Introduction to Electronics Laboratory (EC2P001)

Experiment 9 Pallanti Harshitha

22EE01024

Part 1: Make a Summing Amplifier

Aim: To make and observe the workings of a summing amplifier circuit.

Apparatus:

Apparatus/Equipment Quantity
Operational amplifier (op-amp) IC 741 2
Resistors- 10kΩ 3
BC547B transistor 1
1N4007 diode 1
Multimeter 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
DC Power supply 1
Breadboard 1
Connecting wires As required

Theory:
A summing amplifier, also known as an adder or a summing node, is an
electronic circuit used to add or sum multiple input voltages or currents. It's a
type of operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit that combines multiple analog
signals into a single output. The primary function of a summing amplifier is to
produce an output voltage that is the algebraic sum of its input signals.

The basic configuration of a summing amplifier consists of an operational

amplifier (op-amp) with multiple input resistors and a feedback resistor. The
input voltages are applied to the inverting input terminal of the op-amp
through individual input resistors, and the output voltage is typically taken
from the output terminal of the op-amp.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Wire up the circuit shown below, using the first 741. Call it op-amp ‘A’.
2. Provide VDC = 1 V, and Vac = 2 Vpp, 1 kHz.
3. The output is named point X, measure the voltage on that point VX on the
oscilloscope (keep it in DC mode).
4. Verify that the output is indeed a superposition i.e. VX = −Vac − VDC.
Ltspice simulations:

Observations:
It is clear from the preceding diagram that the waves are 180 degrees out of
phase with one another and that the output wave has a certain DC value
deducted from it. The output is therefore an inverted superposition of the two
inputs, or VX = -Vac - VDC, as seen by the output wave appearing below the
input wave.

Precautions:
1. Make sure all connections are right and tight.
2. First, provide the DC supplies VCC and VEE to the IC (pins 7 and 4). Only then
should you provide the input AC signals (pin 2 or 3).
3. You must place the IC firmly in the breadboard, across the middle trench.

Conclusion:
The summing amplifier is a versatile circuit for combining and scaling multiple
input signals, making it useful in various analog signal processing tasks.
 Part 2: Measurement of unknown resistor

Aim: To measure the value of an unknown resistance using properties of an

inverting amplifier using op amp.

Apparatus:

Apparatus/Equipment Quantity
Operational amplifier (op-amp) IC 741 2
Resistors- 10kΩ 3
BC547B transistor 1
1N4007 diode 1
Multimeter 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
DC Power supply 1
Breadboard 1
Connecting wires As required

Theory:

1. The output voltage of an inverting amplifier is given as; 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑅 𝑓 /𝑅 𝑖.

2. Thus, if Vx from the the previous circuit is taken as input, the unknown Rin
can be obtained using the formula; (Here Vy is output of inv. amp.) 𝑅 = − 𝑅 𝑓 (
𝑉 𝑥/ 𝑉Y).

Circuit Diagram:
 Procedure:
1. Extend the Part 1 circuit using both op-amps ‘A’ and ‘B’. Here, DUT stands for
‘Device Under Test’. Initially, keep it open-circuit.
2. Put unknown resistor in place of the DUT, and measure the AC values of VX
and VY .From these values, calculate the value of the unknown resistor.

Calculations:
VX = -1V , VY = 3V
Resistance of resistor = (VX/VY)* -180
= -180 * (-1/3)
R = 60

Measured resistance value = DMM value of resistor(approximately)

Ltspice simulations:

Precautions:
1. Make sure all connections are right and tight.
2. First, provide the DC supplies VCC and VEE to the IC (pins 7 and 4). Only then
should you provide the input AC signals (pin 2 or 3).
3. You must place the IC firmly in the breadboard, across the middle trench.

Conclusion:
In this experiment, we found the value of an unknown resistor using the
properties of an inverting amplifier.
 Part 3: Measurement of Diode Capacitance

Aim: To find the capacitance of p-n junction of a diode using properties of an

inverting amplifier using op amp.
Apparatus:

Apparatus/Equipment Quantity
Operational amplifier (op-amp) IC 741 2
Resistors- 10kΩ 3
BC547B transistor 1
1N4007 diode 1
Multimeter 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
DC Power supply 1
Breadboard 1
Connecting wires As required

Theory:
1. A diode has capacitance in reverse bias due to the formation of a depletion
region, which acts as a dielectric. When a diode is reverse-biased, the p-type
and n-type regions have low resistance and act like the electrodes or
conducting plates of a capacitor, while the depletion region, which has high
resistance, acts like the dielectric or insulating material.

2. The capacitance associated with this charge variation in the depletion layer is
called the junction capacitance. When the reverse bias on a diode is
increased, the depletion region widens, increasing the separation between
the P-type and N-type regions, thus decreasing its capacitance. Conversely,
when the reverse bias is decreased, the depletion region narrows, decreasing
the separation between the P-type and N-type regions and thus increasing its
capacitance.

3. As the resistance of a capacitor is frequency-dependent, we can measure it

using the same technique as in the previous part.
 Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Now, replace the DUT with a 1N4007 silicon diode, as shown below. Note
that the new Vac frequency is 10 kHz.
2. Now, observe the waveforms VX and VY on the oscilloscope in AC mode. Take
a picture of the waveforms. Measure the capacitance of the diode.
3. Now, keep the value of Vac constant, change VDC from 3 V to 10 V, and
measure the diode capacitance.

