Slezsk univerzita v Opav

stav cizch jazyk

VOD DO LITERATURY
Studijn opora

Opava 2006
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Description ............................................................................................................2 Course Schedule ................................................................................................................3 Course Prerequisites ..........................................................................................................4 Recommended Literature ..................................................................................................5 Communication with Tutor ...............................................................................................6 1. 2. 3. 4. What is literature?........................................................................................................7 Author-Reader-Text...................................................................................................12 Classification of Fiction ............................................................................................17 Fiction: Main Features...............................................................................................24 4.1. Theme, Motif, Plot .............................................................................................25 4.2. Setting.................................................................................................................26 4.3. Characterization..................................................................................................27 5. Fiction: Literary Tropes.............................................................................................30 6. Fiction: Narratology ..................................................................................................34 7. Introduction to Drama ...............................................................................................38 7.1. Types of Drama ..................................................................................................39 7.2. Drama: Literary Terms.......................................................................................42 8. Drama: Main Features ...............................................................................................44 9. Poetry: Function and Types.......................................................................................48 10. Poetic Forms ..............................................................................................................54 11. Poetry: Prosodic Features ..........................................................................................58 11.1 Metre..................................................................................................................59 11.2. Rhyme...............................................................................................................65 12. Literary Essay ............................................................................................................68 12.1. How to Write an Essay .....................................................................................69 12.2. MLA Norm ......................................................................................................72 Exam Topics ....................................................................................................................78

COURSE DESCRIPTION
Students will become familiar with major literary forms and genres (poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction). They will demonstrate that familiarity by being able to read and write critically about one of those forms (or genres). Specific intended student learning outcomes: 1) The ability to demonstrate a critical understanding of and appreciation for literature when analyzing stories, poems, and plays. 2) The ability to understand and appreciate figurative language (metaphors, similes, and the like) in poetry, fiction, and drama. 3) The ability to understand, appreciate, and apply knowledge of plot, character, point of view, imagery, theme, setting, irony, tone, symbols and language when reading fiction, poetry, or drama. 4) The ability to develop a reasonable interpretation of a literary text and to support that interpretation with evidence.5) The ability to identify common or culturally specific themes in literature by writers of different races, genders and ethnic backgrounds. 6) The ability to identify similarities between works of literature and other works of art or forms of communication.

COURSE SCHEDULE
Session Date* Homework Due Date*

Name

Unit 1

What is literature? Author-Reader-Text Relationship Classification of Literature Fiction: Main Features Fiction: Literary Tropes Fiction: Narratology Introduction to Drama Drama: Main Features Poetry: Function and Types Poetic Forms Poetry: Prosodic Features Essay Writing Exam

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 4

Unit 5

Unit 6

Unit 7

Unit 8

Unit 9

Unit 10

Unit 11

Unit 12

Test/Exam * to be announced

COURSE PREREQUISITES
This is the first literary course the students must pass. All following literary courses will presume active knowledge the theory covered in this course.

LIST OF PREREQUISITES
Technical 1) 2) MS Office Internet connection

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
Aristotels: Poetika, Praha: Svoboda, 1996. Barnet, S. a kol.: Literature: Thinking, Reading, and Writing Critically, New York: Longman, 1997. Cuddon, J.A.: The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3. vydn, London: Penguin, 1992. Sparling, D., Hardy, S. a I .Gilbertov,: Introduction to Literature, 2. vydn, Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 1999. Stanzl, Franz: Teorie vyprvn, Praha: Odeon, 1988. tefan, F.: Theory of Anglophonic Literatures, 1. vydn, Preov: Slovacontact, 1994. Wellek, R. a Warren, A.: Teorie literatury, 1. vydn, Olomouc: Votobia, 1996.

COMMUNICATION WITH TUTOR

The students will send the assigned homework to the tutor via e-mail. The students can also consult the tutor during the office hours or arrange a personal consultation. Channels of Communication E-mail: Telephone: WWW: _______________________________ _______________________________

1. WHAT IS LITERATURE?
Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the various definitions of literature. They will discuss the role and function of literature and art in education and society. Special attention will be paid to the differences between language of art and everyday language.

Keywords Definitions of Literature; Literary Language; Instrumental Language

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 55 minutes Tasks: 60 minutes

The Theory Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, "literature" is used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. 1.writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features, as poetry, novels, history, biography, and essays. 2.the entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc.: the literature of England. 3.the writings dealing with a particular subject: the literature of ornithology. 4.the profession of a writer or author. 5. literary work or production. 6. any kind of printed material, as circulars, leaflets, or handbills: literature describing company products. Synonyms: Literature, belles-lettres, letters refer to artistic writings worthy of being remembered. In the broadest sense, literature includes any type of writings on any subject: the literature of medicine; usually, however, it means the body of artistic writings of a country or period that are characterized by beauty of expression and form and by universality of intellectual and emotional appeal: English literature of the 16th century. Belles-lettres is a more specific term for writings of a light, elegant, or excessively refined character Why do we read literature? Literature represents a language or a people: culture and tradition. But, literature is more important than just a historical or cultural artefact. Literature introduces us to new worlds of experience. We learn about books and literature; we enjoy the comedies and the tragedies of poems, stories, and plays; and we may even grow and evolve through our literary journey with books. Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author says and how he/she says it. We may interpret the author's message. In academic circles, this decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of literary theory, using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approach.

Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze literature, there is still an artistic quality to the works. Literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us. Literary Language/Instrumental Language There have been a variety of attempts to distinguish the difference between the language of literature and the language of not-literature. We may distinguish between the literal language, and "expressive language," the language of literature. The principle upon which the definition of literary language will be based is the concept of multiple meaning, known as polysemy. The degree to which a text exhibits polysemy is a measure of its complexity. Thus, a highly complex text (by definition, then, a literary text) is characterized by the preponderance of metaphors. Literary language is, however, more characteristic of written texts than verbal communications, or of texts derived from an originally oral tradition. Attributes specific to literary and instrumental language: Literary Language polysemic radical ambiguity strong/poetic metaphor connotation open/indeterminate less probable more potential messages

Instrumental Language monosemic unambiguous conventional/extinct metaphor denotation more probable fewer potential messages clear

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Example
William Shakespeare Sonnet 1 FROM fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die, But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light'st flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, makest waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.

"Men and Women of the Corporation" Gender issues in the workplace have made many changes in the past decades. While women today have much more equal footing with men, there are still many discrepancies. Women are still lagging behind in taking their place alongside men in top management positions. Those who are in the organization are there typically as lesser paid employees and often expected to be more subservient than equal even to their male peers. Even women who do not actually work for the organization are subjected to many of the same biased expectations. Kanter (1993) explains this lag that is apparent for women entering the top echelon of organizations as being reflective of "homosocial reproduction", the tendency of homogenaic workplaces to promote those that move in the right social circles in the organization. The workplace emphasis on homogeneity even promotes specific manners of dress, dress that is often determined by the male-oriented social norms of that workplace. Peer acceptance is an important factor in the phenomena of homosocial reproduction as well. The justification for homosocial reproduction is that it strengthens an organization.

Study Questions

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1) What is the function of literature? 2) Should be literature taught at primary and secondary schools? State your arguments 3) What and why do you read? 4) Compare and contrast the two texts

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2. AUTHOR-READER-TEXT
Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with various critical approaches and definitions of the terms author and reader and their relationship to the text. Keywords Author; Reader; Text; Narrative Communication

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 55 minutes Tasks: 70 minutes

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The Theory An author is the person who creates a written work, such as a book, story, article, or the like, whether short or long, fiction or non-fiction, poetry or prose, technical or literary. Within copyright law the term "author" is often used for the creator of any work, be it written, painted, sculptured, music, a photograph or a film, and may be a corporation as well an individual. Role of the author in critical theory One key issue in literary theory is the relationship between the meaning of a literary text and its author's conscious intent. In literary theory, the author function is the writer of a work as seen by the reader. Each work by the same author has a separate author function, and each work by numerous or unknown authors has a single distinct author function. The phrase "Death of the Author" was popularized by Roland Barthes in his 1968 essay with the same name. It is used to convey the idea that texts have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author, depending on the context and reader. The death of the author is in self-conscious opposition to the New Criticism, a literary critical movement popular in England and America in the first half of the 20th century. According to this movement, the author's intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic's task to understand this intent. Michel Foucault's 1969 essay "What is an Author?" responds in part to Barthes and defines the author-function in four main ways. He claims that the author-function is linked to the juridical and institutional system of the discourse that it is not the same for all discourses, that it is not spontaneous attribution, and that it might not refer to a real individual. The term writer can apply to anyone who creates a written work, but the word more usually designates those who write creatively or professionally, or those who have written in many different forms. Skilled writers demonstrate skills in using language to portray ideas and images, whether producing fiction or non-fiction. Michel Foucault analyzed various functions of the author: First, they are objects of appropriation; the form of property. In the past speeches and books were assigned real authors, other than mythical or important religious figures, only when the author became subject to punishment and to the extent that his discourse was considered transgressive. It was at the moment when a system of ownership and strict copyright rules were established (toward the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century) that the transgressive properties always intrinsic to the act of writing became the forceful imperative of literature. It is as if the author, at the moment he was accepted into the social order of property which governs our culture, was compensating for his new status by reviving the older bipolar field of discourse in a systematic practice of transgression and by restoring the danger of writing which, on another side, had been conferred the benefits of property. 14

Secondly, the "author-function" is not universal or constant in all discourse. Even within our civilization, the same types of texts have not always required authors; there was a time when those texts which we now call "literary" (stories, folk tales, epics and tragedies) were accepted, circulated and valorised without any questions about the identity of their author. Their anonymity was ignored because their real or supposed age was a sufficient guarantee of their authenticity. Text, however, that we now call "scientific" (dealing with cosmology and the heavens, medicine or illness, the natural sciences or geography) were only considered truthful during the Middle Ages if the name of the author was indicated. Statements on the order of "Hippocrates said..." or "Pliny tells us that..." were not merely formulas for an argument based on authority; they marked a proven discourse. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a totally new conception was developed when scientific texts were accepted on their own merits and positioned within an anonymous and coherent conceptual system of established truths and methods of verification. Authentication no longer required reference to the individual who had produced them; the role of the author disappeared as an index of truthfulness and, where it remained as an inventor's name, it was merely to denote a specific theorem or proposition, a strange effect, a property, a body, a group of elements, or a pathological syndrome. At the same time, however, "literary" discourse was acceptable only if it carried an author's name; every text of poetry or fiction was obliged to state its author and the date, place, and circumstance of its writing. The meaning and value attributed to the text depended upon this information. If by accident or design a text was presented anonymously, every effort was made to locate its author. Literary anonymity was of interest only as a puzzle to be solved as, in our day, literary works are totally dominated by the sovereignty of the author. (Undoubtedly, these remarks are far too categorical. Criticism has been concerned for some time now with aspects of a text not fully dependent upon the notion of an individual creator; studies of genre or the analysis of recurring textual motifs and their variations from a norm rather than author. Furthermore, where in mathematics the author has become little more than a handy reference for a particular theorem or group of propositions, the reference to an author in biology or medicine, or to the date of his research has a substantially different bearing. This latter reference, more than simply indicating the source of information, attests to the "reliability" of the evidence, since it entails an appreciation of the techniques and experimental materials available at a given time and in a particular laboratory). Narrative communication As is shown in the following graphic, literary narrative communication involves the interplay of at least three communicative levels. Each level of communication comes with its own set of addressers and addressees (also 'senders' and 'receivers').

