Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Areas of Application

1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of steel as a construction material
1.3 Mechanical Properties of structural steel
1.4 Types of steel
1.5 Structural shapes
1.6 Structural bolts
1.7 Standards for design of steel structures
1.1 Areas of application
• Steel structure is an assemblage of a group of members or elements. The members share
the applied forces and transfer them safely to the ground. These members are subjected to
forces such as axial(tension or compression), bending, torsion. The members that are
subjected to tension are called as tie and compression are called as strut.

 Structural steel elements found application in Multi Story Buildings, Exhibition Halls
(Long Span Roofs) , Suspension Bridge, Cable Stayed Bridge and suspension bridges,
Low industrial building and high rise hotel, Microwave Communication and Power
Transmission towers and Bracing Systems.

TWO PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

• Framework or skeletal systems
• Shell and plate structures
Framework or skeletal systems
• The framework of industrial building and related structures like crane girders, platforms,
etc.
• Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span bridges.
• Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors, domes, sports-facility
• Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-escape facilities, etc

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

• Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway stations, aircraft hangars,
shipyards, railway platforms
Shell and plate structures
• Gas holders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases
• Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of water, fuels and other liquids
• Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose materials like cement, grain. Etc
1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of steel as a construction material
Advantages
• Steel members have high strength per unit weight
• Structural steel is tough
• Better quality control
• Steel structures are light
• Faster to erect
• Reduced time for construction
• Large column free space and amenable for alteration
• Strong and ductile
• Superior lateral load behaviour and better earthquake resistance
• Less percentage of floor area occupied by structural elements
Disadvantages
• Higher cost of construction
• Skilled labour for erection and making joints
• High maintenance cost
• Poor fireproofing and corrosion resistance
1.3 Mechanical properties

• Factors influencing mechanical properties are chemical composition,heat treatment and

manufacturing process. The major constituent of steel is iron, Primary elements are
Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorous, manganese, Silicon.Carbon content increases the strength
but the ductility falls.Minimizing the sulphur level can enhance ductility. Toughness can
be improved by the addition of nickel.

Stress strain curve for mild steel

A mild steel rod of uniform diameter ‘d’ and a gauge length of ‘l’ is subjected to gradually
increasing tensile load in universal testing machine. During the application of load, the behaviour
of the rod is observed and stress strain curve is drawn. The main feautures of the curve are
explained below.
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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

OA – STRAIGHT LINE-Strain is proportional to stress and obeys Hookes law

A-limit of proportionality-the stress beyond which linear variation ceases
B-elastic limit – the max stress upto which a specimen regains its original length on removal of
the applied load.
C- yield point – the stress at which there is a definite increase in strain without any further
increase in stress.
D- ultimate stress – stress corresponding to the ultimate load
After reaching ultimate tensile stress a localised reduction of c/s of the specimen called necking
takes place
E – breaking stress – stress corresponding to the breaking load

• Elastic Strain is the strain that occurs before the yield point.
• Plastic Strain is the strain that occurs after the yield point.
• Ultimate tensile stress=ultimate tensile load/original area of cross section.
• Ductility is measured by determining percentage of elongation.
• The area under stress strain curve is a measure of toughness.
• Yield strength or yield point is the material property defined as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform
elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
• Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume
that a material can absorb before rupturing.

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

• Ductility of steel for concrete reinforcement can be defined as an ability to achieve

significant deformations without marked increase of stresses beyond the yield strength of
steel.
• Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under a specific set of fabrication
and design conditions and to perform as expected during its service life.
Generally speaking, weldability is considered
• very good for low-carbon steel (carbon level, < 0.15% by weight),
• good for mild steel (carbon level, 0.15 to 0.30%),
• fair for medium-carbon steel (carbon level, 0.30 to 0.50%),
• questionable for high-carbon steel (carbon level, 0.50 to 1.00%).
Because weldability normally decreases with increasing carbon content.
Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to indentations and scratching.

