ∃ n0
such that
|xn − x| < ϵ ∀n ≥ n0.
For any n ≥ max{2N, n0}
|xn − x| = |x − n1 | ≥ |x − 2N
1
| > |x − N1 | = ϵ
⇒ |xn − x| > ϵ ∀n ≥ n0, which is a contradiction.
∴ (xn) does not converge in M .
Remark 5.28. In a metric space, bounded sequences may not

have convergent subsequence.
For example, let (M, d) = (R, discrete metric). Let (xn) = n
then (xn) is bounded as {xn|n ≥ 1} ⊆ B2(0). But (xn) does
not have any converge subsequence.
Suppose (xnk ) is convergent.
⇒ (xnk ) is Cauchy.
⇒ For ϵ = 12 , ∃N such that,
1
d(xnp , xnq ) < 2 ∀p, q ≥ N
Which is a contradiction as d(xnp , xnq ) = 1 p ̸= q

5 Metrics and Norms
∴ (xn) does not have convergent subsequence.
Theorem 5.29. If xn → x in (M, d), then d(xn, y) →

d(x, y) for any y ∈ M . More generally, if xn → x, yn → y
in (M, d) then d(xn, yn) → d(x, y).
Proof. Let y ∈ M . We have to show that d(xn, y) → d(x, y)

in R.
Let ϵ > 0 since xn → x in (M, d), ∃N such that d(xn, x) <
ϵ ∀n ≥ N .
By triangle inequality, we get
d(xn, y) ≤d(xn, x) + d(x, y)
d(xn, y) − d(x, y) ≤d(xn, x)...............(1)
Similarly, d(x, y) ≤d(xn, x) + d(xn, y)
⇒ d(x, y) − d(xn, y) ≤d(xn, x)......(2)
From (1) & (2), we have,
|d(x, y) − d(xn, y)| ≤d(xn, x) < ϵ ∀n ≥ N
⇒ d(xn, y) →d(x, y) ∀y ∈ M.

5 Metrics and Norms
Suppose xn → x and yn → y in (M, d).

Let ϵ > 0. Then ∃N1 and N2 such that
ϵ
d(xn, x) < 2 ∀n ≥ N1
ϵ
d(yn, y) < 2 ∀n ≥ N2
Take N = max{N1, N2}.
Then for any n ≥ N
d(xn, yn) ≤d(xn, x) + d(x, yn)
≤d(xn, x) + d(x, y) + d(y, yn)
⇒ d(xn, yn) − d(x, y) ≤d(xn, x) + d(y, yn)
Similarly,
d(x, y) − d(xn, yn) ≤d(xn, x) + d(y, yn)
|d(x, y) − d(xn, yn)| ≤d(xn, x) + d(y, yn)

ϵ ϵ
< + =ϵ
2 2
∴ d(xn, yn) → d(x, y)

6 Open and Closed sets
Definition 6.1. Let (M, d) be a metric space. A set N is

said to be a neighbourhood of x ∈ M if ∃ ϵ > 0 such that
Bϵ(x) ⊂ N .
Example 6.2. Every open ball Bϵ(x) is a neighbourhood of

x.
Definition 6.3 (Open Set). Let (M, d) be a metric space.

A subset U ⊂ M is called an open set if U is neighbourhood
of each of its points.
i.e. for any x ∈ U, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that, x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ U
Example 6.4. In a metric space (M, d), the set M is open,

as for any x ∈ M, Bϵ(x) ⊂ M ∀ϵ > 0.
Trivially ∅ is open.
Example 6.5. In R, every open interval is an open set.
Proof. Let x ∈ (a, b). Then a < x < b.

Take ϵ = min{x − a, b − x}. then ϵ ≤ x − a and ϵ ≤ b − x.

⇒a≤x−ϵ & x+ϵ≤b

⇒ (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ (a, b)
⇒ (a, b) is open.
Let x ∈ (a, ∞) take ϵ = x − a then (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ (a, ∞) ⇒
(a, ∞) is open.
Similarly, (−∞, b) is also open.
Therefore, every open interval in R is open.
Remark 6.6. (0, 1) is an open set but [0, 1) is not open as

0 ∈ [0, 1) but (−ϵ, ϵ) ⊈ [0, 1) for any ϵ > 0.
Example 6.7. In a discrete space, every subset is open.
Proof. Let (M, d) be a discrete space and A ⊂ M .

To show A is open, let x ∈ A.
Then x ∈ B1(x) = {x} ⊂ A and hence A is open.
Theorem 6.8. Let (M, d) be a metric space. For any x ∈

M and ϵ > 0, Bϵ(x) is an open set, i.e. Every open ball is
an open set.

Proof. Let y ∈ Bϵ(x) ⇒ d(x, y) < ϵ

Take δ = ϵ − d(x, y) then δ > 0.
We will show that, Bδ (y) ⊂ Bϵ(x).
Let z ∈ Bδ (y) ⇒ d(z, y) < δ
⇒ d(z, y) < ϵ − d(x, y)
⇒ d(z, y) + d(x, y) < ϵ.
⇒ d(x, z) ≤ d(z, y) + d(x, y) < ϵ.
⇒ d(x, z) < ϵ
⇒ z ∈ Bϵ(x)
⇒ Bδ (y) ⊂ Bϵ(x)
⇒ Bϵ(x) is open.
Theorem 6.9. Any open set U in M can be written as

union of open balls contained in U .
i.e. U = ∪{Bϵ(x) | Bϵ(x) ⊂ U }
Proof. Since Bϵ(x) ⊂ U ⇒ ∪Bϵ(x) ⊂ U .

Let x ∈ U . Since U is open ∃ ϵ > 0 such that x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ U
⇒ x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ ∪{Bϵ(x)|Bϵ(x) ⊂ U }

⇒ x ∈ ∪{Bϵ(x)|Bϵ(x) ⊂ U }
⇒ U ⊂ ∪{Bϵ(x)|Bϵ(x) ⊂ U }
∴ U = ∪{Bϵ(x)|Bϵ(x) ⊂ U }
Theorem 6.10. Arbitrary union of open sets is open, i.e.,

S
if (Uα )α∈Λ is any collection of open sets, then Uα is open.
α∈Λ
S
Proof. Let V = Uα and x ∈ V .
α∈Λ
Then x ∈ Uα for some α ∈ Λ.
Since Uα is open, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ Uα
S
⇒ x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ Uα ⊂ Uα = V
α∈Λ
⇒ x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ V
Hence V is open.
Theorem 6.11. Finite intersection of open sets is open,

n
T
i.e. If U1, U2, ..., Un are open, then Ui is open.
i=1
n
T
Proof. Let V = Ui and x ∈ V .
i=1
Then x ∈ Ui for all i.

Since Ui is open, ∃ ϵi > 0 such that x ∈ Bϵi (x) ⊂ Ui

Take ϵ = min{ϵ1, ..., ϵn}
Then ϵ ≤ ϵi ∀i
⇒ Bϵ(x) ⊂ Bϵi (x) ⊂ Ui ∀i
n
T
⇒ x ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ Ui = V
i=1
Hence V is open.
Remark 6.12. Arbitrary intersection of open sets need not be

open. For example, the sets Un = (− n1 , n1 ) are open in R, but
∞ ∞
(− n1 , n1 ) = {0} is not open in R.
T T
Un =
n=1 n=1
Theorem 6.13. If U is an open set of R, then U may be

written as countable union of disjoint open intervals that is
U = ∪∞
i=1 In , where In = (an , bn ) and In ∩ Im = ϕ ∀ n ̸= m.
Proof. We first show that for every x ∈ U , there exists maximal

open interval Ix ⊂ U containing x i.e. if x ∈ I ⊂ U then
I ⊂ Ix.
Consider Ax = {a | (a, x] ⊂ U } and Bx = {b | [x, b) ⊂ U }
Let ax = inf Ax, and bx = sup Bx and Ix = (ax, bx).

Since U is open, ∃ϵ > 0 such that (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ U .

In particular, (x − ϵ, x] ⊂ U and [x, x + ϵ) ⊂ U .
⇒ ax ≤ x − ϵ and x + ϵ ≤ bx
⇒ ax ≤ x − ϵ < x < x + ϵ ≤ bx
⇒ ax < x < b x
Now, let Ix = (ax, bx). Then x ∈ (ax, bx) = Ix
To show Ix ⊂ U , let y ∈ Ix.
Then ax < y < bx and hence y is not a lower bound of Ax and
also it is not an upper bound of Bx.
So there exists a ∈ Ax and b ∈ Bx such that a < y < b.
Also (a, x] ⊂ U and [x, b) ⊂ U implies (a, b) ⊂ U and hence
y ∈ U.
Therefore Ix ⊂ U .
To show that Ix is maximal, let x ∈ I ⊂ U , say I = (ai, bi).
⇒ ai < x < bi then (ai, x] ⊂ (ai, bi) = I ⊂ U
⇒ (ai, x] ⊂ U
⇒ ax ≤ ai
Similarly, bx ≥ bi ⇒ (ai, bi) ⊂ (ax, bx)

⇒ I ⊂ Ix
Since for every x ∈ U, ∃ Ix such that x ∈ Ix ⊂ U
S
⇒ U = Ix (by Theorem 6.9)
Now we will show that, either Ix ∩ Iy = ∅ or Ix = Iy .
Suppose z ∈ Ix ∩ Iy .
⇒ z ∈ Ix and z ∈ Iy .
Also Ix ∪ Iy is an open interval.
Since x ∈ Ix ∪ Iy and Ix is maximal, we get Ix ∪ Iy ⊂ Ix ⊂
Ix ∪ Iy .
Implies Ix ∪ Iy = Ix and similarly Ix ∪ Iy = Iy
⇒ Ix = Iy .
∴ U is the disjoint union of open intervals,
say U = ∪{Ij | j ∈ J}.
Since for every Ij , there exists a rational number rj ∈ Ij .
Also if i ̸= j, then ri ̸= rj as Ii ∩ Ij = ∅.
So, there is a one-one map j 7→ rj from J into Q and hence J
is countable.
Thus U is the countable union of disjoint open intervals.

Theorem 6.14. A set U in (M, d) is open iff whenever a

sequence xn in M converges to x ∈ U , then xn ∈ U , for all
but finitely many.
Proof. Suppose U is open.

Let xn in M such that xn → x ∈ U .
Since x ∈ U & U is open, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂ U .
As xn → x, for this ϵ > 0 ∃ N such that d(xn, x) < ϵ ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ⊂ U ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ⊂ U ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ⊂ U for all but finitely many.
To prove converse, suppose U is not open.
⇒ ∃ x ∈ U such that Bϵ(x) ⊈ U ∀ϵ > 0
In particular for ϵ = n1 , ∃xn ∈ B 1 (x) but xn ∈
/U
n
1
⇒ d(xn, x) < n and as n → ∞, d(xn, x) → 0
⇒ xn → d x
∴ By assumption, xn ∈ U for all but finitely, which is a contra-

diction as xn ∈
/ U ∀n.
Hence U is open.
Definition 6.15. A set F ⊂ M is said to be closed if F c is

open. i.e. for every x ∈ F c, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂ F c
Example 6.16. 1. M and ϕ are closed sets as M c = ϕ and

ϕc = M are open.
2. Every closed interval is a closed set as [a, b]c = (−∞, a) ∪

(b, ∞) and (−∞, b]c = (b, ∞) are open sets.
Theorem 6.17. An arbitrary intersection of closed sets is

closed.
Proof. Let (Fα )α∈Λ be closed sets.
⇒ Fαc is open for each α ∈ Λ.