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This model distinguishes between the levels of action, fictional mediation, and nonfictional communication, and establishes useful points of reference for key terms like author, reader, narrator, and narratee/addressee (for a book-length study on communication in narrative see Coste 1989; for the pragmatic status of narrative statements Hamburger 1977 and Genette 1991). Following the reception-oriented model, some narratologist now differentiate between the 'authorial' and 'narrative' audiences: Authorial audience: The audience of real readers addressed by the author. Narrative audience: The fictional audience addressed by the narrator. The term covers both named or otherwise explicitly specified addressees as well as the wider set of unspecified, implied, or hypothetical addressees. Although the terms person, character and figure are often used indiscriminately, modern theoretical discourse makes an effort to be more distinct and accurate. A person is a real-life person; anyone occupying a place on the level of nonfictional communication. Hence, authors and readers are persons. A character is not a real-life person but only a "paper being" (Barthes 1975 [1966]), a being created by an author and existing only within a fictional text, either on the level of action or on the level of fictional mediation. Example: the character Harry in Sillitoe's "The Fishing Boat Picture". The term figure is often simply used as a variation of 'character'; however, some theorists also use for referring to the narrator. Hence the first-person narrator in Sillitoe's story can be called a 'narrator figure'.

Example
Roland Barthes: Death of the Author, http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/whatis.htm

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Study Questions 1) How does Barthes date the death of the author? 2) What is the difference between the writer and the author according to Barthes? 3) What is the role and function of reader according to Barthes? 4) What does Barthes mean by the death of the author? 5) What is the relationship between author and a text? Can the reader according to Barthes explain the text from the life and opinions of the author?

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3. CLASSIFICATION OF LITERATURE
Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the main classification of literature into fiction and non-fiction, narrative genres and non-narrative genres. They will also learn about the various types of novels. Keywords Flash Fiction; Narrative form; Narrative Genre ; Novel; Metafiction; Popular Genres; Short-Story; Sub-genres

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 55 minutes Tasks: 60 minutes

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The Theory Narrative forms and genres: narratology is concerned with all types of narratives, literary and non-literary, fictional and nonfictional, verbal and nonverbal. The overarching distinction is clearly that between fictional and nonfictional narratives: A fictional narrative presents an imaginary narrator's account of a story that happened in an imaginary world. A fictional narrative is appreciated for its entertainment and educational value, possibly also for providing a vision of characters that might exist or might have existed, and a vision of things that might happen or could have happened. Although a fictional narrative may freely refer to actual people, places and events, it cannot be used as evidence of what happened in the real world. A nonfictional narrative (also factual narrative) presents a real-life person's account of a real-life story. Unless there are reasons for questioning an author's credibility, a factual narrative can serve as evidence of what happened in the real world. In principle, the author of a factual narrative is accountable for the truth of its statements and can always be asked How do you know?

Types of Prose Fiction The following definitions are based on Barnet/Berman/Burto 1964, Cuddon 1998, Hawthorn 1986, Fowler 1987.

The novel can be defined as an extended work of prose fiction. It derives from the Italian novella (little new thing), which was a short piece of prose. The novel has become an increasingly popular form of fiction since the early eighteenth century, 19

though prose narratives were written long before then. The term denotes a prose narrative about characters and their actions in what is recognisably everyday life. This differentiates it from its immediate predecessor, the romance, which describes unrealistic adventures of supernatural heroes. The novel has developed various subgenres: Narrative fiction (narrative prose) generally favours prose for the writing of novels, short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern publishing conventions dictate the following: A Flash fiction is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words. A short story comprises prose writing of less than 10,000 to 20,000 words, but typically more than 500 words, which may or may not have a narrative arc. A story containing between 20,000 and 50,000 words falls into the novella category. A work of fiction containing more than 50,000 words falls squarely into the realm of the novel. For convenience in analyzing the forms of the novel, critics often place them in categories that encompass years of historical development. An early and prevalent type was the picaresque novel, in which the protagonist, a social underdog, has a series of episodic adventures in which he sees much of the world around him and comments satirically upon it. Modern variations of this type include, in addition to those already mentioned, Saul Bellow's Adventures of Augie March (1953) and Thornton Wilder's Theophilus North (1973). In the epistolary novel the narrative is conveyed entirely by an exchange of letters. (e.g. Samuel Richardson, Pamela.) A picaresque novel is an early form of the novel, some call it a precursor of the novel. It presents the adventures of a light hearted rascal (pcaro=rogue). It is usually episodic in structure, the episodes often arranged as a journey. The narrative focuses on one character that has to deal with tyrannical masters and unlucky fates but who usually manages to escape these miserable situations by using her/his wit. The form of the picaresque narrative emerged in sixteenth-century Spain. Examples are: Cervantes, Don Quixote; and in the English tradition: Thomas Nash, The Unfortunate Traveler; Mark Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders. The historical novel takes its setting and some of the (chief) characters and events from history. It develops these elements with attention to the known facts and makes the historical events and issues important to the central narrative. (e.g. Walter Scott, Ivanhoe; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities) The bildungsroman (novel of education, novel of initiation) is a type of novel originating in Germany which presents the development of a character mostly from childhood to maturity. This process typically contains conflicts and struggles, which are ideally overcome in the end so that the protagonist can become a valid and valuable 20

