Module 1

CEE305
Introduction
• Structural concrete is used extensively in the construction of various kinds of
buildings, stadia, auditoria, pavements, bridges, piers, breakwaters, berthing
structures, dams, waterways, pipes, water tanks, swimming pools, cooling
towers, bunkers and silos, chimneys, communication towers, tunnels, etc. It is
the most commonly used construction material, consumed at a rate of
approximately one ton for every living human being.

• Concrete would not have gained its present status as a principal building
material, but for the invention of reinforced concrete, which is concrete with
steel bars embedded in it. The idea of reinforcing concrete with steel has
resulted in a new composite material, having the potential of resisting
significant tensile stresses, which was hitherto impossible. Thus, the
construction of load-bearing flexural members, such as beams and slabs,
became viable with this new material. The steel bars (embedded in the tension
zone of the concrete) compensate for the concrete’s incapacity for tensile
resistance, effectively taking up all the tension, without separating from the
concrete
Advantages and disadvantages of Concrete as a building
material
• Reinforced concrete has been used in a variety of structural projects because of the
following advantages:

• 1. Moulded to any shape It can be poured and moulded into any shape varying from simple slabs,
beams, and columns to complicated shells and domes, by using formwork.
• 2. Availability of materials The materials required for concrete (sand, gravel, and water) are often
locally available and are relatively inexpensive. Only small amounts of cement (about 14% by
weight) and reinforcing steel (about 2–4% by volume) are required for the production of RC.
• 3. Low maintenance Concrete members require less maintenance compared to structural steel or
timber members.
• 4. Water and fire resistance RC offers great resistance to the actions of fi re and water. A concrete
member having sufficient cover can have one to three hours of fi re resistance rating without any
special fi re proofing material.
• 5. Good rigidity RC members are very rigid. Due to the greater stiffness and mass, vibrations are
seldom a problem in concrete structures.
Advantages and disadvantages of Concrete as a building
material
• 6. Compressive strength Concrete has considerable compressive strength compared to most other
materials.
• 7. Economical It is economical, especially for footings, basement walls, and slabs.
• 8. Low-skilled labour Comparatively lower grade of skilled labour is required for the fabrication,
erection, and construction of concrete structures than for steel or wooden structures.

• Reinforced concrete does have the following disadvantage:

• Low tensile strength Concrete has a very low tensile strength, which is about one-tenth of its
compressive strength and, hence, cracks when subjected to tensile stresses. Reinforcements are,
therefore, often provided in the tension zones to carry tensile forces and to limit crack widths.
Steel Reinforcements
• As stated earlier, steel reinforcements are provided in RCC to resist tensile stresses.
The quality of steel used in RCC work is as important as that of concrete. Steel bars
used in concrete should be clean and free from loose mill scales, dust, loose rust and
any oily materials, which will reduce bond.
• As per Clause 5.6 of IS 456, steel reinforcement used in concrete may be of the
following types:

• 1. Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars (MS bars) conforming to IS 432 (Part
1):1982
• 2. High-yield strength-deformed steel bars (HYSD bars) conforming to IS 1786:2008
• 3. Hard drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566:1982
• 4. Structural steel conforming to Grade A of IS 2062:2006
Steel Reinforcements
• Different types of rebars, such as plain and deformed bars of various grades should
not be used side by side, as this may lead to confusion and error at site.
• Mild steel bars, which are produced by hot rolling, are not generally used in RCC as
they have smooth surface and hence their bond strength is less compared to
deformed bars.
• They are used only as ties in columns or stirrups in beams. Mild steel bars have
characteristic yield strength ranging from 240 N/mm2 (grade I) to 350 N/mm2
(medium tensile steel).
• Hot rolled high-yield strength-deformed bars (HYSD bars) were introduced in India in
1967; they completely replaced mild steel bars except in a few situations where acute
bending was required in bars greater than 30 mm in diameter. They were produced
initially by cold twisting (CTD bars) and later by heat treatment (TMT bars) and micro-
alloying.
Types of RC Structures

• Depending upon the way a structure resists loads and on the different forms,
reinforced concrete (RC) structures may be classified as follows:

• 1. Gravity masonry structures: This consists of load-bearing walls, which resist loads transmitted to
them by floor slabs. The stability of the structure depends on gravity loads. These are suitable only
for buildings with up to two or three floors.
• 2. Framed structures: This consists of a concrete skeleton that collects loads from plate elements
(concrete floors and masonry/RC walls) and transmits them to the foundations.
• 3. Shell or folded plate structures: These are curved or folded surfaces enclosing the area and
carrying loads.
• 4. Other structures: These include structures and structural elements such as silos or bunkers,
retaining walls, liquid retaining structures, chimneys, poles, and foundations for which RC is the
ideal material of construction.
Types of RC Structures
Types of RC Structures
Types of RC Structures
Design Philosophy
• Over the years, various design philosophies have evolved in different parts of the
world, with regard to reinforced concrete design. A ‘design philosophy’ is built up
on a few fundamental premises (assumptions), and is reflective of a way of
thinking.

