TARGET BIOLOGY TARUN SIR M-9153668079

Structural Organisation in Animals ( Part 2)

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
The following information identifies a few select features of connective tissue:-------
1) O. Hartwig called them Mesenchyme because they originated from embryonic mesoderm.
2) Only connective Tissue consititute 30% of total body weight. Most abundant and widely distributed in
the body.
3) Nerve supply. Most connective tissues have a nerve supply (as does epithelial tissue).
4) Blood supply. There is a wide range of vascularity among connective tissues, although most are well
vascularized (unlike epithelial tissues, which are all avascular).
5) Structure. Connective tissue consists of scattered cells immersed in an intercellular material called the matrix.
The matrix consists of fibers and ground substance. The kinds and amounts of fiber and ground substance
determine the character of the matrix, which in turn defines the kind of connective tissue.
6) Cell types. Fundamental cell types, characteristic of each kind of connective tissue, are responsible for
producing the matrix. Immature forms of these cells (whose names end in blast) secrete the fibers and ground
substance of the matrix. Cells that have matured, or differentiated (whose names often end in cyte), function
mostly to maintain the matrix.

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

 7) Fibers. Matrix fibers are proteins that provide support for the connective tissue. There are three types:
o Collagen fibers, made of the protein collagen, are both tough and flexible.
o Elastic fibers, made of the protein elastin, are strong and stretchable.
o Reticular fibers, made of thin collagen fibers with a glycoprotein coating, branch frequently to form
a net-like (reticulate) pattern.
8) Ground substance. Ground substance may be fluid, gel, or solid, and, except for blood, is secreted by the
cells of the connective tissue:
9) Cell adhesion proteins hold the connective tissue together.
10) Types of connective tissues are -------
Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 915366807
 A) CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER ( Semi solid )
Connective Tissue Proper is composed of three components --------
(a) Different types of cells. (b) Fibres. (c) Matrix.
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1) FIBROBLAST CELLS : i) Largest cell of connective tissue proper.
ii) Maximum in number.
iii) Branched cytoplasmic process arise from these cells so they appear
irregular in shape.
iv) Rich in rough ER because main or primary function is to produces fibres.
Fibres are composed of protein.
v) Chief matrix producing cells.
vi) Undifferentiated cells of connecting tissue because they can be modified
into Osteoblast & Chondrioblast cells to produce bone & cartilage.
Function : (1) To produce fibres (2) To secrete matrix.

2) PLASMA CELL - CART WHEEL CELL : Less in number.Amoeboid in shape – Chromatin material is
arranged like spokes in wheel so they are also called as Cart wheel cells.
Function : Produce, Secrete & transport antibody.
3) MAST CELLS / MASTOCYTES
i) Numerous , amoeboid and small in size.
ii) Structurally and functionally similar to basophils.
iii) 2-3 lobed S-shaped nucleus
iv) Cytoplasm contains basophilic granules which can be stained with basic dye Methylene
Blue.
v) It is important cell of connective tissue proper as they perform important functions produce ------
(a) Histamine ------- Histamine is a protein, a vasodilator
 Increase permeability of blood capillaries.
Take part in allergy and inflammatory reactions.
(b) Secotonin ------- Also called as 5-Hydroxy tryptamine
It is a protein, a vasoconstrictor & decrease blood circulation but increases blood
pressure.
A the site of cut or injury serotonin decrease blood loss.

(c) Heparin - ------- A mucopolysaccharide, a natural anti-coagulant, prevents clotting of blood in blood
vessels by preventing the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin.