member of society. Examples are J.W. Goethe, Wilhelm Meister; Henry Fielding, Tom Jones; Charles Dickens, David Copperfield; James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. The gothic novel became very popular from the second half of the eighteenth century onwards. With the aim to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of horrors, the gothic novel is usually set in desolate landscapes, ruined abbeys, or medieval castles with dungeons, winding staircases and sliding panels. Heroes and heroines find themselves in gloomy atmospheres where they are confronted with supernatural forces, demonic powers and wicked tyrants. Examples are Horace Walpole, The Castle of Otranto; Ann Radcliffe, Mysteries of Udolpho; William Faulkner, Absalom! Absalom! The social novel, also called industrial novel or Condition of England novel, became particularly popular between 1830 and 1850 and is associated with the development of nineteenth-century realism. As its name indicates, the social novel gives a portrait of society, especially of lower parts of society, dealing with and criticising the living conditions created by industrial development or by a particular legal situation (the poor laws for instance). Well-known examples are: Elizabeth Gaskell, Mary Barton; Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist; Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil and Charles Kingsley, Alton Locke. Subgenres of fiction Genres are often divided into sub-genres. Literature can be organized according to the "poetic genres" and the "prose genres". Poetry might be subdivided into epic, lyric, and dramatic, while prose might be subdivided into fiction and non-fiction. Further subdivisions of dramatic poetry, for instance, might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and so forth. This parsing into subgenres can continue: "comedy" has its own genres, for example, including farce, comedy of manners, burlesque, and satire. [citation needed], Many times, the criteria used to divide up works into genres are not consistent, leading to works that belong to more than one genre. Autobiography: Biography of oneself narrated by oneself. Little autobiographical literature exists from antiquity and the Middle Ages; with a handful of exceptions, the form begins to appear only in the 15th century. Autobiographical works take many forms, from intimate writings made during life that are not necessarily intended for publication (including letters, diaries, journals, memoirs, and reminiscences) to the formal autobiography. Outstanding examples of the genre extend from St. Augustine's Confessions (c. AD 400) to Vladimir Nabokov's Speak, Memory (1951). Children's literature: The earliest of what came to be regarded as children's literature was first meant for adults. Sagas, Ballads and epic tales were among the humble beginnings of this genre, where they were passed on in oral literature as myths and legends created to explain the natural wonders of night and day and the changing seasons.

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Parody: In contemporary usage, a parody is a work that imitates another work in order to ridicule, ironically comment on, or poke some affectionate fun at the work itself, the subject of the work, the author or fictional voice of the parody, or another subject. Parody is imitation with a critical difference, not always at the expense of the parodied text. Satire: Satire (lat. medley, dish of colourful fruits) is a technique used in drama and the performing arts, fiction, journalism, and occasionally in poetry and the graphic arts. Although satire is usually witty, and often very funny, the primary purpose of satire is not primarily humour but criticism of an individual or a group in a witty manner. Crime fiction : rime fiction is the genre of fiction that deals with crimes, their detection, criminals, and their motives. It is usually distinguished from mainstream fiction and other genres such as science fiction or historical fiction, but boundaries can be, and indeed are, blurred. It has several sub-genres, including detective fiction (including the whodunnit), legal thriller, courtroom drama, and hard-boiled fiction. Detective fiction: Detective fiction is a branch of crime fiction that canters upon the investigation of a crime, usually murder, by a detective, either professional or amateur. Detective fiction is the most popular form of both mystery fiction and hardboiled crime fiction. A common feature of detective fiction is an investigator who is unmarried, with some source of income other than a regular job, and who generally has some pleasing eccentricities or striking characteristics. He or she frequently has a less intelligent assistant, or foil, who is asked to make apparently irrelevant inquiries and acts as an audience surrogate for the explanation of the mystery at the end of the story. Fable: moral lesson, which may be expressed explicitly at the end as a maxim. "Fable" comes from Latin fabula (meaning 'conversation', 'narrative', 'tale') and shares a root with faber, "maker, artificer." Thus, though a fable may be conversational in tone, the understanding from the outset is that it is an invention, a fiction. A fable may be set in verse, though it is usually prose. In its pejorative sense, a fable is a deliberately invented or falsified account. The word "fabulous" strictly means "pertaining to fables," although in recent decades its metaphorical meanings have been taken to be literal meanings, i.e. "legendary," "mythical," "exaggerated," "incredible." An author of fables is called a fabulist. Fairy tale: A fairy tale is a story featuring folkloric characters such as fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, giants, talking animals and others. The fairy tale is a sub-class of the folktale. These stories often involve royalty, and modern versions usually have a happy ending. In cultures where demons and witches are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legendary narratives, where the context is perceived by teller and hearers as having historical actuality. However, unlike legends and epics they usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, persons, and events although these allusions are often critical in understanding the origins of these fanciful stories.