• The earliest codified design philosophy is the working stress method of design
(WSM). Close to a hundred years old, this traditional method of design, based on
linear elastic theory.
• The design procedure to follow the WSM was the ultimate load method of
design (ULM), which was developed in the 1950s. It was based on the (ultimate)
strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads.
• Probabilistic concepts of design developed over the years and received a major
impetus from the mid-1960s onwards. The risk involved in the design was
quantified in terms of a probability of failure. Such probabilistic methods came to
be known as reliability-based methods.
Design Philosophy
• LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide
adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service
loads, by considering all possible ‘limit states’. A limit state is a state of impending
failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform its intended function
satisfactorily, in terms of either safety or serviceability.

• In the upcoming slides, we shall be discussing in detail about WSM and LSM.
Working Stress Method
• This was the traditional method of design not only for RC but also for structural steel and
timber design. The conceptual basis of the WSM is simple. It basically assumes that the
structural material behaves in a linear elastic manner and that adequate safety can be ensured
by suitably restricting the stresses in the material due to the expected working loads (service
loads) on the structure.

• The stresses under the working loads are obtained by applying the methods of ‘strength of
materials’ like the simple bending theory. The limitations due to non-linearity (geometric as
well as material) and buckling are neglected.

• The stresses caused by the ‘characteristic’ or service loads are checked against the permissible
(allowable) stress, which is a fraction of the ultimate or yield stress; for example, for
compression in bending, one-third of the cube strength of the concrete is assumed as the
permissible stress.
Working Stress Method
• The permissible stress may be defined in terms of a factor of safety, which takes care of the
overload or other unknown factors. Thus, the permissible stress is defined by

• Permissible (allowable) stress = Ultimate or yield stress/ Factor of safety

• The basic assumptions in the elastic theory in case of WSM are:

• 1. At any cross section, plane sections will remain as plane even after bending.
• 2. The stress–strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads is a straight line.
• 3. The tensile stresses are taken up only by the reinforcement and not by the concrete.
• 4. In order to consider creep effects, the modular ratio m is taken as .

• is the permissible compressive stress due to the bending in the concrete expressed in N/mm2
Working Stress Method
Working Stress Method
• Based on these assumptions, the total compressive force C is given as follows:

• This force acts at the centroid of the triangular stress block, at a distance x/3 from
the top. Hence, the leaver arm distance is
Working Stress Method
Working Stress Method
• If the moment at service load is Ms, then

• Also, we can write where

• Similarly, taking moments about C lead to

• So, finally, we get

Working Stress Method
• We have now designed a rectangular beam using the WSM.
Limit State Method of Design
• Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements of
the structure before failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will thus
ensure that they will not reach limit states and will not become unfit for the use for
which they are intended.
• LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by
considering safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads.

• There are two main limit states: (i) limit state of collapse and (ii) limit state of serviceability.
• (i) Limit state of collapse deals with the strength and stability of structures subjected to the
maximum design loads out of the possible combinations of several types of loads. Therefore,
this limit state ensures that neither any part nor the whole structure should collapse or
become unstable under any combination of expected overloads.
• (ii) Limit state of serviceability deals with deflection and cracking of structures under service
loads, durability under working environment during their anticipated exposure conditions
during service, stability of structures as a whole, fire resistance etc.
Limit State Method of Design
• The objective of limit states design is to ensure that the probability of any limit state
being reached is acceptably low. This is made possible by specifying appropriate
multiple safety factors for each limit state.
• Evidently, this requires a proper reliability study to be done by the code−making
authorities.
• The integrated limit state has now been accepted worldwide and incorporated into
the national codes of various countries like USA, UK, Canada and India. The limit state
concepts have been investigated by many investigators.
Limit State Method of Design
• Probabilistic concepts are incorporated into the LSM by considering the probability
density of load variables and strength variables of the constituent materials. For this,
we require statistical data regarding loads and strength of materials and also the shape
of their normal distribution curves.
• At present, probability of failure of structures have to be kept vey low (almost 1 in a
million). To determine the exact shape of the normal curve for loads and strength
characteristics, a huge amount of statistical data is needed. However, such
comprehensive data is not available to us yet.
• Hence, in the limit state method, our engineering experience and judgement is used
to rectify this unavailability of required statistical data. Partial use of probabilistic
concepts is retained in this method. Hence, the currently practiced version of limit
state method is generally considered semi probabilistic in nature.
Limit State Method of Design
• Principles of Limit State Method:
• As has already been stated, the primary limit states are:
• (a) the limit state of collapse
• (b) the limit state of serviceability involving excess deflection or cracking at working
loads.