S c
⇒ Fα is open.
α∈Λ
c
T
⇒ Fα is open.
Tα∈Λ
⇒ Fα is closed.
α∈Λ

Theorem 6.18. Finite union of closed sets is closed.
Proof. Let F1, F2, ..., Fn be closed.
⇒ F1c, F2c, ..., Fnc are open.

n
Fic is open.
T
⇒
i=1
n c
S
⇒ Fi is open.
i=1
n
S
⇒ Fi is closed.
i=1
Remark 6.19. Arbitrary union of closed sets need not be

closed.
For example, each Fn = 1 + n1 , 3

n ≥ 1 is closed in R
n ∞
1 + n1 , 3 = (1, 3] is not closed in R.
S S
but Fn =
i=1 n=1
Theorem 6.20. In a discrete metric space, every subset is

closed.
Proof. Let A ⊂ M . Since every subset of M is open, Ac is

open.
⇒ A is closed.

Theorem 6.21. In a metric space, finite set is closed.
Proof. First we show that every singleton set {x} is closed.

Let y ∈ M \ {x} ⇒ y ̸= x ⇒ d(x, y) > 0
Let ϵ = d(x, y) then x ∈
/ Bϵ(y) as ϵ = d(x, y) < ϵ is false.
∴ Bϵ(y) ⊂ M \ {x}
∴ M \ {x} is open and hence {x} is closed.
Now let A = {x1, x2, ...xn} be a finite subset of M then A =
Sn
{xi}
i=1
Since each {xi} is closed and finite union of closed set is closed,
we get that A is closed.
Remark 6.22. Sets are not doors as there are some sets which
are neither closed nor open. For example, [0, 1) is neither closed
nor open in R.

Theorem 6.23. Given a set F in (M, d), the following are

equivalent:
(i) F is closed.
(ii) If Bϵ(x) ∩ F ̸= ∅ ∀ ϵ > 0, then x ∈ F .
(iii) If a sequence (xn) in F converges to x ∈ M , then

x ∈ F.
Proof. (i) ⇒ (ii) : Assume that Bϵ(x) ∩ F ̸= ∅ ∀ ϵ > 0 but

x∈
/ F.
Then x ∈ F c and since F c is open, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂
Fc
⇒ Bϵ(x) ∩ F = ∅, which is a contradiction. Hence x ∈ F .
(ii) ⇒ (iii) : Let (xn) be a sequence in F such that xn → x
for some x ∈ M .
Let ϵ > 0. Since xn → x, ∃ N such that d(xn, x) < ϵ ∀n ≥
N.
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∀n ≥ N

⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∩ F ∀n ≥ N
∴ Bϵ(x) ∩ F ̸= ϕ ∀ ϵ > 0
⇒x∈F
(iii) ⇒ (i) : We will show that F is closed. i.e. F c is open.
Suppose F c is not open. Then ∃ x ∈ F c such that Bϵ(x) ⊈
F c ∀ϵ > 0
In particular,for ϵ = n1 , ∃ xn ∈ B 1 (x) but xn ∈
/ F c.
n
⇒ xn ∈ B 1 (x) and xn ∈ F
n
⇒ xn → x and xn ∈ F
Therefore x ∈ F , which is a contradiction.
Hence F c is open.
Definition 6.24. Interior Point

Let A ⊂ M . Then a point x ∈ A is called interior point of A
if ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂ A. The set of interior points of A
is denoted by A◦ or int(A).
int(A) = {x ∈ A | Bϵ(x) ⊂ A for some ϵ > 0}
Remark 6.25. Interior of A is the largest open set contained

in A.
int(A) = ∪{U is open|U ⊂ A}
Example 6.26. Let A = [0, 1]. Show that intA = (0, 1).
Proof. Let 0 < x < 1. We will show that x is an interior point.

Since x ∈ (0, 1) and (0, 1) is open. ∃ ϵ > 0 such that (x − ϵ, x +
ϵ) ⊂ (0, 1).
∴ x ∈ (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ (0, 1) ⊂ [0, 1]
∴ x ∈ (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ A
⇒ x is an interior point of A = [0, 1].
Now, x = 0 & x = 1 are not interior points of A because
(−ϵ, ϵ)& (1 − ϵ, 1 + ϵ) ⊈ A
∴ intA = (0, 1)
In general, int([a, b]) = (a, b).
Remark 6.27. If A ⊂ M is open, then int A = A.
Example 6.28. If A = { n1 |n ≥ 1}, then intA = ∅.
Proof. For any x ∈ A, ∄ ϵ > 0 such that (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊂ A as

(x−ϵ, x+ϵ) contains irrationals where as A does not. Therefore,

int A = ϕ
Example 6.29. int(N) = int(Z) = int(Q)

= int(R/Q) = ϕ
Proof. Let A = N or Z or Q then for any x ∈ A, and for any

ϵ > 0, (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ⊈ A, as (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) contains irrational
where as A does not.
If A = R/Q then also for any x ∈ A and ϵ > 0 (x−ϵ, x+ϵ) ⊈ A
because (x−ϵ, x+ϵ) contains rational where as A does not.
Definition 6.30. Closure of set Let A ⊂ M . Then closure

of A is the smallest closed set containing A and it is denoted
by cl(A) or A.
i.e.A = ∩{F is closed|A ⊂ F }
Definition 6.31. Limit Point Let A ⊂ M . Then any point

x ∈ M is said to be a limit point of A if every neighbourhood
of x contains a point of A other than x i.e. (Bϵ(x) \ {x}) ∩ A ̸=
ϕ ∀ϵ > 0.

Theorem 6.32. x ∈ A iff Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ ∀ ϵ > 0.
Proof. Suppose x ∈ A. Suppose ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x)∩A =

ϕ
⇒ A ⊂ (Bϵ(x))c. Since (Bϵ(x))c is closed and A is the smallest
closed set containing A we get, A ⊂ (Bϵ(x))c.
Since x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ (Bϵ(x))c ⇒ x ∈
/ Bϵ(x).
Which is a contradiction.
⇒ Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ ∀ ϵ > 0.
Suppose Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ, ∀ ϵ > 0.
Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ, ∀ ϵ > 0.
Since A is closed and Bϵ(x)∩A ̸= ϕ, ∀ ϵ > 0, we get x ∈ A.
Remark 6.33. The set together with all limit points of A is

the closure of A.
i.e. A = A ∪ limit points of A
Example 6.34. 1. A = (0, 1] then A = [0, 1], as 0 is the

limit point of A.

2. A = (0, 1) then A = [0, 1], as 0 and 1 are the limit points

of A.
3. A = { n1 |n ≥ 1} then A = A ∪ {0}, as ’0’ is the limit

point of A.
Corollary 6.35. x ∈ A iff there is a sequence (xn) ⊂ A

such that xn → x.
Proof. Let x ∈ A ⇒ Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ, ∀ ϵ > 0. In particular,

ϵ = n1 ∃ xn such that xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∩ A
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) and xn ∈ A.
1
⇒ d(xn, x) < n and (xn) ⊂ A
⇒ xn → x
∴ ∃(xn) ⊂ A such that xn → x.
Conversely, let (xn) be a sequence in A such that xn → x.
Given ϵ > 0, ∃ N such that d(xn, x) < ϵ ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∀n ≥ N
⇒ xn ∈ Bϵ(x) ∩ A ∀n ≥ N
⇒ Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ ∀ϵ > 0

⇒x∈A
Definition 6.36 (Relative Metric). Let (M, d) be a metric

space and A ⊂ M . Then A inherits a metric ’d’ by restriction
′ ′
of d i.e. d = d|A and (A, d ) is called relative metric of (M, d).
′
For convenience, (A, d ) will also be denoted by (A, d).
Definition 6.37 (Open ball in (A, d)). For any x ∈ A,

open ball about x of radius ϵ > 0 is denoted by BϵA(x) and is
defined as,
BϵA(x) ={y ∈ A|d(x, y) < ϵ}
= A ∩ {y ∈ M |d(x, y) < ϵ}
∴ BϵA(x) =A ∩ Bϵ(x)
Theorem 6.38. Let A ⊂ M then
1. Any set G ⊂ A is open in A iff G = A ∩ U for some

open set U in M .
2. Any set F ⊂ A is closed in A iff F = A ∩ C where C

is closed in M .

Proof. 1. Suppose ϕ ̸= G ⊂ A is open. Let x ∈ G since G is

open in A and x ∈ G, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that x ∈ BϵA(x) ⊂ G
⇒ G = ∪{BϵA(x)|BϵA(x) ⊂ G}
⇒ G = ∪(A ∩ Bϵ(x))
⇒ G = A ∩ (∪Bϵ(x))
Then U = ∪Bϵ(x) is open in M .
∴ G = A ∩ U , where U is open in M .
Conversely, suppose G = A ∩ U where U is open in M .
We have to show that, G is open in A. Let x ∈ G ⇒ x ∈
A ∩ U ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ U .
Since U is open and x ∈ U
→ ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂ U
⇒ A ∩ Bϵ(x) ⊂ A ∩ U
⇒ x ∈ BϵA(x) ⊂ G
⇒ G is open in A
2. Let F ⊂ A is closed then F c ⊂ A is open.

∴ by (1), F c = A ∩ U , where U is open in M ⇒ F =

A ∩ U c.
Let C = U c then C is closed in M and F = A ∩ C.
Suppose F = A ∩ C where C is closed in M .
⇒ C c is open open in M and F c = A ∩ C c
⇒ F c is open in A.
⇒ F is closed in A.
Definition 6.39 (Boundary Points). Let A ⊂ M . Then

a point x ∈ M is said to be a boundary point of A if every
ball around x intersects A as well as Ac, i.e., Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸=
∅ & Bϵ(x) ∩ Ac ̸= ∅ ∀ϵ > 0.
The set of all boundary point of A is denoted by bdry(A)
i.e. bdry(A) = {x ∈ M |Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ and Bϵ(x) ∩ Ac ̸=
ϕ ∀ϵ > 0}
Remark 6.40. 1. bdry(A) = cl(A) \ int(A)
2. cl(A) = bdry(A) ∪ int(A)

3. M = int(A) ∪ bdry(A) ∪ int(Ac)
Example 6.41. 1. A = [0, 1) then bdry(A) = {0, 1}
2. A = N, then bdry(N) = N
3. bdry(Q) = R
4. bdry(R/Q) = R
Definition 6.42 (Dense set). A set A is said to be dense in

M if Ā = M .
i.e. For any x ∈ M, Bϵ(x) ∩ A ̸= ϕ ∀ ϵ > 0
Example 6.43. 1. Q is dense in R as Q = R.
2. R/Q is dense in R.
Definition 6.44 (Nowhere Dense set). A set A is said to

be nowhere dense in M if int(cl(A)) = ϕ.
i.e. (A)◦ = ϕ
The set of natural number N is nowhere dense.