Romance: As a literary genre, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic prose and verse narrative current in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. The term was coined to distinguish popular material in the vernacular (at first the

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Romance languages French, Portuguese and Spanish, later German, English and others) from scholarly and ecclesiastical literature in Latin. In general, the ballads were the property of professional performers, while the romance was associated more with amateurs and private readers. Nevertheless, a professional poet-performer like Chrtien de Troyes could turn his hand to composing romances. The distinction between an early verse romance and a chanson de geste is often difficult, and perhaps unnecessary, to make. Unlike the novel (nouvelle romaine or "new romance") and like the chansons de geste, the romance dealt with traditional themes, above all three thematic cycles of tales, assembled in imagination at a late date as the Matter of Rome (actually centred on the life and deeds of Alexander the Great), the Matter of France (Charlemagne and Roland, his principal paladin) and the Matter of Britain (the lives and deeds of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, within which was incorporated the quest for Holy Grail). Popular genres Fantasy: Fantasy is a genre of art that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. The genre is generally distinguished from science fiction and horror by overall look, feel, and theme of the individual work, though there is a great deal of overlap between the three (collectively known as speculative fiction). In its broadest sense, fantasy covers works by many writers, artists, film makers, and musicians, from ancient myths and legends to many recent works embraced by a wide audience today. Horror: "horror" experience has often been the intrusion of an evil or, occasionally, misunderstood supernatural element into everyday human experience. Since the 1960s, any work of fiction with a morbid, gruesome, surreal, or exceptionally suspenseful or frightening theme has come to be called "horror." Horror fiction often overlaps science fiction or fantasy, all three of which categories are sometimes placed under the umbrella classification speculative fiction. Science fiction: Science fiction (often called sci-fi or SF) is a popular genre of fiction in which the narrative world differs from our own present or historical reality in at least one significant way. This difference may be technological, physical, historical, sociological, philosophical, metaphysical, etc, but not magical (see Fantasy). Exploring the consequences of such differences (asking "What if...?") is the traditional purpose of science fiction, but there are also many science-fiction works in which an exotically alien setting is superimposed upon what would not otherwise be a science-fiction tale. Slave narrative: The slave narrative is a literary form which grew out of the experience of enslaved Africans in the New World. Some six thousand former slaves from North America and the Caribbean gave an account of their lives during the 18th and 19th centuries, with about 150 published as separate books or pamphlets. There are also North African slave narratives, which were written by white Americans or Europeans captured and enslaved in North Africa. Slave narratives were first produced in England in the 18th century, but they soon became a mainstay of African American literature. North American and Caribbean slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the abolitionist struggle are the most 23

famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif, such as in Frederick Douglass's autobiography and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs (1861). Thriller: The thriller is a broad genre of literature, film, and television. It includes numerous, often overlapping sub-genres. Thrillers are characterized by fast pacing, frequent action, and resourceful heroes who must thwart the plans of more-powerful and better-equipped villains. Thrillers often take place wholly or partly in exotic settings such as foreign cities, deserts, polar regions, or high seas. The heroes in most thrillers are frequently "hard men" accustomed to danger: law enforcement officers, spies, soldiers, seamen, or pilots. However, they may also be ordinary citizens drawn into danger by accident. Thrillers often overlap with mystery stories, but are distinguished by the structure of their plots. In a thriller, the hero must thwart the plans of an enemy, rather than uncover a crime that has already happened. Jeopardy and violent confrontations are standard plot elements. While a mystery climaxes when the mystery is solved; a thriller climaxes when the hero finally defeats the villain, saving his own life and often the lives of others. In thrillers influenced by film noir and tragedy, the compromised hero is often killed in the process. Western: The Western is an American genre in literature and film. Westerns are art works films, literature, television and radio shows, sculpture (particularly that by Frederic Remington), and paintings devoted to telling stories set in the 19th Century American West (and sometimes Mexico, Canada or the Australian Outback, during the same time period), with the setting occasionally portrayed in a romanticised light. The western film genre often portrays the conquest of the wilderness and the subordination of nature, in the name of civilization or the confiscation of the territorial rights of the original inhabitants of the frontier.

Example
Donald Barthelme: Glass Mountain, www.fti.uab.es/sgolden/docencia/glassmountain.htm

Study Questions 1) What is the difference between a short story and a novel? Think of the length, number of characters, number of story lines 2) What is the main function of a short story? 3) What is the most popular genre generally and why? 4) What genre is Donald Barthelmes story? State your arguments. Is it only one genre?

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4. FICTION: MAIN FEATURES

Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the main features of fiction such as the difference between theme and motif, types of characters, various settings and their influence upon the story. Keywords Plot; Theme; Motif; Setting; Characters

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 65 minutes Tasks: 70 minutes

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4.1 THEME, MOTIF, PLOT

The Theory Theme: The essential idea, group of ideas, or philosophy that the writer wants the reader to understand from the story she is telling. A simple theme from the folk tale about Little Red Riding Hood might be "Don't talk to strangers." A motif is an idea, a theme that is repeated or carried through an individual work as when John Steinbeck's narrator constantly compares Lenny to an animal such as horse or bear throughout the novel Of Mice and Men. There are musical motifs as well. In Jaws, the approach of the shark is always signalled by a strumming of bass strings slowly as the music builds in pitch and speed. A motif is also an idea which is so powerful and recognizable that it will be used by many authors and artists in many different works in many different ages. Many writers will liken the ages of a person to the seasons of the year. In the spring of one's life is youth and the winter is old age when older persons are said to have snow on the roof. Other motifs used in many works includes the savior motif and the innocence to experience motif .

Plot: Structure of the Plot: I. Introduction: Several things may be introduced at the beginning of the story.