Observations:
VDC(V) Vac(Vpp) VX(Vpp) VY(Vpp) C(pF) 1/C2(10-2)
3.00 2 2 0.2 8.84 1.28
4.10 2 2 0.19 8.39 1.42
5.09 2 2 0.18 7.95 1.58
6.00 2 2 0.17 7.51 1.77
6.98 2 2 0.16 7.07 1.99
7.5 2 2 0.15 6.63 2.27
8.08 2 2 0.14 6.18 2.61
9.08 2 1.8 0.12 5.89 2.88
10.08 2 1.8 0.11 5.40 3.42
Ltspice simulations:

Q)Prove, in your report, that the diode is reverse biased in this

circuit.
A) The circuit shows that the second op-amp's positive terminal is zero and
that its negative terminal also becomes zero as a result of the op- amp's
virtual short. We can also observe that Vx is always negative from the
graph.Vx (the diode's positive terminal) < 0.Diode negative terminal = 0
Therefore, we can say that the diode is reverse biased.

Precautions:
1. Make sure all connections are right and tight.
2. First, provide the DC supplies VCC and VEE to the IC (pins 7 and 4). Only
then should you provide the input AC signals (pin 2 or 3).
3. You must place the IC firmly in the breadboard, across the middle trench.

Conclusion:
In this experiment, we try to find the capacitance of a reverse biased diode
using the voltage gain property of an inverting amplifier using op-amp
 Part 4: Measurement of Capacitance of C-B Junction of a Transistor

Aim: To measure capacitance of C-B junction of a transistor and find its

relationship with the DC voltage.

Apparatus:

Apparatus/Equipment Quantity
Operational amplifier (op-amp) IC 741 2
Resistors- 10kΩ 3
BC547B transistor 1
1N4007 diode 1
Multimeter 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
DC Power supply 1
Breadboard 1
Connecting wires As required

Theory:

The collector-base junction of a transistor exhibits capacitance due to the

formation of a depletion region when the junction is reverse-biased. This is
often referred to as junction capacitance.

The value of this capacitance can be influenced by the applied reverse bias
voltage. As the reverse bias voltage increases, the width of the depletion
region also increases, which in turn decreases the junction capacitance.
Conversely, as the reverse bias voltage decreases, the width of the depletion
region decreases, leading to an increase in junction capacitance.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Now, in the same circuit as Part 3, replace the DUT with the collector-base
terminals of a BC547B transistor. Note that the new Vac frequency is 25 kHz.
2. Ensure the terminals are correctly connected as shown below (leave the
emitter terminal open.
3. Measure the junction capacitance for each case by varying VDC from 3 V to
10 V, and keeping the value of Vac constant.

Observations:

VDC(V) Vac(Vpp) VX(Vpp) VY(Vpp) C(pF) 1/C3

2.99 2 2 0.13 2.29 0.083

4.02 2 2 0.12 2.12 0.104
5.08 2 2 0.11 1.94 0.136
6.04 2 2 0.105 1.85 0.157
7.02 2 2 0.1 1.76 0.183
7.99 2 2 0.095 1.67 0.214
9.10 2 1.8 0.08 1.76 0.183
10 2 1.8 0.075 1.67 0.214
Ltspice simulations:
Q) Give a brief explanation on the differences between a step-
graded and a linearly-graded junction.
A) Step-graded junctions have abrupt transitions between distinct doping
regions in the semiconductor while preserving consistent concentrations of
acceptor and donor in their respective regions.

A smooth transition in the doping level occurs when impurity levels in a

linearly graded junction show a gradual, linear increase as you travel away
from the junction.

Q) How is a varactor diode different from a normal diode?

Normal diodes are mostly used in switching and rectification
applications and have a typical P-N junction.
A) On the other hand, varactor diodes have a P-N junction where
the P and N regions are sandwiched around an extended undoped
intrinsic(I) region. When voltage is supplied, this intrinsic region can
vary in capacitance, acting as a variable capacitor. When voltage-
controlled capacitance is needed, varactor diodes are frequently
utilized.

Precautions:
1. Make sure all connections are right and tight.
2. First, provide the DC supplies VCC and VEE to the IC (pins 7 and 4). Only
then should you provide the input AC signals (pin 2 or 3).
3. You must place the IC firmly in the breadboard, across the middle trench.

Conclusion:
1. In this experiment, we try to find the capacitance of a reverse
biased c-b junction of a transistor using the voltage gain property of
an inverting amplifier using op-amp.
2. The graph obtained shows that there is a third-order capacitance
dependency for a cb junction of a transistor.. This is because the
junction is linearly graded. In a step-graded junction, the
concentration of dopants, both in the N side and the P side, is uniform
up to the junction. This results in a second order capacitance
dependency. The abrupt change in doping concentration at the
junction leads to a sharp depletion region, which contributes to the
capacitance. On the other hand, in a linearly-graded junction, the
doping concentration varies almost linearly with the distance from
the junction. This results in a third order capacitance dependency. The
gradual change in doping concentration across the junction leads to a
more spread out depletion region, which also contributes to the
capacitance