7 Continuity
7 Continuity
Definition 7.1. Let (M, d) and (N, ρ) are two metric spaces.
Let f : M → N then f is said to be continuous at x0 ∈ M
if given ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that ρ(f (x), f (x0)) < ϵ whenever
d(x, x0) < δ. If f is continuous at each xo ∈ M , then f is
continuous on M .
Remark 7.2. f is continuous at x0 if, f (x) ∈ Bϵρ(f (x0)) when-

ever x ∈ Bδd(x0),i.e. f (Bδd(x0)) ⊂ Bϵρ(f (x0)).
Theorem 7.3. Given f : (M, d) → (N, ρ) the following are

equivalent:
1. f is continuous on M .
2. For any x ∈ M , if xn → x in M then f (xn) → f (x)

in N .
3. If E is closed in N , then f −1(E) is closed in M .
4. If V is open in N , then f −1(V ) is open in M .

7 Continuity
Proof. 1. → 2.
Suppose f is continuous at x. Then for given ϵ > 0, there exists
δ > 0 such that ρ((f (x), f (y)) < ϵ whenever d(x, y) < δ.
Let xn → x in M . Then for δ > 0, ∃ N such that d(xn, x) <
δ∀n ≥ N
⇒ ρ(f (xn), f (x)) < ϵ ∀n ≥ N
⇒ f (xn) → f (x) in N
2. → 3.
Let E be closed set in N . We have to show that f −1(E) is
closed in M . Let (xn) ⊂ F −1(E) such that xn → x in M . By
2., f (xn) → f (x) in N .
(xn) ⊂ f −1(E) ⇒ (f (xn)) ⊂ E. Since E is closed & f (xn) →
f (x).
⇒ f (x) ⊂ E
⇒ x ∈ f −1(E)
⇒ f −1(E) is closed.
3. → 4.
Let V be open in N .

7 Continuity
⇒ V c is closed in N .
⇒ f −1(V c) is closed in M .
−1
c
⇒ f (V ) is closed in M .
⇒ f −1(V ) is open in M .
4. → 1.
To show that f is continuous on M . Let x ∈ M and ϵ > 0
then
f (x) ∈ N & Bϵρ(f (x)) is open in N .
⇒ f −1 (Bϵρ(f (x))) is open in M .
Let V = Bϵρ(f (x)) then f (x) ∈ V ⇒ x ∈ f −1(V ).
Since x ∈ f −1(V )& f −1(V ) is open.
⇒ ∃ δ > 0 such that Bδd(x) ⊂ f −1(V )
⇒ f (Bδd(x)) ⊂ V = Bϵρ(f (x))
∴ f (Bδd(x)) ⊂ Bϵρ(f (x))
f is contninuous at x ∈ M .
⇒ f is continuous at x ∈ M
∴ f continuous on M .

7 Continuity

 1, if x ∈ Q
Example 7.4. Show that χQ(x) = is no where
 0, if x ∈
/Q
continuous.
Proof. Let x ∈ Q then χQ(x) = 1 & χQ(x) ∈ B 1 (1).

2
⇒ x ∈ χ−1
Q (B 1 (1)).
2
⇒ Q ⊂ χ−1
Q (B 1 (1)).2
Let y ∈ χ−1
Q (B 1 (1)).
2
⇒ χQ(y) ∈ B 1 (1).
2
⇒ χQ(y) = 1
⇒y∈Q
⇒ χ−1
Q (B 1 (1)) ⊂ Q
2
∴ Q = χ−1
Q (B 1 (1))
2
Since Q is not open.

⇒ χ−1
Q (B 1 (1)) is not open.
2
⇒ χQ is not continuous at any x ∈ Q.

Let x ∈
/ Q ⇒ χQ(x) = 0 and χQ(x) ∈ B 1 (0).
2
⇒ x ∈ χ−1
Q (B 1 (0)).
2

7 Continuity
⇒ R/Q ⊂ χ−1
Q (B 1 (0)).2
Also χ−1
Q (B 1 (0)) ⊂ R/Q
2
∴ R/Q = χ−1
Q (B 1 (0)) is not open.
2
∴ χQ is not continuous at any x ∈

/ Q.
∴ χQ is nowhere continuous.
Definition 7.5. Isometry

A function f : (M, d) → (N, ρ) is called an isometry if f
preserves distances
i.e. d(x, y) = ρ(f (x), f (y)) ∀ x, y ∈ M .
Exercise: Show that every isometry f : M → N is con-

tinuous.
Definition 7.6 (Homeomorphism). We say that two met-

ric spaces (M, d) and (N, ρ) are homeomorphic if ∃ a bijective
map f : M → N such that f & f −1 are continuous. This map
f is called homeomorphism from M to N .
Remark 7.7. If f : M → N is a homeomorphism then f −1 :

N → M is also a homeomorphism.

7 Continuity
Example 7.8. 1. Every metric space (M, d) is homeomor-

phic to itself by identity map i.e.f : M → M such that
f (x) = x is a homeomorphism.
2. (0, 1] and [1, ∞) are homeomorphic by the map x 7→ x1 .
3. In R, any two intervals that look alike are homeomorphic.

(define f : [a, b] → [c, d] by f (x) = c + m(x − a) where
m= d−c
b−a then f is bijective and f and f −1 are continu-
ous.)
{ n1 |n

1. Prove that (N, usual metric) is homeomorphic to ≥ 1}, usual .
2. Check that the relation ”is homeomorphic to” is an equiv-

alence relation on pairs of metric space.
Example 7.10. (R,usual metric) and (R,discrete metric) are

not homeomorphic.
Proof. Suppose these two metrics are homeomorphic then there

exists a bijective map f : R → R such that f and f −1 are

7 Continuity
continuous. Since {f (x)} is open in discrete space and f is

continuous.
⇒ f −1 (f (x)) is open in (R, |.|) space.
⇒ {x} is open in (R, |.|) which is a contradiction.
∴ (R, |.|) and (R,discrete) are not homeomorphic.
Definition 7.11. Space of Continuous Functions

Let (M, d) be a metric space. Let C(M ) = {f : M →
R|f is continuous}.
Define for any f, g ∈ C(M )
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and (af )(x) = a(f (x), a ∈ R.
Then C(M ) is a vector space over R, called the space of con-
tinuous functions on M .
Theorem 7.12. If f, g : M → R are continuous then

f ± g, f g, af, min{f, g}, max{f, g} are continuous. Also if
f
g(x) ̸= 0 for all x, then g is continuous.
Proof. Let (xn) be a sequence such that xn → x . Since f is

continuous f (xn) → f (x) and g is continuous implies g(xn) →

7 Continuity
g(x).
⇒ f (xn) + g(xn) → f (x) + g(x)
⇒ (f + g)(xn) → (f + g)(x)
min{f, g}(x) = min{f (x), g(x)}
For any a, b ∈ R, we have min{a, b} = 12 (a + b − |a − b|)
and max{f, g} = 12 (a + b + |a − b|).
Since f and g are continuous f + g, f − g, |f − g| are also
continuous.
⇒ min{f, g} = 12 [(f + g) − |f − g|] is continuous.
Similarly, max{f, g} is continuous.
Since (f g)(xn) = f (xn)g(xn) → f (x)g(x) = (f g)(x), we get
that f g is continuous.
f
If g(x) ̸= 0 for all x, then g = (f )( g1 ) is continuous.

8 Connectedness
8 Connectedness
Definition 8.1. Connectedness

A metric space (M, d) is called disconnected if there exists non
empty disjoint open set A & B such that M = A ∪ B i.e.
∃ A ̸= ϕ, B ̸= ϕ, A ∩ B = ϕ such that M = A ∪ B. The pair
(A, B) is called disconnection or separation of M .
If there is no disconnection of M , then M is called connected.
Example 8.2. Let (M, d) be a discrete metric space with at

least two elements. Then (M, d) is disconnected.
Proof. For any x ∈ M, M = {x} ∪ M \ {x}.

Here {x} ̸= ∅, M \ {x} ̸= ∅ and are disjoint open set. Hence
M is disconnected.
Definition 8.3. Disconnected subset

Let (M, d) be a metric space. A subset E is said to be discon-
nected if there exists non-empty disjoint open sets A and B in
M such that E ⊂ A ∪ B.

8 Connectedness
Theorem 8.4. The closed interval [a, b] is connected in R.
Proof. Suppose [a, b] disconnected. Then there exists two non-

empty disjoint open sets A and B in R such that [a, b] = A∪B.
If x ∈ A, then x ≤ b and so A is bounded above.
By LUB axiom, sup A exists, say c = sup A.
We show that a ≤ c ≤ b.
If c < a, then A = ∅, which is not true.
Similarly, if b < c, then B = ∅, which is also not true.
Thus c ∈ [a, b].
Now we claim that c ∈
/ A and c ∈
/ B.
Suppose c ∈ A. Since A is open, there exists ϵ > 0 such that
[c, c + ϵ) ⊂ A
Then c + 2ϵ ∈ A and thus c + 2ϵ ≤ c, which is absurd.
Now if c ∈ B, as B is open, there exists ϵ > 0 such that
(c − ϵ, c] ⊂ B
Then c − 2ϵ ∈ B and thus c ≤ c − 2ϵ , which is absurd again.
Therefore c ∈ [a, b], but c ∈
/ A and c ∈
/ B, which is a contra-

8 Connectedness
diction.
∴ [a, b] is connected in R.
Theorem 8.5. A subset E of R containing more than one

point is connected if and only if whenever x, y ∈ E with
x < y then [x, y] ⊂ E.
i.e. Connected subset of R are precisely intervals.
Proof. Suppose E is connected.

Suppose there exists x, y ∈ E with x < y but [x, y] ̸⊂ E.
Then ∃ z ∈ [x, y] such that z ∈
/E
⇒ E ⊂ (−∞, z) ∪ (z, ∞).
Let A = (−∞, z) &B = (z, ∞) then A ∩ B = ϕ,
E ∩ A ̸= ϕ, E ∩ B ̸= ϕ and E ⊂ A ∪ B.
⇒ E is disconnected, which is a contradiction.
Hence if x, y ∈ E with x < y then [x, y] ⊂ E. Conversely,
assume that E satisfies the given condition but E is not con-
nected.
Then there exists two disjoint non-empty open sets A and B

8 Connectedness
such that E ⊂ A ∪ B .
Since E ∩ A ̸= ϕ, E ∩ B ̸= ϕ, let a ∈ E ∩ A and b ∈ E ∩ B.
Then a, b ∈ E. suppose a < b. Then [a, b] ⊂ E ⊂ A ∪ B
⇒ [a, b] ⊂ A ∪ B
⇒ [a, b] is disconnected, which is contradiction.
∴ E is a connected.
Corollary 8.6. R is connected as [x, y] ⊂ R, ∀x, y ∈ R
Theorem 8.7. M is disconnected if and only if there exists

a continuous map f : M → {0, 1}, which is onto.
Proof. Suppose M is disconnected then there exists two non-

empty open sets A & B such that  M = A ∪ B.
 0, x ∈ A
Define f : M → {0, 1} by f (x) =
 1, x ∈ B
Since f is continuous on A & B and A∩B = ϕ, f is continuous
on A ∪ B = M . Also f is onto as A, B ̸= ∅.
Conversely, suppose there exists a continuous function f : M →

8 Connectedness
{0, 1} which is onto.

⇒ f (M ) = {0, 1}
Take A = f −1 ({0}) and B = f −1 ({1}), then A and B are
open sets in M and A ∩ B = ϕ.
Also A ∪ B = f −1 ({0}) ∪ f −1 ({1}) = f −1 ({0, 1}) = M
⇒ M is disconnected.
Theorem 8.8. Exercise

M is connected iff every continuous map f : M → {0, 1} is
constant.
Theorem 8.9. If A and B are connected then A × B is

connected.
Proof. Let f : A × B → {0, 1} be a continuous map.