A. Setting: Where and when the story takes place B. Protagonist: The main character of the story; who the story is about; this character sets the action in motion. C. Mood: The emotional feeling the reader gets from the setting and character description; the atmosphere. D. Tone: The attitude of the speaker or narrator. II. Rising Action: This essentially the point where the protagonist meets the antagonist. A. Conflict: One force meets an opposing force. 1. Person vs. Person (External Conflict) 2. Person vs. Nature (External Conflict) 3. Person vs. Himself or Herself (Internal Conflict) 4. Person vs. Society (External Conflict)

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5. Person vs. Fate, Destiny, God (External Conflict) B. Antagonist: The character or force which opposes the protagonist. III. Climax: The point at which the reader can see who will inevitable win the conflict. This can often not be seen until the story is over and the reader looks back on the plot. The climax is not the most exciting part of the story! Some stories do not have exciting parts. IV. Denouement: This is French for unknotting and is essentially the wrapping up of all the loose details of the plot in order to satisfy the reader or audience.

4.2 SETTING
The Theory Setting Setting refers to the set of locations (or the entire world) where the story takes place. Sometimes, this also includes local and world history and the general laws of nature of that world. Fiction is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for a story. This term is not very common, since all more or less elaborated fictions hosting multiple stories are referred to as fictional universes. A fiction can be identical to our world (save a few details) or different from it in every aspect - depending on the wishes of the author. Fictional universe is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for one or (more commonly) multiple works of fiction. Usually, fictional universes are a prerogative of science fiction and fantasy (see also Fantasy world) genres, since any setting that only slightly differs from our can be called and seen as fictional. Space in fiction is distinct from space in the visual arts because space in fiction can never be presented completely. Describing the entire interior of a room, to the smallest visible detail, is an impossible (and rather boring) task, but the full depiction of a room in the medium of film clearly poses no problem at all. In verbal narrative, a room can only be described by referring to a small selection of more or less 'graphic' detail -luckily, in the process of reading, readers will complete the 'verbal picture' by imagining the rest. Definition of literary space: Literary space: the environment which situates objects and characters; more specifically, the environment in which characters move or live in. Literary space in this sense is more than a stable 'place' or 'setting' -- it includes landscapes as well as climatic conditions, cities as well as gardens and rooms, indeed, it includes everything that can be conceived of as spatially located objects and persons. Along with characters, space belongs to the 'existents' of a narrative. 27

Any description of space invokes a perception of space: apart from the reader's imaginative perception, this is either a narrator's perception, or a character's perception; both can be either actual perception or imaginary perception. For this reason, fictional space is evidently strongly correlated to focalization.

4.3 CHARACTERIZATION
The Theory The characters are distinctive personalities who are involved in the events described by the story. One usually differentiates between major (primary) characters and minor (secondary) characters. The former are the heroes of the story around whom the entire plotline evolves while the latter have supporting roles whose function is to provide the main characters with information, material goods, services or whatever they may need in order to advance the plot. The process of creating a character is called characterization. Characterization is of crucial importance for all major characters, since they must possess a memorable and complex personality to appear interesting and appealing (or repulsive, if it is an antagonist). However, since it is impossible to describe all aspects of a character's personality in a story without sacrificing too much of its other components, the authors usually have to follow the Iceberg Theory proclaimed by Ernest Hemingway. Unlike the major characters, the minor ones are usually not created from scratch but rather picked from a list of the stock characters (or created by merging them together). These are mostly stereotypical simplifications of human personalities, with a few distinctive features (compared to dozens of the major characters), but considering their usual supporting roles, this is an advantage since both the author and the audience/reader don't spend much time on them anyway. There are, however, some clichs that should better be avoided. Every major character of a story normally has his/her own motive (motivation) that drives him/her forward and advances the story. Different motives and interests often cause conflicts between characters and thus create the inciting moment for a plot or subplot. Throughout a story, especially if it is an epic of some kind, the motives of the major characters may change, adding to the complexity of the story and their own personalities. Another common attribute of the primary cast are the s.c. character shields - a plot device that protects them from the misfortunes perilous for minor characters. This can be presented as something paranormal (in fantasy settings), as unusual luck or skill, or simply left unexplained. The main characters usually follow some basic guidelines: Protagonist is a hero or heroine of story, whose progress towards the finale the narrative explicitly follows. The protagonist is usually blessed with all kinds of virtues and despite having many personal problems (which are eventually solved in the progress of the story), stays on the side of "good". "Good" is a very subjective term and usually 28

describes the side the audience is supposed to sympathize with. Longer and epic stories may feature multiple protagonists at once, each with his/her own separate story. Tragic hero is a type of a character (often, a protagonist) whose personality has some tragic flaw (hamartia) that prevents him from being what he wants to be and thus means constant suffering for him. Tragic heroes and heroines are usually the ones the audience/reader sympathizes with the most, once their hamartia (be it a hunchback, own ancestry, lycanthropy, etc.) is revealed. Sometimes, the antagonist can be presented as a tragic hero in order to justify his/her utter virulence. A special case of this type is a Byronic hero. Anti-hero is a type of a protagonist who expresses traits that are more appropriate for an antagonist, but in the end, stands to the cause of "good" (see above). Such protagonists are more common in the contemporary fiction, since they appear more realistic than traditional righteous heroes and thus, more appealing to the audience/reader. Antagonist is a hero or heroine of story who actively opposes the protagonist(s) in achieving his/her/their goals or represents an opposing force (an organization, a natural or supernatural force, etc.) in the conflict. Since the protagonist usually stands on the side of "good", the antagonist is always depicted as "evil". Villain is the most stereotypical type of an antagonist, almost a stock character. He/she is usually depicted as an utterly evil person (while the reasons for this are seldom given), not caring for human life or emotion, hating the entire world and aiming to enslave or destroy it. In more elaborate cases, the villain can be depicted as a tragic hero whose actions are an act of revenge or another justified cause (e.g. protection from an even greater evil). Evil twin is a type of an antagonist who is virtually identical to the protagonist, but stands on the opposing side. A conflict between "twins" is usually much more tense and difficult to resolve than usual, but is generally not very common because of its obviousness. False protagonist is a character who is introduced as a protagonist at the beginning of the story but removed (normally, killed) halfway through. Another major or minor character, which was also introduced early in the narrative, then takes his/her place and completes the story. This technique is applicable only if the narrative is not very long (a film, a short story, etc.) and has only one protagonist. Fictional character is a character that is fictional even in the context of a fictional story. This technique can be used to give a new view on the protagonist's problems, to create a comedic effect, etc. Wedge-type characters are minor characters that possess character shields, which allow them to survive mortal dangers just like the major ones, but do not ascend to their primary status. This is an unofficial term, invented after Wedge Antilles. Stock characters A stock character is a character that relies heavily on cultural types or stereotypes for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to members of a given culture, therefore they are often used during the 29