Nominal Values of fy and fu for Various Grades of Structural Steel (EBCS 3, 1995)

Thickness t (mm)
Nominal
t ≤ 40 mm 40 mm < t ≤ 100 mm
steel grades
fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa) fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa)

Fe 360 235 360 215 340

Fe 430 275 430 255 410

Fe 510 355 510 335 490

DESIGN VALUES OF MATERIAL COEFFICIENT

• Modulus of elasticity, E=210GPa
• Shear modulus, G=80GPa
• Poissons ratio,µ=0.3
• Unit mass, ρ=7850kg/m3
• Coefficient of linear expansion , α = 12 x 10-6 per oC.
1.4 Types of Steel

• The Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995 classifies according to their
strength.
• As per ASTM classification

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

a) Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709)

 In addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are carbon (maximum
content 1.7%) and manganese (maximum content 0.65%), with a small amount (<0.6%)
of silicon and copper
 Depending on the amount of carbon content
• Low-carbon steel: carbon content < 0.15%
• Mild carbon steel: carbon content varies from 0. 15 to 0.29%
• Medium-carbon steel: carbon content 0.30-0.59%
• High-carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 - 1.70%
b) High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)
 These steels possess enhanced strength as a result of presence of one or more alloying
agents, such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, and vanadium
 All the alloying elements is below 5% of the total composition
 These steels generally have higher corrosion resistance capacity than carbon steels
 This category includes steels having yield stresses from 275 to 480 MPa with a well
defined yield point
c) Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514)
 The quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of those used in
carbon and low-alloy steels
 They are heat-treated by quenching and tempering to enhance their strengths
 Have reduced ductility
 Tough & wieldable
d)Weathering steels
• Low-alloy corrosion-resistant steel (Ex.: A242)
e) Stainless steel
• Low-carbon steel
• Used as utensils
f)Fire-resistance steel
• Thermo-mechanically treated steels
• Better fire resistance than ordinary steel

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

Typical Stress-strain Curves

1.5 Structural Shapes

These sections are designed to achieve economy of material while maximizing strength,
particularly in bending. Bending strength can be maximized by concentrating the metal at the
extremities of the section, where it can sustain the tensile and compressive stress associated with
bending. The most commonly used sections are universal beams (Ubs) and universal columns
(Ucs).

1.6 Structural bolts

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened
together, usually at the ends of its members. The two main fastening means are bolting and

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

welding (with a few and isolated case also riveting and pins). Connections are structural
elements used for joining different members of a framework.

Table 1.6 Nominal Values of Yield Strength fyb and Ultimate Tensile Strength fub for Bolts
(EBCS 3, 1995)

Bolt 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

Grade

fyb 240 320 300 400 480 640 900

(MPa)

fub 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000

(MPa)

1.7 Standards for Design of Steel Structures

From inception to detailing and quantity estimation, there are design processes as:
Functional Planning/Design
This is the first and the most difficult problem in design to enable the structure to fulfill
effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. For buildings for example, the plan must be:
 adaptable to the site;
 provide a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.;
 aesthetically acceptable and
 built at a price the client is prepared to pay.
Structural Planning / Design
• This phase is independent of functional plan.
• Once the loads are defined, a structural analysis must be made to determine the internal
responses which will develop in various members of the structure.
• The members of the structural system must be proportioned.
• Finally cost estimate should be made for all possible structural schemes.
Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength, serviceability, and
economy.
• Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load
conditions.
• Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its appearance,
maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load, conditions.

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 Design of Steel and Timber Structures -lecture note Year 2021

• Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design,
fabrication, erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.
DESIGN METHODS
There are three methods of design. (i)Working stress method (ii)Plastic method (iii)Limit state
method
(i)Working stress method
• This method is an Elastic method of design.
• The worst combination of working loads is ascertained.
• The members are proportioned on the basis of working stresses or permissible stresses.
• These stresses never exceed the permissible stresses.
• Permissible stress is a fraction of yield stress.
• Permissible stress=yield stress/factor of safety
(ii)Plastic method
• Steel is a ductile material.
• Higher loads can be applied than in the elastic method.
• This method is based on failure conditions rather than working load conditions.
• Working loads are multiplied by the load factor and the cross section of members are
selected and designed on the basis of the collapse strength.
(iii)Limit state method
• The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is
called limit state.
• The design is based on the characteristic values for the material strength and applied
loads.

• The condition to be satisfied in the selection of a member is

design action < design strength
• The section must also satisfy serviceability requirements like deflection and vibration
Characteristic and design values.
Characteristic loads are normally obtained from code practices. See EBCS-1. Chapter 2.
• Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor for the load (γf).
• Design strength = characteristic strength / partial safety factor for strength (γm).
• For partial safety factor for strength γm see 4.1. (2). EBCS-1.
• For partial load factor and combination of actions see 2.8.2.2. EBCS-1.

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