To show that A × B is connected it is enough to show that f
is constant.
Let (a0, b0) ∈ A×B be a fixed point and (a, b) be any arbitrary
point in A × B.
We show that f (a, b) = f (a0, b0).

8 Connectedness
′ ′ ′
Consider the map fa : B → {0, 1} defined by fa(b ) = f (a, b ), ∀b ∈
B.
Since f is continuous on A × B, we get that fa is continuous
on B.
As B is connected, fa is constant.
′ ′
Then fa(b ) = k1, ∀ b ∈ B
′ ′
⇒ f (a, b ) = k, ∀ b ∈ B In particulary, f (a, b) = f (a, b0) (b, b0 ∈
′
B) Similarly, the map fb0 : A → {0, 1} given by fb0 (a ) =
′
f (a , b0) is continuous on A.
Since A is connected, fb0 is constant.
′ ′ ′
Then fb0 (a ) = f (a , b0) = k2, ∀ a ∈ A
In particular, f (a0, b0) = f (a, b0) (a, a0 ∈ A) Hence f (a, b) =
f (a, b0) = f (a0, b0).
Hence A × B is connected.
Corollary 8.10. 1. R2 is connected. In general, Rn is

connected.
2. [0, 1] × [0, 1] is connected.

8 Connectedness
Theorem 8.11. (Continuous Image of a connected

set is connected.) Let f : (M, d) → (N, ρ) be continuous
and E be a subset of M . If E is connected then f (E) is
connected.
Proof. Suppose f (E) is disconnected then thereexists g : f (E) →

{0, 1} which is a continuous and onto.
⇒ g ◦ f : E → {0, 1} continuous and onto. Since f is contin-
uous on E and g is continuous on f (E). Since g is onto, g ◦ f
is also onto.
⇒ E is disconnected which is a contradiction. Hence f (E) is
connected.
Example 8.12. Show that the intervals that look, different

are not homeomorphic.
Proof. We will show that (a, b] and (a, b) are not homeomor-
phic. Suppose they are homeomorphic then thereexists f :
(a, b] → (a, b) which is a continuous. Let c = f (b) then
a < c < b. Since f is bijective

8 Connectedness
f ((a, b] \ {b}) = (a, b) \ {c} = (a, c) ∪ (c, b)

Since (a, b] \ {b} = (a, b) connected and f is continuous, f (a, b)
is connected, which is a contradiction to (a, c) ∪ (c, b) is discon-
nected.
∴ (a, b] and (a, b) are not homeomorphic.

9 Totally Bounded
9 Totally Bounded
Definition 9.1. Totally Bounded

A subset A of M is said to be totally bounded if for given
ϵ > 0, ∃ x1, x2, ...xn ∈ M such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1Bϵ(xi)
Remark 9.2. {x1, x2, ...xn} is called as ϵ-net for A.
Lemma 9.3. If A is totally bounded, for given ϵ > 0, ∃ y1, y2, ...yn ∈
A such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1Bϵ(yi).
Proof. Since A is totally bounded ∃ x1, x2, ...xn ∈ M such that

A ⊂ ∪ni=1B 2ϵ (xi).
Without loss of generality, we can assume A∩B 2ϵ (xi) ̸= ϕ ∀ i =
1, 2, ...n. Let yi ∈ A ∩ B 2ϵ (xi).Let a ∈ A then ∃ j such that
a ∈ B 2ϵ (xj ) then
d(a, yj ) ≤ d(a, xj ) + d(xj , yj ) < 2ϵ + 2ϵ = ϵ.
⇒ a ∈ Bϵ(yj )
∴ A ⊂ ∪ni=1Bϵ(yi).
Lemma 9.4. A is totally bounded if and only if for given

9 Totally Bounded
ϵ > 0, ∃ A1, A2, ...An ⊂ A with diam(Ai) < ϵ, for every i,

such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1Ai.
Proof. A is totally bounded. Let ϵ > 0. Then ∃ x1, x2, ..., xn ∈

A such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1B 3ϵ (xi).
Take Ai = A ∩ B 3ϵ (xi)

⇒ A = A ∩ ∪ni=1B 3ϵ (xi) = ∪ni=1 A ∩ B 3ϵ (xi) = ∪ni=1Ai

and diam(Ai) = diam(A ∩ B 3ϵ (xi)) ≤ diam B 3ϵ (xi)) ≤
2( 3ϵ ) < ϵ.
Conversely, suppose ∃ A1, A2, ...An ⊂ A with diam(Ai) < ϵ
such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1Ai then Ai ⊂ Bϵ(xi) for any xi ∈ Ai.
∴ A ⊂ ∪ni=1Ai ⊂ ∪ni=1Bϵ(xi).
⇒ A is totally bounded.
Example 9.5. In a metric space any finite set is totally bounded.
Proof. Let A = {x1, x2, ...xn} take Ai = {xi}.

Let ϵ > 0 then A = ∪ni=1Ai and diam(Ai) = 0 < ϵ.

9 Totally Bounded
Example 9.6. In a discrete metric space M , a subset A is

totally bounded if and only if A is finite.
Proof. Let A = {x1, x2, ...xn} take Ai = {xi}. Let ϵ > 0 then
A = ∪ni=1Ai and diam(Ai) = 0 < ϵ.
Conversely, suppose A is totally bounded, then for ϵ = 1, ∃x1, x2, ...xn ∈
A such that A ⊂ ∪ni=1B1(xi). But in discrete space, B1(x) =
{x}.
∴ A ⊂ {x1, x2, ...xn}.
⇒ A is finite.
Lemma 9.7. Let (xn) be a sequence in (M, d) and A =

{xn|n ≥ 1} be its range.
1. If (xn) is Cauchy then A is totally bounded.
2. If A is totally bounded, then (xn) has a Cauchy subse-

quence.
Proof. 1. Let ϵ > 0. Since (xn) is Cauchy, ∃ k ∈ N such

9 Totally Bounded
that
d(xn, xm) < 2ϵ ∀ n, m ≥ k.
Let A1 = {x1}, A2 = {x2}, ...Ak−1 = {xk−1} and Ak =
{xn|n ≥ k} then A = ∪ni=1Ai and diam(Ai) = 0 <
ϵ, 1 ≤ i ≤ k − 1.
For any xn, xm ∈ Ak ,
ϵ
d(xn, xm) <
2
ϵ
⇒ sup{d(xn, xm)} ≤ < ϵ
2
⇒ diam(Ak ) <ϵ.
∴ A = ∪ki=1Ai such that diam(Ai) < ϵ.

2. Let A be a totally bounded set.

Case1:If A is finite, then there are infinitely many xn’s
which are equal say to k and hence this elements form as
sub sequence which is convergent and so Cauchy.
Case2: So assume that A is infinite. For ϵ = 1, A can

9 Totally Bounded
be covered by finitely many sub set with diameter less

than ’1’. Since A is infinite, there is at least one subset
say A1 of A which is infinite with diam(A1) < 1. Since
1
A1 ⊂ A, A1 is totally bounded , so for ϵ = 2, A1 is
covered by finitely many subsets of A1 with diameter less
than 21 . Since A1 is infinite there is atleast one subset of
A1, say A2 which is infinite and diam(A2) < 21 .
By repeating this process, we get A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3... such
that each Ak is infinite and diam(Ak ) < k1 .
Let xnk ∈ Ak ∀k. Let ϵ > 0 then by Archimedian
1
property, ∃ m ∈ N such that m < ϵ. Let p, q ≥ m
1 1
d(xnp , xnq ) ≤ diam(Aq ) < q ≤ m < ϵ.
∴ d(xnp , xnq ) < ϵ ∀p, q ≥ m.
⇒ (xnk ) is Cauchy subsequence.
Theorem 9.8. A set A is totally bounded if and only if

every sequence in A has a Cauchy subsequence.

9 Totally Bounded
Proof. From above lemma first part follows.

Now we will prove second part. Suppose every sequence in A
has a Cauchy subsequence.
Suppose A is not totally bounded. Then ∃ ϵ > 0 such that A
can not be covered by finitely many subsets of A of diameter
less than ϵ. Therefore, there are infinitely many elements of A
which are not in those above sets then we get a subsequence
xnk with these elements for any p ̸= q, d(xnp , xnq ) ≥ ϵ.
⇒ (xnk ) is not a Cauchy. Which is a contradiction.
∴ A is totally bounded.

10 Complete Metric Space
Definition 10.1. Complete Metric Space

Let (M, d) be a metric space. Then M is said to be complete,
if every Cauchy sequence in M converges in M .
e.g. R is complete.
Example 10.2. Every discrete metric space is complete.
Proof. Let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence in discrete space (M, d).

Then for ϵ = 12 , ∃ k ∈ N such that d(xn, xm) < 21 ∀ n, m ≥ k.
⇒ d(xn, xm) = 0 ∀ n, m ≥ k
⇒ xn = xm ∀ n, m ≥ k
⇒ xn = xk ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ |xn − xk | = 0 < ϵ ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ xn → xk
∴ M is complete.
Example 10.3. (0, 1) is not complete as ( n1 ) is Cauchy se-

1
quence in (0, 1) but n does not converge in (0, 1).