characterization of minor characters, which don't need an original personality to fulfil their main function - supporting the primary characters. Some typical examples for stock characters are: Absent-minded professor Bad Fianc Competent Man Damsel in distress Dumb blonde Dark Lord Evil genius Femme fatale Hero Mad scientist Private investigator

Example
E.A. Poe: The Fall of the House of Usher, http://www.online-literature.com/poe/31/

Study Questions 1) Identify the theme and motifs 2) Describe the plot 3) Analyze the setting, what atmosphere does Poe create and how? 4) How is the setting connected with the characters? 5) Describe the characters, what type of characters are they?

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5. FICTION: LITERARY TROPES

Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the distinction between metaphoric and rhetorical tropes and their various examples such as irony, metaphor, symbol or metonymy. Keywords Metaphorical Tropes; Rhetorical Tropes; Analogy; Symbol; Metaphor; Metonymy; Irony

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 75 minutes Tasks: 60 minutes

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A trope is a figure of speechcertain language constructs present figures to the eye, the ear, to the other senses. A trope makes a picture or a sensationit is descriptive in nature. But not all descriptions are tropes, for a figure of speech is more complex than simple adjective-noun (pretty girl) or verb-adverb (run quickly) constructions. Simile: is the comparison of things that have points of likeness (Her smile was like the sun, / As warm as morning light upon the rose). Analogy: is the means by which simile proceeds: comparison of things that are not identical (He stood as if he were an oak / Braced against the wind.) Contrast: is comparison by differentiation: Things are not alike (The lake was no more mirror than the sky is a pancake.) Allusion: is comparison by reference to something outside the text, or to something not organically part of the text; i.e., "He came, like Rome, to see, and stayed to conquer." Parabola: is resemblance by imagerytalking about one thing in terms of something entirely different in kind. An Oxymoron: is a descriptive phrase that combines terms that seem mutually exclusive, but which in context may not be so; i.e., "sweet bitterness," "terrible beauty," "burning chill," and so forth. Metaphoric TropesMetaphoric Construction: The vehicle of a metaphor is the trope that bears the weight of the comparison of dissimilar things or qualities that have a single point in common (Coins is the vehicle of our example; roundness is the point in common between coins and sun & moon). The subject of a metaphor is called the tenor (sun & moon is the compound tenor of the example). Denotation: is the primary meaning, or dictionary definition of a wordHeart: "A bodily organ, the purpose of which is to circulate the blood." Connotation: is an ancillary or second meaning of a word. Connotations of heart are courage, as in "he has great heart"; love, as in "An affair of the heart": and essence, as in "He is pure of heart." Context: is the environment surrounding a word situated in a phrase, clause, or larger grammatical unit. This environment limits the denotations and connotations of the word. In "His heart beat strongly in battle," the context of the word heart allows the denotation a bodily organ and the connotation of courage, but eliminates the other connotations of love and essence. The Pathetic Fallacy: is absurd or overstated personificationendowing non-human things with bathetic or pathetic qualities, often through cue-words (such as apple-pie, motherhood, etc.) which are meant to induce automatic sentimental responses in the reader. In the phrase, "The little white cloud that cried," little, cloud, and cried are cuewords.

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A Symbol: is a concretion which represents an abstraction; i.e., in some context the ocean might be symbolic of eternity. Paradox: is a metaphor or statement that combines terms which seem mutually exclusive, but which in fact are not"Freedom is the prison of rebellion," or "Winter is the Spring of contemplation"; or it is a statement that contradicts a commonly held belief"The earth is not round, it is egg-shaped." Allegory: "a long and perpetual metaphor." It is a method of telling a story on the narrative level, but meaning something more general regarding the human condition on the symbolic level. Rhetorical Tropes Rhetoric: is the art of effective speaking and writing; it is concerned with creating an effect in the listener or reader, and with affecting him/her as well. Certain tropes may be called rhetorical tropes because they are concerned with making there effects through non-metaphorical figures of speech. Aporia: expresses doubt or uncertainty or a logical gap. Apostrophe: is direct addressspeaking to an absent human being, or to a (usually) personified thing or abstraction. Dramatic Irony: what appears true to a character is not what the audience or reader knows to be true. Thus, with dramatic irony the audience knows more about a characters situation than the character does, foreseeing an outcome contrary to the characters expectation, and thereby giving a sharply different sense to some of the characters own statements; in tragedies, this is called "tragic irony." Ecphonisis: is exclamation or outcry. Ironia, or irony, is witty mockery, usually effected by saying the opposite of what is actually meant. Paralepsis: makes a little thing of something by passing over it lightly, or denying it is of importance and thereby emphasizing its actual importance through understatement. Sarcasmus: or sarcasm, is heavy verbal irony, or "the bitter taunt." There is little wit in sarcasm, as for instance when one bridge partner says to the other, who has just played a bad hand, "Oh, youre just a terrific player, simply marvellous." In this case, saying the opposite of what is actually meant is similar to the technique of irony, but the emphasis is on the bitterness, not on the mockery. Situational Irony: what appears likely to happen is not what actually happens. Structural Irony: involves the use of a nave or deluded hero or unreliable narrator, whose view of the world differs widely from the true circumstances recognized by the author and readers. This irony thus flatters its reader's/audiences intelligence at the expense of a character (or fictional narrator). A similar sense of audience/readers detached superiority is achieved by dramatic irony.