4) ADIPOSE CELLS/FAT CELLS

i) Oval shaped stores fat.
ii) Fat is collected in the form of fat globule formed by the fusion of small oil droplets.
iii) On the basis of number of fat globules adipocytes are of two types.
a) Monolocular adipocytes/ White fat tissue-cell
i) In these cells single large and central fat globule is present.
ii) Due to compression of fat globule, nucleus become flattened in shape . These adipocytes
form White Fat.
b) Multilocular adipocytes/Brown fat tissue cell
i) In these cell 2-3 fat globules are distributed in the cytoplasm around nucleus
ii) Cytoplasm is more in quantity.
iii) Nucleus is rounded & found in the centre
iv) These adipocytes form Brown Fat. Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079
5) MACROPHAGES/HISTEOCYTE/CLASMATOCYTES
i) It is 2 nd largest in size and in number.
ii) Amoeboid in shape with bean or kidney shaped nucleus.
iii) Cytoplasm quantity is more a granular but due to presence of more number of lysosome it appears
granular.
iv) Phagocytic in nature, destroy bacteria & viruses by phagocytosis. They arises by the fusion of
monocytes
v) Also called as scavenger cells of connective tissue because they destroy dead or damaged cells
to clean connective tissue.
Macrophages are named differently in different organs.
Lung – Dust cells
Liver – Kupffer cells
Blood – Monocytes
Brain – Microgleal cells
Thymus gland – Hessels granules
Spleen – Reticular cells
7) LYMPHOCYTES
i) Less in number and small in size having amoeboid shape.
ii) A large nucleus is present cytoplasm is present as peripheral layer. Cytoplasm quantity is less.
iii) Produce, transport & secretes antibodies.
iv) They divide to form plasma cells of connective tissue proper.

FIBRES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

1) Collagen fibres (White fibres)
i) They are shining white fibres composed of collagen protein (Tropocollagen).
ii) It is present in maximum quantity in vertebrates, (only collagen fibres constituted one third part of
connective tissue fibres in human beings.)
iii) They are wavy & tough fibres always arranged in bundle called fascia.
iv) On boiling they convert into gelatin.
v) They can be digested by Pepsin enzyme.
2) Elastic fibres – (Yellow fibres)
i) Precursor in colour and composed of elastin protein.
ii) They are branched fibres but always arranged singly. Branches of these form network.
iii) In these fibres maximum elasticity is present.
iv) They are highly resistant to chemicals.
v) When boiled they do not dissolve.
vi) They can be digested by trypsin enzyme.
3) Reticular Fibres
i) Precursor of Collagen fibres, delicate with no elasticity
ii) Also known as Arzyrophil fibre since they can be stained with silver salts.
iii) They are composed of recticulin protein highly branched fibres which always form dense network
iv) These are mainly distributed in lymphoid organs like spleen or lymph nodes

MATRIX :- is composed of Mucopolysaccharide which is present in the form of Hyaluronic acid.

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

 TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
A ) AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE :
i) Also known spongy tissue.
ii) It is most widely distributed tissue in the body.
iii) In this tissue maximum intercellular space or substances/matrix is present. Due to irregular
arrangement of bundle of collagen fibres many gaps are present. These spaces called Areolae.
iv) In areolae other components of connective tissue are distributed like fibres, cell & matrix.
v) Few elastic fibres are present but reticular fibres are completely absent.
vi) Mast cells, Macrophage & Fibroblast are present more in amount.It occurs beneath the epithelia
of many visceral organs skin and in the walls of blood vessels. – Fibroblast is the main cell.
e.g. Tela Subcutanea – A thin continuous layer which connect skin with underlying skeletal
muscles (Pannicules carnosus). In mammals skin is tightly attached with muscles.
Endomysium – Around single muscles fibre. Perimysium – Around bundle of muscle fibre.
Outside of semniferous Tubules. / Medulla of ovary / Sub mucosa of trachea,
Bronchi, Intestine
The areolar tissue joins different tissues and forms the packing between them and helps to
keep the organs in place and in normal shape.

B) ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE. TISSUE

i) Modification of Areolar connective tissue. But in areolae major component is adipocytes which
store fats located mainly beneath the skin. Blood vascular system is also present in this tissue.
ii) If this tissue is treated with alcohol (organic solvent) Fat will be dissolv ed completely and
adipocytes will become vacuolated.
iii) This tissue can be stained with sudan solution.