Theorem 10.4. Let (M, d) be a complete metric space and

(A, d) is subset of (M, d). Then (A, d) is complete if and
only if A is closed.
Proof. Let (A, d) be complete subset of (M, d) and (xn) ⊂ A

such that xn → x ∈ M .
⇒ xn converges in M and hence Cauchy.
Since (A, d) is complete and (xn) is Cauchy, converges in A.
⇒ x ∈ A.
⇒ A is closed.
Conversely, suppose A is closed.
Let xn be a Cauchy sequence in A.
⇒ (xn) is Cauchy in M .
⇒ xn → x ∈ M
Since A is closed, x ∈ A.
∴ (A, d) is complete.
Example 10.5. [0, 1], [0, ∞), N, Z are complete.
Theorem 10.6. Let (M, d) be a metric space. Then the

following are equivalent.
1. M is complete.
2. (The Nested Set Theorem)

Let F1 ⊃ F2 ⊃ F3 ⊃ ... be a decreasing sequence of
non empty closed sets in M with diam(Fn) → 0.
Then ∩∞
n=1 Fn ̸= ϕ and contains exactly one point.
3. (Bolzano-Wierstrass Theorem)
Every infinite totally bounded subset of M has a limit
point in M .
Proof. 1. → 2.
Suppose M is complete.
Let F1 ⊃ F2 ⊃ F3... decreasing sequence of non empty closed
subset of M such that diam(Fn) → 0.
Since each Fn ̸= ϕ, let xn ∈ Fn∀n
∴ {xk |k ≥ n} ⊂ Fn ∀n
⇒ diam{xk |k ≥ n} ≤ diam(Fn) → 0 as n → ∞

∴ diam{xk |k ≥ n} → 0 as n → ∞
⇒ (xn) is Cauchy and M is complete, (xn) converges to x ∈ M .
As each Fn is closed, x ∈ Fn ∀n
Hence ∩∞
n=1 Fn ̸= ∅.
Let x, y ∈ ∩∞
n=1 Fn .
Then d(x, y) ≤ diam(Fn) → 0 as n → ∞

⇒ d(x, y) = 0
⇒ x = y.
2. → 3.
Let A be an infinite totally bounded subsets of M .
Since A is infinite and totally bounded A contains a Cauchy
sequence (xn) of distinct points.
Let An = {xk |k ≥ n}. Then A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3....
As (xn) is Cauchy, diam(An) → 0 as n → ∞.
Implies Ā1 ⊃ Ā2 ⊃ ...
with diam(Ān) = diam(An) → 0.
∴ by 2., ∩∞
n=1 Ān ̸= ϕ.
Let x ∈ ∩∞
n=1 Ān

⇒ x ∈ Ān, ∀n
Since (xn) ⊂ An ⊂ Ān, we get xn ∈ Ān
d(xn, x) ≤ diam(Ān) → 0
⇒ xn → x
∴ x is a limit point of A.
3. → 1.
Let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence and A = {xn|n ≥ 1}.
Then A is totally bounded.
If A is finite, then there are infinitely many xk ’s which are equal
& hence we get subsequence which converges.
Suppose A is infinite, then by 2., A has a limit point say x
where x ∈ M .
∴ for ϵ = k1 , let xnk ∈ B 1 (x) ∩ A \ {x}
k
⇒ xnk ∈ B 1 (x) and (xnk ) ⊂ A

k
1
⇒ d(xnk , x) < k → 0 as k → ∞
∴ xnk → x.
∴ (xnk ) is a convergent subsequence of (xn).
Since (xn) is Cauchy, xn → x. ∴ M is Complete.

Definition 10.7. Contraction Mapping

Let (M, d) be a metric space. A map f : M → M is said to
be contraction if ∃ α, 0 ≤ α < 1 such that d(f (x), f (y)) ≤
α.d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ M .
e.g.
x
1. f (x) = 2 x ∈ R then f is a contraction as
|f (x) − f (y)| = | x2 − y2 | = 12 |x − y|
1
Here α = 2 then |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ α|x − y|
2. f (x) = x is not contraction.
Definition 10.8. Fixed Point

A point x0 ∈ M is called a fixed point of a map f : M → M
if f (x0) = x0.
Theorem 10.9. Banach Contraction Principle

Let (M, d) be a complete metric space and f : M → M be a
contraction. Then f has unique fixed point. Moreover given
any x0 ∈ M , the sequence of functional iterates (f n(x0))

is always converges to a fixed point of f where f 2(x0) =

n

f (f (x0)), f (x0) = f f ...f (x0)
Proof. First we show that for any x0 ∈ M, f n(x0) converges.

Since M is complete it is enough to show that (f n(x0)) is
Cauchy. Since f is contraction ∃ some α, 0 ≤ α < 1 such
that d (f (x), f (y)) ≤ α.d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ M
d f n+1(x0), f n(x0) =d f (f n(x0)), f (f n−1(x0))

≤αd f n(x0), f n−1(x0)

≤α2d f n−1(x0), f n−2(x0)

≤αnd(f (x0), x0)
=αn.c

For n < m,
d (f n (x0 ), f m (x0 )) ≤d f n (x0 ), f n+1 (x0 ) + d f n+1 (x0 ), f m (x0 )

≤d f n (x0 ), f n+1 (x0 ) + d f n+1 (x0 ), f n+2 (x0 ) + ...+

+ d f m−1 (x0 ), f m (x0 )

≤αn .c + αn+1 .c + ... + αm−1 .c

m−1
!
X
=c αk
k=n
n1 − αm−n
=c.α
1−α
c
d (f n (x0 ), f m (x0 )) ≤ αn (1 − αm−n )
1−α
as n → ∞ αn → 0
∴ d (f n(x0), f m(x0)) → 0 as n → ∞
∴ (f n(x0)) is a Cauchy sequence.
Let limx→∞ f n(x0) = x.
Since f is a contraction, f is continuous.
∴ f (limn→∞ f n(x0)) = f (x)
⇒ limn→∞ f n+1(x0) = f (x)
⇒ f (x) = x
∴ x is a fixed point of f .

Let x and y are two fixed points of f then f (x) = x and

f (y) = y
d(x, y) =d (f (x), f (y))
≤αd(x, y) (∵ f is contraction)
⇒ (1 − α)d(x, y) ≤ 0
⇒ d(x, y) = 0
⇒x=y
∴ f has unique fixed point.

11 Compactness
11 Compactness
Definition 11.1. A metric space (M, d) is called compact if

it is complete and totally bounded.
Example 11.2. (Heine-Borel theorem)

A subset K of R is compact if and only if it is closed and
bounded.
Proof. Suppose K is compact

⇒ K is totally bounded and complete.
Since K is totally bounded in R ⇒ K is bounded in R
Since K complete subset of R which is complete, K is closed.
Conversely, suppose K is closed and bounded.
Since K is closed subset of complete space, K is complete.
Since in R, every bounded set is totally bounded, K is totally
bounded.
Example 11.3. [0, 1] is compact where as (0, 1) is not compact

11 Compactness
as (0, 1) is not closed.
Example 11.4. In a discrete space, a subset is compact if and

only if it is finite.
Proof. Let M be discrete and A ⊂ M .

Suppose A is compact, then A is totally bounded.
⇒ A is finite, as only totally bounded subset of discrete space
are finite sets.
Conversely, supposeA is finite.
Since M is discrete A is totally bounded.
Since every subset in M is closed.
⇒ A is closed.
Since M is complete(∵ every discrete space is complete.) and
A ⊂ M is closed
⇒ A is complete.
Theorem 11.5. A metric space (M, d) is compact if and

only if every sequence in M has a subsequence that con-
verges to a point in M .

11 Compactness
Proof. Suppose (M, d) is compact.

⇒ M is totally bounded and complete.
Let (xn) be a sequence in M .
Since M is totally bounded, every sequence in M has a Cauchy
subsequence.
∴ (xn) has a Cauchy subsequence (xnk ).
Since M is complete (xnk ) converges in M .
⇒ Every sequence in M has a convergent subsequence in M .
Conversely, suppose every sequence in M has a convergent sub-
sequence in M .
Since convergent ⇒ Cauchy, every sequence in M has a Cauchy
subsequence.
⇒ M is totally bounded.
To show M is complete, let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence in M
by assumption, (xn) has a subsequence (xnk ) which converges
in M .
Since (xn) is Cauchy, it also converges in M .
⇒ M is complete and hence M is compact.

11 Compactness
Theorem 11.6. If f : (M, d) → (N, ρ) is continuous and

K is compact in M then f (K) is compact in N .
(i.e. continuous image of a compact subset is compact.)
Proof. To show that f (K) is compact.

Let (yn) be a sequence in f (K).
⇒ yn = f (xn) where xn ∈ K .
∴ (xn) is a sequence in K and K is compact.
⇒ (xn) has a subsequence (xnk ) such that xnk → x for some
x∈K
Now,since f is continuous, f (xnk ) → f (x) where f (x) ∈ f (K)
∴ yn has a subsequence (ynk ) which converges in f (K).
⇒ f (K) is compact.
Theorem 11.7. M is compact if and only if whenever G

S
is a collection of open sets in M with M ⊂ {G/G ∈ G}
then there are finitely sets G1, G2, ...Gn ∈ G such that M ⊂
Sn
i=1 Gi

11 Compactness
(i.e. M is compact iff every open cover of M has a finite

subcover.)
Proof. Suppose M is compact then M is totally bounded and

complete.
S
Suppose G is a collection of open sets such that M ⊂ {G/G ∈
G}.
We will prove by contradiction. i.e. assume that M can not be
covered by finitely many G’s.
Since M is totally bounded, M can be covered by finitely many
sets of diameter< 1.
Since M can not be covered by finitely many G’s, there is at
least one set say A1 of diam< 1 such that A1 can not be covered
by finitely many G’s.
Sm Sn
(∵ suppose not then Aj ⊂ i=1 Gji ⇒ M ⊂ j=1 Aj ⊂
Sn Sm
j=1 i=1 Gji )
In particular, A1 ̸= ∅ and is infinite.

Since A1 ⊂ M ⇒ A1 is totally bounded.

11 Compactness
1
⇒ A1 can be covered by finitely many sets of diam< 2
By above argument,there is at least one set, say A2 with diam(A2) <

1
2 such that A2 cannot be covered by finitely many G’s. Con-
tinuing in the same way,we get,
1
A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ... with diam(An) < n
such that no Ai is covered by finitely many G′s.

1
Ā1 ⊃ Ā2 ⊃ Ā3 ⊃ ... with diam(Ān) < n
⇒ diam(Ān) → 0 as n → ∞
Since M is complete, ∞
T
n=1 Ān ̸= ∅
Let x ∈ ∞
T
n=1 Ān
⇒ x ∈ Ān ∀n
S
Since M ⊂ {G/G ∈ G}
⇒ ∃G ∈ G such that x ∈ G
Since G is open, ∃ ϵ > 0 such that Bϵ(x) ⊂ G.
1
Since ϵ > 0 ∃ n such that n < ϵ (By Archimedian property.
1
then diam(An) < n < ϵ.
⇒ An ⊂ Bϵ(x) ⊂ G
⇒ An ⊂ G which is a contradiction.

11 Compactness
∴ M can be covered by finitely many sets from G.

⇒ Every open cover has a finite subcover.
Conversely, to show M is compact, we show that M is totally
bounded and complete.
Since for any x ∈ M , x ∈ Bϵ(x) for any ϵ > 0
S
we get M ⊂ {Bϵ(x)/x ∈ M }
⇒ {Bϵ(x)/x ∈ M } is an open cover for M
By assumption, it has a finite sub cover, i.e. ∃ x1, x2, ...xn ∈ M
such that M ⊂ ni=1 Bϵ(xi)
S
⇒ M is totally bounded.
To show that M is complete, let F1 ⊃ F2 ⊃ F3 ⊃ ... be non
empty closed subsets of M such that,
diam(Fn) → 0 as n → ∞
Now Fn = ni=1 Fi.
T
Since Fn ̸= ∅ for every n

Tn
⇒ i=1 Fi ̸= ∅ for every n
Suppose ⇒ ∞
T
i=1 Fi = ∅
⇒ ∞ c
S
i=1 Fi = M

11 Compactness
⇒ {Fic}∞i=1 is an open cover for M .

Sn
⇒ ∃ n such that, M ⊂ i=1 Fic
⇒ M c ⊃ { ni=1 Fic}c
S
⇒ ∅ ⊃ ni=1 Fi
T
⇒ ni=1 Fi = ∅ which is a contradiction.