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Verbal Irony: words that appear to mean one thing really mean the opposite. The opening sentence of Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice (1813) is a famous example: "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife" (part of the ironic implication is that a single woman is in want of a rich husband). In its lowliest form, verbal irony is sarcasm.

Example
E.A. Poe: The Fall of the House of Usher, http://www.online-literature.com/poe/31/

Study Questions 1) Find symbols and metaphors in the story 2) Find any example of dramatic or tragic irony 3) Find any example of oxymoron

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6. FICTION: NARRATOLOGY
Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the main distinctions between narrator and reflector. They will be analyze the various narrative situations and points of view of the story. Keywords Narrative Situation; Point of View; Narrator; Reflector

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 55 minutes Tasks: 70 minutes

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The Theory The first question before analyzing the text is: Who speaks? A narrator is the speaker or 'voice' of the narrative discourse. He or she is the agent who establishes communicative contact with an addressee (the 'narratee'), who manages the exposition, who decides what is to be told, how it is to be told (especially, from what point of view, and in what sequence), and what is to be left out. Stanzel intended to show how narratives render their mediacy (Mittelbarkeit) and to systematize the various kinds of mediacy in a typological circle constitutive elements of mediacy: Person (first person or third person) Perspective (internal or external) Mode (narrator or reflector) Stanzel: First-Person narrative situation (1st person narrator) Authorial narrative situation (omniscient narrator) Figural narrative situation (Reflector)

1st person narrator narrator who is present as a character in his/her story events s/he has experienced himself narrator (narrating I) is also a character (experiencing I) Unreliable Narrator: A narrator "whose rendering of the story and/or commentary on it the reader has reasons to suspect. [...] The main sources of unreliability are the narrator's limited knowledge, his personal involvement, and his problematic valuescheme." I-as-protagonist / I-as-witness (Moll Flanders/ Nick The Great Gatsby )

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Authorial Narrator no character in the story itself (impersonal narration) status of an outsider => godlike abilities such as omniscience and omnipresence may speak directly to their addressees, in order to comment on action and characters and to engage in philosophical reflection or socio-political criticism and the like Reliable Narrator: A narrator "whose rendering of the story and commentary on it the reader is supposed to take as an authoritative account of the fictional truth." Reflector subjective reflector; internal focalizer effect: attract attention to the mind of the reflector-character and away from the narrator and the processes of narratorial mediation through the eyes of a character in story => third-person

Example
E. A. Poe: The Tell Tale Heart, www.online-literature/poe

Study Questions 1) Who speaks? Describe the narrator 2) Is this narrator reliable? Does he present the reader with the story as it happened? State your arguments 3) What narrative situation is this?

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7. INTRODUCTION TO DRAMA
Learning Objectives The students will be acquainted with the main types of drama: comedies and tragedies and their subgenres. They will also learn the main literary terminology concerning drama. Keywords Dramatical Utterance; Dramatic Sub-genres; Types of Drama; Dramatic Literary Terminology

Time Required for this Unit Theory: 45 minutes Tasks: 200 minutes

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7.1 TYPES OF DRAMA

The Theory Drama (Classical Greek ) is a literary form involving parts written for actors to perform. It is a Greek word meaning "action", drawn from the (Classical Greek ), "to do". Dramatic Sub-Genres Ever since Aristotles Poetics, one distinguishes at least between two sub-genres of drama: comedy and tragedy (see also Genre in Basic Concepts). While comedy typically aims at entertaining the audience and making it laugh by reassuring them that no disaster will occur and that the outcome of possible conflicts will be positive for the characters involved, tragedy tries to raise the audiences concern, to confront viewers with serious action and conflicts, which typically end in a catastrophe (usually involving the death of the protagonist and possibly others). Both comedy and tragedy have, in the course of literary history, developed further sub-genres of which the following list provides only an initial overview.

Types of Comedy Sometimes, scholars distinguish between high comedy, which appeals to the intellect (comedy of ideas) and has a serious purpose (for example, to criticise), and low comedy, where greater emphasis is placed on situation comedy, slapstick and farce. Further sub-genres of comedy include: Romantic Comedy A pair of lovers and their struggle to come together is usually at the centre of this type of comedy. Romantic comedies also involve some extraordinary circumstances, e.g., magic, dreams, the fairy-world, etc. Examples are Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream or As You Like It. Satiric Comedy This type of comedy has a critical purpose. It usually attacks philosophical notions or political practices as well as general deviations from social norms by ridiculing characters. In other words: The aim is not to make people laugh with the characters but laugh at them. An early writer of satirical comedies was Aristophanes (450-385 BC), later examples include Ben Jonsons Volpone and The Alchemists. Comedy of Manners The comedy of manners is also satirical in its outlook and it takes the artificial and sophisticated behaviour of the higher social classes under closer scrutiny. The plot usually revolves around love or some sort of amorous intrigue and the language is

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