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

On the basis of adipocytes 2 type of fats are found in animals.----1. White fat 2. Brown fat
1) White fat : It is composed of monolocular adipocytes. Produce less energy. Blubber – Thick layer
of white fat found under dermis of skin. Found in whale, seal, elephants. Maximum
thickness of this layer is found in Blue whale (80 cm)
eg., Hump of camel, Tail of marino sheep, Yellow Bone marrow.
2) Brown fat : It is composed of multilocular adipocytes. It produces 20 times more heat than white fat.
Brown colour of fat is due to Cytochrome Pigment.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------
Dense Connective Tissue : Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective
tissues. Orientation of fibres show a regular or irregular pattern and are called dense regular and
dense irregular tissues. In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in
rows between many parallel bundles of fibres e.g. tendons and ligaments. Dense irregular connective
tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented in di fferent directions. This
tissue is present in the skin, in perineurium and bones as periosteum.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------
C) WHITE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
i) Bundle of collagen fibres are more in quantity & other components of connective tissue proper
are less in quantity. It has great tensile strength
ii) Yellow fibres & reticular fibres are completely absent.
iii) Its presence at joints between skull bones makes them immovable.
iv) On the basis of arrangement of fibres and matrix this tissue occurs in two forms –
a) Cord (Dense regular) - Tendon
1. Bundle of collagen fibres & matrix are distributed in regular parttern (alternate pattern).
2. Fibroblast cells are arranged in a series. Mast cells are scattered in matrix.
Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079
eg. Tendon connects muscles & bones. Strongest tendon of the body is Tendocalcaneus
Tendon. This tendon connects Gastrocnemius muscles of shank with calcaneum bone of ankle.
b) Sheath (Dense Irregular) - In this form there is irregular pattern of fibres & matrix. Cells and
fibres are criss – crossed arranged.
e.g. Pericardium - Outer covering of heart / Periosteum – Outer covering of bone. /
Perichondrium – Outer covering of cartilage./ Epimysium – Covering of muscle / . Renal
capsule – Around Kidney./ Tunica Albugenia – Covering of Testis/ Splenic capsule –
Covering of spleen / Duramater – Outermost covering of brain / Cornea of eye – Glison's
capsule – Around lobe of liver.
D) YELLOW FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
i) Yellow fibres are more in quantity but collagen fibres are also present.
ii) Reticular fibres are absent.
iii) On the basis of distribution of fibres & matrix they are of two types. --------
a) Cord (Dense regular) -Ligaments : Bundle of collagen fibres & matrix distributed in a regular
pattern & in matrix yellow fibres form network which connects Bones.
b) Sheath (Dense irregular) - Irregular distribution of fibres and matrix with Elastic fibre.
eg. – Wall of Alveoli of lungs / Wall of small bronchiolesWall
of lymph vessels & Blood vesselsTrue vocal cords

E) RETICUlAR FIBROUS / LYMPHOID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1) It is mostly found in lymphoid organs.
2) Matrix of this tissue is like lymph. Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079
3) Reticular fibres are more in amount & form dense network around star shaped reticular cells.
(Phagocytic in function)
4) Lymphocyte cells are also more in number.
5) Provide support and strength and form the stroma (Frame work) of soft organs.
e.g. – Spleen , Lymph nodes (Tonsils, Peyer's Patches) , Cortex of ovary , Endosteum
(covering of bone marrow cavity) , Lamina Propria, Trachea, Bronchi , Intestine
F) MUCOID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1) Also called Embryonic Tissue because it is mainly found during embryonic life.
2) Matrix is in abundance.
3) Few collagen fibres & fibroblast cell may be present.
4) Matrix is composed of jelly like material called Wharton's Jelly.
eg., Umbilical cord (connect Placenta with foetus) ,Viterous humor , Comb of cock.

G) PIGMENTED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

It is a modification of areolar connective tissue but in areolae pigmented cells are more in number
known as Chromatophores which provide colouration.
Melanophore – Melanin – Black eg. – Dermis of frog skin
Guanophore – Guanine – White Iris & choroids of eye
Xanthophore – Xanthophil –Yellow

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

 B) SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE ( solid )
1) Matrix is dense mineralized. Due to deposition of minerals it becomes hard.
2) Also known as Skeletal Tissue form skeleton of body.
3) It is of 2 types ------i) Cartilage – Solid, semi-rigid, flexible connective tissue.
ii) Bone – Solid, rigid connective tissue.