• Each of these limit states may be attained due to different types of loading. Some of
the limit states of failure or collapse are listed below:
• 1. Failure of one or more critical sections in flexure, shear, torsion or due to their
combinations
• 2. Failure due to fatigue under repeated loads
• 3. Failure due to bond and anchorage of reinforcements
• 4. Failure due to elastic instability of structural members.
• 5. Failure due to impact loads, seismic loads or fire.
Limit State Method of Design
• 6. Failure due to adverse chemical reactions and corrosion of reinforcements.

• The different types of limit states of serviceability are as follows:

• 1. Excessive deflection of displacement, severely affecting the finishes of the
structure and causing discomfort to the users of the structure.
• 2. Excessive local damage causing cracking and spalling of concrete impairing
efficiency or appearance of the structure.
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• Characteristic Strengths and Loads:
• The general definition of the characteristic strength of a material is that it
corresponds to the 5 percentile strength value. In more simple language,
Characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material below which not more
than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall.
• Strength of concrete is generally obtained by 28 day compression tests. In case we
plot the results for several concrete cubes of specified dimensions, we get the
following types of normal distribution plots for compressive strength as shown in next
slide.
• From such plots, we obtain the 5 percentile characteristic strength of concrete
denoted as .
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• In the case of reinforcing steel, it refers to the ‘specified yield stress’. The specified
yield strength normally refers to a guaranteed minimum. The actual yield strength of
the steel is usually somewhat higher than the specified value.

• The characteristic load is defined as the load that “has a 95 percent probability of not
being exceeded during the life of the structure”.
• However, in the absence of statistical data regarding loads, the nominal values
specified for dead, live and wind loads are to be taken from IS 875 (Parts 1–3) : 1987
and the values for ‘seismic loads’ (earthquake loads) from IS 1893 : 2002.
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• Partial Safety Factors for Materials:
• The design strength of concrete or reinforcing steel is obtained by dividing the
characteristic strength by the appropriate partial safety factor.

• In the case of concrete, while is the characteristic cube strength, the characteristic
strength of concrete in the actual structure is taken as 0.67 .

• the design strength of concrete is 0.67 /

• For Ultimate Limit State:
• partial safety factor has been assigned to concrete => =1.5
• partial safety factor has been assigned to steel => =1.15
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• For serviceability limit state:
• partial safety factor has been assigned to concrete => =1.0
• partial safety factor has been assigned to steel => =1.0
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• Partial Safety Factors for Loads:
• Three different load combinations have been specified involving the combined effects
of dead loads (DL), ‘imposed’ or live loads (LL) and wind/earthquake loads (QL).
• The code recommends the following weighted combinations for estimating the
ultimate load effect (UL) and the serviceability load effect (SL):

• The reduced load factor of 1.2 in the third combination above recognizes the reduced
probability of all the three loads acting together at their possible peak values.
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN

• The provisions are mentioned in Clause 36.4.1 of the code.

• The use of a partial load factor of unity, in general, is appropriate, because it implies
service load conditions.
• When live loads and wind loads are combined, it is improbable that both will reach
their characteristic values simultaneously; hence a lower load factor is assigned to LL
and QL in the third combination. So, there is reduced probability of joint occurrence.
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• Design Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete:
• The characteristic and design stress−strain curves specified by the Code for concrete
in flexural compression are depicted.
• The maximum stress in the ‘characteristic’ curve is restricted to 0.67 .
• The curve consists of a parabola in the initial region up to a strain of 0.002, and a
straight line thereafter up to an ultimate strain of 0.0035.
• For the purpose of limit states design, partial safety factorfor the consideration of
ultimate limit states.
• Design curve’ is obtained by simply scaling down the ordinates of the characteristic
curve as shown in figure.
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES
DESIGN
• The characteristic and design stress−strain curves specified by the Code for various
grades of reinforcing steel (in tension or compression) are shown in upcoming slides.
• The design yield strength is obtained by dividing the specified yield strength by the
partial safety factor = 1.15 (for ultimate limit states);
• Accordingly, = 0.870 .
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS
CODE RECOMMENDATIONS