T
⇒ ∞
T
i=1 Fi ̸= ∅.
⇒ M is complete.
Theorem 11.8. M is compact if and only if F is any col-

Tn
lection of closed sets in M such that i=1 Fi ̸= ∅ for all
T
choices of finitely many sets F1, F2, ...Fn ∈ F, then {F :
F ∈ F} =
̸ ∅
Proof. Suppose M is compact. Let F be a collection of closed

sets in M such that ni=1 Fi ̸= ∅ ∀ n
T
T
Suppose {F : F ∈ F} = ∅.
S c
⇒ {F } = M is an open cover for M .
Since M is compact, it has a finite subcover.
⇒ ∃ n such that M ⊂ ni=1{F c}
S

11 Compactness
⇒ ∅ ⊃ ni=1 Fi
T
Tn
⇒ i=1 Fi = ∅, which is contradiction.
T
∴ {F/ F ∈ F} = ̸ ∅
Now to prove M is compact. Let (xn) be a sequence in M .
Let An = {xk / k ≥ n}.
⇒ A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ... and each An ̸= ∅ ∀n
∴ we have a decreasing sequence of non-empty closed sets,
i.e. Ā1 ⊃ Ā2 ⊃ Ā3 ⊃ ... such that Ān ̸= ∅ ∀n
⇒ ni=1 Āi ̸= ∅ ∀n
T
By assumption, ∞
T
i=1 Āi ̸= ∅.
T∞
Let x ∈ i=1 Āi.
Since ∞
T
i=1 Āi is closed, there is a subsequence (xnk ) such that
xnk → x
(∵ x ∈ Ā iff (xn) ⊂ A such that xn → x )
⇒ M is compact.

12 Uniform Continuity
Definition 12.1. A map f : (M, d) → (N, ρ) is said to be

uniformly continuous if for gien ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that when-
ever x, y ∈ M with d(x, y) < δ then ρ(f (x), f (y)) < ϵ.
Theorem 12.2. Every uniformly continuous function is

continuous.
Proof. f : M → N is uniformly continuous.

∴ for ϵ > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such that
ρ(f (x), f (y)) < ϵ whenever d(x, y) < δ
⇒ f is continuous at x ∈ M .
⇒ f is continuous on M .
Remark 12.3. The converse of the above theorem is false i.e.

every continuous function need not be uniformly continuous.
For example, f (x) = x1 , x ∈ (0, ∞) then f is continuous.
But f is not uniformly continuous as n → ∞,

| x − y |→ 0 ⇒| x − y |< δ
1 1
But | f (x) − f (y) | =| f ( ) − f ( )|
n n+1
=| n − n − 1 |
=1
For ϵ = 12 , | f (x) − f (y) |> ϵ.
Theorem 12.4. If M is a compact metric space then every

continuous map f : M → N is uniformly continuous.
Proof. Let ϵ > 0.Since f is continuous for each x ∈ M ∃ δx > 0

such that,
ϵ
ρ(f (x), f (y)) < 2 whenever d(x, y) < δx.
∴ {B δx (x)/x ∈ M } is an open cover for M .
2
Since M is compact, ∃ x1, x2, , , , xn ∈ M such that

M ⊂ ni=1 Bri (xi) where ri = δxi
S
2 .
Take δ = min{r1, r2, ...rn}.

Let x, y ∈ M such that d(x, y) < δ.Since x ∈ M ∃ j such that

x ∈ Brj (xj ). Also
d(y, xj ) ≤ d(y, x) + d(x, xj )
< rj + rj
< 2rj = δxj
⇒ y ∈ Bδxj (xj )
ϵ
⇒ ρ(f (y), f (xj )) < 2
δxj
Since x ∈ Brj (xj ) ⇒ d(x, xj ) < rj = 2 < δxj
ρ(f (x), f (y)) ≤ ρ(f (x), f (xj )) + ρ(f (y), f (xj ))

ϵ ϵ
< + = ϵ.
2 2
⇒ f is uniformly continuous.
Remark 12.5. Any continuous function f : [a, b] → R is

uniformly continuous.
e.g. f (x) = xn is uniformly continuous on [1, 2].
Theorem 12.6. If f : M → N is uniformly continuous,

then f maps Cauchy sequence in M to Cauchy sequence in
N i.e. if (xn) is Cauchy in M then f (xn) is Cauchy in N .

Proof. Let xn be a Cauchy sequence in M and ϵ > 0 since f

is uniformly continuous ∃ δ > 0 such that
ρ(f (x), f (y)) < ϵ whenever d(x, y) < δ
Since xn is Cauchy,∃ k > 0 such that,
d(xn, xm) < δ, ∀n, m ≥ k
⇒ ρ(f (xn), f (xm)) < ϵ, ∀n, m ≥ k
⇒ (f (xn)) is Cauchy in N .
Remark 12.7. If f is not uniformly continuous, then the

above result is not true.
e.g.f : (0, ∞) → R such that f (x) = x1 .
( n1 ) is Cauchy in(0, ∞).
But (f ( n1 )) = n is not Cauchy in R.

13 Sequence of functions
Definition 13.1. Let X be any set and (Y, ρ) be a metric

space. Let f and (fn) be functions from X to Y . We say that
the sequence (fn) converges pointwise to f on X, if for each
x ∈ X, (fn(x)) converges to f (x) in Y , i.e. for given ϵ > 0 and
for x ∈ X, there exists N such that ρ(fn(x), f (x)) < ϵ ∀n ≥
N.
x
Example 13.2. Let fn(x) = n x ∈ R.
Since for each x ∈ R, limn→∞ fn(x) = limn→∞ nx = 0, fn
converges pointwise to f = 0.
Example 13.3. Let fn(x) = nx x ∈ R.

Then fn does not converge as fn(x) → ∞ as n → ∞.
n
Example 13.4. Let fn(x) = x+n x ∈ R.
Then fn converges pointwise to f = 1.
Example 13.5. Let fn(x) = n2xn x ∈ [0, 1).

Since fn(x) = n2xn = n2enlogx → 0 as n → ∞, fn converges

pointwise to f = 0. ( as xn approaches to zero faster than n2

approaches to ∞.)
xn+1
Example 13.6. Let hn(x) = n+1 x ∈ [0, 1]. If possible find
h(x) such that hn(x) → h(x). Is h′n(x) → h′(x)?
n+1
Solution: Since |hn(x)| = | xn+1 | ≤ 1
n+1 → 0, hn converges
pointwise to h = 0.
Here h′n(x) = xn. Then for 0 ≤ x < 1, h′n(x) → 0 and for
x = 1, h′n(x) → 1. 

0 0 ≤ x < 1

Therefore, h′n(x) → g(x) =

1 x = 1.

Since h′(1) = 0 and g(1) = 1, h′n does not converge to h′.
Example 13.7. Let fn(x) = (1+ nx )n x ∈ R. Find f (x) such

′ ′
R R
that fn(x) → f (x). Is fn(x) → f (x) and fn(x) → f (x)?
Justify.
Solution: limn→∞ fn(x) = limn→∞(1 + nx )n = ex.
Therefore, fn converges pointwise to f = ex.
Also fn′ (x) = (1 + nx )n−1.

limn→∞ fn′ (x) = limn→∞(1 + nx )n−1 = ex = f ′(x).

h i
1 n+1
R1 R1 x n n

Also 0 fn(x)dx = 0 (1 + n ) dx = n+1 1 + n −1 →
R1
e − 1 = 0 f (x)dx
Definition 13.8. Let X be any set and (Y, ρ) be a metric

space. Let f and (fn) be functions from X to Y . We say that
the sequence (fn) converges uniformly to f on X, if for given
ϵ > 0, ∃N such that ρ(fn(x), f (x)) < ϵ, ∀x ∈ X, ∀n ≥ N .
It is denoted by fn ⇒ f .
Remark 13.9. Uniform convergence implies pointwise conver-

gence as N depends only on ϵ, not on x.
nx
Converse is not true, for example, define fn(x) = 1+n2 x2
.
Then fn → f = 0 pointwise.
Suppose fn converges uniformly, then for ϵ = 21 , there exists N
1
such that |fn(x) − f (x)| < 2 ∀x ∈ X, ∀n ≥ N .
1
In particular, for n = N and x = N, we have |fN ( N1 )−f ( N1 )| =
1
2 < 12 , which is a contradiction.
Therefore fn does not converge uniformly to f .

1
Example 13.10. Show that fn(x) = n+x is uniformly conver-
gent on [0, k] for any k > 0.
Solution: Clearly fn → f = 0 pointwise.
Let ϵ > 0. We have to find N such that |fn(x) − f (x)| < ϵ, for
all x ∈ [0, k] and for all n ≥ N .
1 1
|fn(x) − f (x)| = | n+x − 0| = n+x
If x ∈ [0, k], then n ≤ n + x

1
⇒ |fn(x) − f (x)| < n
By Archimedian principle, ∃N such that N > 1ϵ .

1 1
Then for n ≥ N , |fn(x) − f (x)| < n+k < N <ϵ
Therefore, fn converges uniformly to f = 0.
Remark 13.11. 1. fn ⇒ f if and only if for given ϵ > 0,

∃N such that ρ(fn(x), f (x)) < ϵ, ∀x ∈ X, ∀n ≥ N
if and only if supx∈X ρ(fn(x), f (x)) < ϵ, ∀n ≥ N
if and only if Mn → 0 as n → ∞ where Mn = supx∈X ρ(fn(x), f (x))
2. To find Mn, let g(x) = ρ(fn(x), f (x)). By equating g ′(x)

to zero and using first derivative test, we find the maxi-

mum value of g(x).
x
Example 13.12. Discuss the convergence of fn(x) = 1+nx2
for x ∈ R.
x
Solution: limn→∞ fn(x) = limn→∞ 1+nx 2 = 0
Therefore, fn → f = 0 pointwise.
x
Let g(x) = fn(x) − f (x) = 1+nx2
1−nx2
Then g ′(x) = (1+nx2 )2
g ′(x) = 0 implies x = ± √1n .

Since g ′′( √1n ) < 0, g has maximum value at x = √1 .
n
Therefore, Mn = g( √1n ) = 1
√
2 n
→ 0 as n → ∞.
Hence fn converges uniformly to f = 0.
Exercise: Discuss pointwise and uniform convergence of
1. fn(x) = 1 + nx on R.
2. fn(x) = xn on (−1, 1]
3. fn(x) = n2x(1 − x2)n on [0, 1]
nx
4. fn(x) = 1+nx on [0, ∞)

nx
5. fn(x) = 1+n2 x2
on [0, ∞)
6. fn(x) = xe−nx on [0, ∞)
7. fn(x) = nxe−nx on [0, ∞)
Theorem 13.13. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be metric spaces.

Let f and (fn) be functions from X to Y . If (fn) converges
uniformly to f on X and each fn is continuous, then f is
continuous.
Proof. Let ϵ > 0 and x ∈ X. Since (fn) converges uniformly

to f , ∃N , such that ρ(fn(x), f (x)) < 3ϵ , ∀x ∈ X, ∀n ≥ N .
In particular, ρ(fN (x), f (x)) < 3ϵ , ∀x ∈ X.
ϵ
Since fN is continuous, ∃δ > 0 such that ρ(fN (x), fN (x0)) < 3
whenever d(x, x0) < δ.

Let x0 ∈ X such that d(x, x0) < δ.
ρ(f (x), f (x0)) ≤ ρ(f (x), fN (x)) + ρ(fN (x), fN (x0)) + ρ(fN (x0), f (x0))
ϵ ϵ ϵ
< + +
3 3 3
= ϵ.

Therefore, f is continuous on X.
Example 13.14. Let  fn(x) = xn on [0, 1].


0 0 ≤ x < 1

Then fn(x) → f (x) =

1 x = 1.

Since each fn is continuous and f is not continuous at x = 1,
by above theorem, fn does not converge uniformly to f .
n x 2
Example 13.15. Let  fn(x) = 1+n 2 x2 on [0, 1].

0 x = 0

Then fn(x) → f (x) =
 x1 x ̸= 0.


Since each fn is continuous and f is not continuous at x = 0,
by above theorem, fn does not converge uniformly to f .
Theorem 13.16. Suppose fn : [a, b] → R is continuous

Rb
for each n and that fn ⇒ f on [a, b]. Then a fn(x)dx →
Rb
a f (x)dx.
Proof. Since each fn is continuous and fn ⇒ f , f is continuous

on [a, b].

Rb
So a f is well defined and
Z b Z b Z b
| fn(x)dx − f (x)dx| = | [fn(x) − f (x)]dx|
a a
Z ab
≤ |fn(x) − f (x)|dx
Za b
≤ supx∈[a,b]|fn(x) − f (x)|dx
a
= (b − a)supx∈[a,b]|fn(x) − f (x)|
Since fn ⇒ f , supx∈[a,b]|fn(x) − f (x)| → 0 as n → ∞.

Rb Rb
Therefore, a fn(x)dx → a f (x)dx.
Theorem 13.17. Suppose that fn is a sequence of real val-

ued functions, each having a continuous derivative on [a, b]
and suppose that the sequence of derivatives (fn′ ) converges
uniformly to a function g on [a, b]. If (fn(x0)) converges at
any point x0 ∈ [a, b], then fn converges uniformly to a dif-
ferentiable function f on [a, b]. Moreover f ′ = g. That is
(fn′ ) converges uniformly to f ′.
Proof. First we show that fn converges pointwise to some func-

tion f on [a,b].
Let c = limn→∞ fn(x0).
By fundamental theorem of calculus, for any x ∈ [a, b],
Rx Rx
fn(x) = fn(x0) + x0 fn′ (t)dt (∵ x0 fn′ (t)dt = fn(x) −
fn(x0))
Rx
⇒ limn→∞ fn(x) = limn→∞ fn(x0) + limn→∞ fn′ (t)dt
x0
′ ′
Rx ′
Since each fn is continuous and fn ⇒ g, we get limn→∞ x0 fn(t)dt =
Rx
x0 g(t)dt.
Rx
⇒ limn→∞ fn(x) = c + x0 g(t)dt
Rx
Define f (x) = c + x0 g(t)dt. Then fn → f pointwise.
Rx Rx Ra Ra
Since x0 g(t)dt = a g(t)dt+ x0 g(t)dt and f (a) = c+ x0 g(t)dt,
Rx
we get f (x) = f (a) + a g(t)dt
Since the right hand side of the above equation is differentiable,
f is differentiable and f ′(x) = g(x).
Therefore, f = g and (fn′ ) converges uniformly to f ′.

Rx
Also fn(x) = fn(a) + fn′ (t)dt. Then
a
Z x
|fn(x) − f (x)| = |fn(a) − f (a) + [fn′ (t) − g(t)]dt|
Za x
≤ |fn(a) − f (a)| + |fn′ (t) − g(t)|dt
a
≤ |fn(a) − f (a)| + (b − a)supx∈[a,b]|fn′ (x) − g(x)|

ϵ ϵ
< + (b − a)
2 2(b − a)
= ϵ.
The space of bounded functions: Given a set X, let

B(X) be the set of all bounded real valued functions on X. i.e.
B(X) = {f : X → R | f is bounded}. Then B(X) is a vector
space and ∥.∥∞ on B(X) is given by
∥f ∥∞ = supx∈X |f (x)|.
Remark 13.18. If fn → f pointwise in B(X) then fn ⇒ f

because fn ⇒ f implies ∥fn − f ∥∞ → 0
⇒ supx∈X |fn(x) − f (x)| → 0

⇒ fn ⇒ f .
Theorem 13.19. If (fn) is a Cauchy sequence in B(X),

then fn converges uniformly to some f ∈ B(X). Moreover
sup∥fn∥∞ < ∞ and ∥fn∥∞ → ∥f ∥∞ as n → ∞.
Proof. Since (fn) is Cauchy in B(X), ∥fn − fm∥∞ → 0 as

n, m → ∞.
Then |fn(x) − fm(x)| ≤ supx∈X |fn(x) − fm(x)| = ∥fn −
fm∥∞ → 0 as n, m → ∞.
Therefore, (fn(x)) is Cauchy in R and hence converges, say to
f (x), for all x ∈ X. ∴ limn→∞ fn(x) = f (x).Then
|f (x)| = | lim fn(x)|

n→∞
≤ lim |fn(x)|
n→∞
≤ lim ∥fn∥∞
n→∞
Since (fn) is Cauchy in B(X), it is bounded.i.e. ∃C, such that

∥fn∥∞ ≤ C for all n.
⇒ |f (x)| ≤ C and hence f ∈ B(X).

Now we show that fn ⇒ f .
|fn(x) − f (x)| = | lim fn(x) − fm(x)|

m→∞
≤ lim sup|fn(x) − fm(x)|

m→∞
= lim ∥fn − fm∥∞

m→∞
Since limm→∞ ∥fn − fm∥∞ → 0 as n → ∞, |fn(x) − f (x)| → 0

as n → ∞.
∴ fnconverges uniformly to f .
Also ∥fn∥∞ ≤ C for all n implies supn∥fn∥∞ ≤ C < ∞.
Since ∥fn∥∞ − ∥f ∥∞ ≤ ∥fn − f ∥ → 0, we have ∥fn∥∞ →
∥f ∥∞.

14 The Weierstrass Theorem
Let C[a, b] be the space of real valued continuous functions

on [a, b].i.e C[a, b] = {f : [a, b] → R | f is continuous}
Lemma 14.1. There is a linear isometry from C[0, 1] onto

C[a, b] that maps polynomials to polynomials.
x−a
Proof. Define σ : [a, b] → [0, 1] by σ(x) = b−a .
Then σ and its inverse σ −1(t) = a + t(b − a) are continuous.

Also σ is bijective. Therefore σ is a homeomorphism.
Now define Tσ : C[0, 1] → C[a, b] by Tσ (f ) = f ◦ σ.
Then Tσ is well defined and
∥Tσ (f )∥∞ = ∥f ◦ σ∥∞ = supx∈[a,b]|(f ◦ σ)(x)|
= supx∈[a,b]|f (σ(x))|
= supt∈[0,1]|f (t)|
= ∥f ∥∞
∴ Tσ is an isometry from C[0, 1] to C[a, b].

n
ak tk be a polynomial in C[0, 1]. Then for any
P
Let P (t) =
k=0

x ∈ [a, b]
Tσ (P )(x) = (P ◦ σ)(x)
= P (σ(x))
x − a
=P
b−a
n
X x − a k
= ak
b−a
k=0
n
X ak
= k
(x − a)k , which is a polynomial in C[a, b].
(b − a)
k=0
Definition 14.2. Given f ∈ C[0, 1], the sequence (Bn(f ))∞

n=1
of Bernstein’s polynomials for f is given by

Xn k n
Bn(f )(x) = f xk (1 − x)n−k 0≤x≤1
n k
k=0
Notation: f0(x) = 1, f1(x) = x and f2(x) = x2.
Lemma 14.3. 1. Bn(f0) = f0 and Bn(f1) = f1
2. Bn(f2) = (1 − n1 )f2 + n1 f1 and hence Bn(f2) ⇒ f2

n 2
k n x(1−x) 1
xk (1 − x)n−k =
P
3. n −x k n < 4n
k=0
4. Given δ > 0 and 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, let F denotes the set

of k in {0, 1, 2, ..., n} for which | nk − x| ≥ δ. Then
P n k n−k 1
k x (1 − x) ≤ 4nδ 2
.
k∈F
Proof.
n
X k n
1)Bn(f0)(x) = f0 xk (1 − x)n−k
n k
k=0
n
X n k
= x (1 − x)n−k
k
k=0
= (x + 1 − x)n = 1 = f0(x)

n
X k n
Bn(f1)(x) = f1 xk (1 − x)n−k
n k
k=0
n
X k n k
= x (1 − x)n−k
n k
k=0
n
X k n k
= x (1 − x)n−k
n k
k=1
n
X n−1 k
= x (1 − x)n−k
k−1
k=1
n−1
X n − 1 j+1
= x (1 − x)n−j−1
j=0
j
n−1
X n−1 j
=x x (1 − x)n−1−j
j=0
j
= x(x + 1 − x)n−1 = x = f1(x)

∴ Bn(f0) = f0 and Bn(f1) = f1.

X n k n
2)Bn(f2)(x) = f2 xk (1 − x)n−k
n k
k=0
n
k2 n k
X
n−k
= x (1 − x)
n2 k
k=1
n
X k n−1 k
= x (1 − x)n−k
n k−1
k=1
n
X k−1 n−1 k
= x (1 − x)n−k
n k−1
k=1
n
X 1 n−1 k
+ x (1 − x)n−k
n k−1
k=1
n
X n−1 n−2 k
= x (1 − x)n−k
n k−2
k=2
n
1 X n−1 k
+ x (1 − x)n−k
n k−1
k=1
n−2
n − 1 X n − 2 j+2
= x (1 − x)n−k−2
n j=0 j
n−1
1 X n − 1 j+1
+ x (1 − x)n−j−1
n j=0 j
n−1 2 1 1 1
= x + x= 1− f2(x) + f1(x)
n n n n

∴ Bn(f2) = (1 − n1 )f2 + n1 f1.
1 1
∥Bn(f2) − f2∥∞ = ∥(1 − )f2 + f1∥∞
n n
1 1
= ∥ (f1 − f2)∥∞ ≤ →0
n 4n
1
(∵ ∥f1 − f2∥ = sup|x − x2| = )
4
∴ Bn(f2) ⇒ f2.
n 2n
X k
3) −x xk (1 − x)n−k = Bn(f2) + x2(1) − 2xBn(f1)
n k
k=0
1 1
= (1 − )f2 + f1 + x2 − 2xf1
n n
x(1 − x)
=
n
Since the maximum value of x(1 − x) on [0, 1] is 41 , we get

n 2
P k n k n−k x(1−x) 1
n − x k x (1 − x) = n < 4n .
k=0
4) If k ∈ F , then | nk − x| ≥ δ
2
k
⇒ n − x ≥ δ2

2
1 k
⇒1≤ δ2 n − x . Therefore,
X n X 1 k 2n
xk (1 − x)n−k ≤ − x x k
(1 − x) n−k
k δ2 n k
k∈F k∈F
n 2n
X 1 k k n−k 1
≤ − x x (1 − x) ≤
δ2 n k 4nδ 2
k=0
Theorem 14.4 (Weierstrass Approximation Theorem). Given

f ∈ C[a, b] and ϵ > 0, there is a polynomial p such that
∥f − p∥∞ < ϵ. Hence there is a sequence of polynomials
(pn) such that pn ⇒ f on [a, b].
Proof. Since C[0, 1] and C[a, b] are isometric and this isome-
try maps polynomails to polynomails, it is enough to prove the
result for any f ∈ C[0, 1].
So consider f ∈ C[0, 1] and ϵ > 0. Since [0, 1] is compact, f is
uniformly continuous.
ϵ
Therefore, ∃δ > 0 such that |f (x) − f (y)| < 2 whenever
|x − y| < δ.

Xn k n
|Bn(f )(x) − f (x)| = | f xk (1 − x)n−k − f (x)|
n k
k=0
n
X n k n−k
k
=| x (1 − x) f ( ) − f (x) |
k n
k=0
n
X n k n−k
k
≤ x (1 − x) | f ( ) − f (x) |
k n
k=0
n
{k | | nk 1

xk (1 − x)n−k ≤
P
Let F = − x| ≥ δ}. Then k 4nδ 2
.
k∈F
If k ̸∈ F , then | nk − x| < δ ⇒ k
|f ( n − f (x)| < 2ϵ . Therefore, we
get
X n k
k n−k
|Bn(f )(x) − f (x)| ≤ x (1 − x) | f ( ) − f (x) |
k n
k∈F
X n k
k n−k
+ x (1 − x) | f ( ) − f (x) |
k n
k ∈F
/
1 ϵ
≤ 2∥f ∥∞ +
4nδ 2 2
We want to find N such that ∀n ≥ N , ∥Bn(f ) − f ∥∞ < ϵ

∥f ∥∞
i.e. we want N such that 2N δ 2
+ 2ϵ < ϵ

∥f ∥∞
i.e. we want N such that ϵδ 2
<N
∥f ∥∞
By Archimedian principle, there exists N such that ϵδ 2
<N
Therefore, n ≥ N , ∥Bn(f ) − f ∥∞ < ϵ.
Let p(x) = BN (f )(x), then ∥f − p∥ < ϵ.
Now the sequence pn(x) = Bn(f )(x) converges uniformly to
f.

15 Equicontinuity
15 Equicontinuity
Definition 15.1. Uniformly Bounded

A collection of real valued functions F on X is said to be uni-
formly bounded if the set {f (X)|x ∈ X, f ∈ F } is bounded
in R.i.e. supf ∈F supx∈X |f (x)| < ∞
i.e. supf ∈F ||f ||∞ < ∞
Definition 15.2. Equicontinuous

Let F be a collection of real valued continuous functions on
a metric space X. Then F is called equicontinuous, if given
ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that whenever x, y ∈ X with d(x, y) < δ
then
|f (x) − f (y)| < ϵ ∀ f ∈ F .
Remark 15.3. Equicontinuous is also known as uniformly uni-

formly continuous.
Example 15.4. Any finite subset of C(X), C(X) = {f :

X → R|f is continuous} is equicontinuous where X is com-

15 Equicontinuity
pact.
i.e. {f1, f2, ...fn} is equicontinuous ∀ n ≥ 1, fi ∈ C(X).
Proof. Let ϵ > 0, since each fi is continuous on X and X is

compact.
⇒ each fi is uniformly continuous.
⇒ ∃ δi > 0 such that whenever d(x, y) < δi then |fi(x) −
fi(y)| < ϵ.
Now take δ = min{δ1, δ2, ...δn} then δ > 0.
Let x, y ∈ X such that d(x, y) < δ then d(x, y) < δ ≤ δi ∀ i
⇒ d(x, y) < δi ∀ i
⇒ |fi(x) − fi(y)| < ϵ ∀ i
⇒ {f1, f2, ...fn} is equicontinuous.
Lemma 15.5. Let X be a compact metric space. If F is to-

tally bounded subset of C(X), then F is uniformly bounded
and equicontinuous.
Proof. Since F is totally bounded it is bounded.

⇒ supx∈X |f (x)| < ∞ ∀ f ∈ F

15 Equicontinuity
⇒ supf ∈F supx∈X |f (x)| < ∞

⇒ F is uniformly bounded.
Let ϵ > 0. Since F is totally bounded ∃ f1, f2, ...fn ∈ F such
ϵ
that for any f ∈ F such that ||f − fi||∞ < 3 for some i.
Since {f1, f2, ...fn} is equicontinuous, ∃ δ > 0 such that
whenever d(x, y) < δ then |fi(x) − fi(y)| < 3ϵ ∀ i.
Let f ∈ F and d(x, y) < δ. Then ∃ i such that ||f − fi||∞ < 3ϵ .
N ow |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |f (x) − fi(x)| + |fi(x) − fi(y)| + |fi(y) − f (y)|

ϵ ϵ ϵ
< + + =ϵ
3 3 3
⇒ F is equicontinuous.
Theorem 15.6. The Arzela-Ascoli Theorm

Let X be a compact metric space and let F be a subset
of C(X). Then F is compact if and only if F is closed,
uniformly bounded and equicontinuous.
Proof. If F is compact, then F is complete and totally bounded.

Since F is complete, it is closed.

15 Equicontinuity
As F is totally bounded, by 15.5, F is uniformly bounded and

equicontinuous.( write the complete proof of 15.5)
Conversely, suppose F is closed, uniformly bounded and equicon-
tinuous.
Since F is a closed subset of C(X) which is complete, we get
F is complete.
To prove F is compact, it is enough to prove F is totally
bounded that is every sequence in F has a Cauchy subsequence,
in F .
Let (fn) be a sequence in F. Since F is equicontinuous, for
given ϵ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that whenever d(x, y) < δ then
|f (x) − f (y)| < 3ϵ ∀ f ∈ F.
In particular, |fn(x) − fn(y)| < 3ϵ ∀ n.
Since X is totally bounded, ∃ x1, x2, ...xr ∈ X such that for
any x ∈ X ∃ i, 1 ≤ i ≤ r such that d(x, xi) < δ.
Since F is uniformly bounded {fn(xi)}∞
n=1 is bounded in R for
i = 1, 2, ...r. Hence there exists a subsequence (fnk (xi)) which

converges in R and so Cauchy.

15 Equicontinuity
⇒ ∃ Ni such that |fnp − fnq | < 3ϵ ∀ p, q ≥ Ni

Take N = max{N1, N2, ...Nr } then for any p, q ≥ N
⇒ p, q ≥ N ≥ Ni ∀ i
⇒ |fnp (xi) − fnq (xi)| < 3ϵ | ∀ p, q, ≥ N and ∀ i.
Let x ∈ X. Then d(x, xi) < δ for some i.
|fnp (x) − fnq (x)| ≤ |fnp (x) − fnp (xi)| + |fnq (xi) − fnp (xi)| +
|fnq (xi) − fnq (x)|
Since each fn is uniformly continuous, d(x, xi) < δ
⇒ |fn(x) − fn(xi)| < 3ϵ ∀ n
∴ |fnp (x) − fnq (x)| ≤ 3ϵ + 3ϵ + 3ϵ
∴ (fnk ) is a Cauchy sub-sequence of (fn).
∴ F is totally bounded.

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Real Analysis

Dr. B. Surendranath Reddy

Note: This notes is prepared based on the lectures delivered

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedian property 4

4 lim sup And lim inf of an 38

5 Metrics and Norms 44

6 Open and Closed sets 62

10 Complete Metric Space 105

12 Uniform Continuity 123

13 Sequence of functions 127

14 The Weierstrass Theorem 139

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 3 Dr.B. S. Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedian prop-

Definition 1.1. Upper Bound

Remark 1.2. 1. α ∈ R is not an upper bound of A if

2. If α is an upper bound of A and β > α, then β is also an

Definition 1.3. Bounded above Set

Remark 1.4. ϕ ̸= A ⊂ R is said to be not bounded above if

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 4 Dr.B. S. Reddy

Definition 1.5. Least Upper Bound

2. If β is an upper bound of A then α ≤ β.

and is denoted by α = lub A or α = sup A.

Remark 1.6. If an upper bound α ∈ R of A belong to A then

Lemma 1.7. If α and β are lub of A then α = β.

Proof. By consider α as an upper bound and β as a lub, we

Lemma 1.8. If α is the lub of A then for given ϵ > 0, α − ϵ

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 5 Dr.B. S. Reddy

Proof. Given that α = lub A. Since ϵ > 0, α−ϵ < α. Suppose

Example 1.9. Let A = (0, 1) then lub = 1.

Proof. Clearly 1 is an upper bound for A.Let β be an upper

Remark 1.10. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define sup A =

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 6 Dr.B. S. Reddy

2. If A = ∅, then sup A = −∞ as every real number is an

Definition 1.11. Lower Bound

Definition 1.12. Bounded Below

Example 1.13. Let A = (0, 1) = {x ∈ R|0 < x < 1} then 0

Definition 1.14. Greatest Lower Bound

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 7 Dr.B. S. Reddy

2. If γ is a lower bound of A then β ≥ γ.

and is denoted by β = glb A or β = inf A.

Example 1.15. Let A = (0, 1) then glb A = 0.

Proof. Let β be an lower bound of A. We have to show that

Remark 1.16. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define inf A =

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 8 Dr.B. S. Reddy

2. If A = ∅, then inf A = +∞ as every real number is a

Lemma 1.17. For any subset A of R sup(−A) = − inf A

Proof. Let α = sup(−A)

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 9 Dr.B. S. Reddy

Definition 1.18. Completeness Axiom or LUB Axiom

Theorem 1.19. Archimedian Property

Proof. We prove by contradiction.

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 10 Dr.B. S. Reddy

which is a contradiction to α − x < α. (∵ x > 0 ⇒

Lemma 1.20. N is not bounded above i.e.

Proof. Suppose N is bounded above i.e. ∃ x ∈ R such that

Remark 1.21. The above lemma is also one version of Archi-

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 11 Dr.B. S. Reddy

Theorem 1.22. Prove that both the version of Archimedian

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose for given any x, y ∈ R with x >

Theorem 1.23. Density of Q