(i) CARTILAGE
1) Outer most covering of cartilage is called Perichondrium which is composed of white fibres
connective tissue.
2) Cartilage producing cells are arranged on periphery known as Chondrioblast.
3) These are active cell & divide to form chondriocytes, and synthesize the matrix of cartilage.
4) Mature cells of cartilage are called Chondriocytes.
5) They are found in vacuole like space in matrix called capsule / lacuna in which 2-3 Chondrocytes are
present.
6) Chondrioclast are cartilage destrolying cells.
7) Maxtrix of cartilage is called Chondrin composed of Chondromucoprotein having Chondroitin-6-
sulphate and Mucopolysaccharide (Hyaluronic acid)
8) Matrix of cartilage provides rigidity & elasticity to cartilage.
9) Blood circulation is absent in the matrix of cartilage. Except nasal septum , larynx

Type of Cartilage – There are following types of cartilage.

1. Hyaline Cartilage.
2. Fibrous Cartilage – (a) Elastic cartilage (b) white fibrous cartilage
3. Calcified Cartilage.
1) Hyaline cartilage
i) Most of the part of embryonic skeleton is composed of this cartilage.
ii) Therefore, maximum bones of body are cartilaginous bones because they are developed from
cartilage.
iii) Outermost covering Perichondrium is present. Matrix of this cartilage is glass like clear or hyaline
matrix.Fibres are completely absent in the matrix of this cartilage. Only few collagen fibres may be
present. E.g.- Articular cartilage – At the junction of two long bones on articular surface.
.Larynx – Cartilage of santorini , Wall of Eustachian tube
2) White fibrous cartilage
i)Perichondrium is absent because complete white fibrous connective tissue is converted into cartilage.
ii) In matrix bundle of collagen fibres are more in quantity so it is strongest cartilage.
eg., Pubic symphysis
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------
Intervertebral disc
A pad of cushion like structure which absorb mechanical shock and jerks and protect vertebral
column. Central part of this disc is soft called as Nucleus pulposus. (remnant of embryonic Notochord)
Slight elongation of body after death or in sleeping postur e is due to relaxation of this disc.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------
3) Calcified cartilage
i) It is modified hyaline cartilage but due to deposition of calcium salts its matrix becomes hard like
bones.
ii) It is hardest cartilage of the body
iii) Ca salt deposits in the form of Hydroxy apatite Ca 10(PO 4) 6(OH) 2.
eg., – Pubis of frog's pelvic girdle , Supra scapula of pectoral girdleHead of Femur & Humerus

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

 ( ii) BONE
Study of Bone – Osteology
Process of bone formation – Ossification
Hardest Tissue – Bones Softest Tissue – Blood.
Hardest substance – Enamel. (It is not a group of cell but it is formed by the secretion of ameloblast
cells of teeth.)
Outermost covering of bone is Periosteum composed of white fibrous connective tissue.
Bone producing cell called Osteoblast. They divide to form Osteocyte & synthesize
organic part of matrix.
Mature cell of bone is called Osteocyte which is found in Lacuna. Only one osteocyte is found in
lacuna.
Bone destroying cells are Osteoclast cells.

Structure of long bone :

Long bone has three region ---- (a) Epiphysis (b) Diaphysis (c) Metaphysis

a) Epiphysis
i) Ends of long bone is called Epiphysis. This part is composed of spongy bone.
ii) Cavity is present in the form of Trabeculae filled with red bone marrow.
b) Diaphysis
i) Middle part or shaft of long bone is diaphysis which is composed of compact bone.
ii) In this region hollow cavity is present called bone marrow cavity filled with ye llow bone marrow
composed of white fat. Function is storage of fat.

c) Metaphysis
i) It form little part between epiphysis & Diaphysis.
ii) In this region epiphyseal plate is present which is made up of osteoblast cells. They divide to form
osteocyte and also synthesize matrix of bone, so epiphysial plate is responsible for elongation of
bone. Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079
 iii) After complete development of long bone this plate is destroyed. So a complete developed bone
shows 2 regions while in a developing bone 3 regions are found.
iv) Haversian system is absent. Marrow cavity is present in the form of Trabeculae filled with RBM.
So all spongy bones of body are haemopoietic
e.g. Ribs, Pubis, Sternum, Vertebrae, Clavicle, End of long Bones, Scapula

INTERNAl STRUCTURE OF MAMMALS BONE

It has following major structures ---- A) Periosteum B) Matrix C)Endosteum D) Bone marrow cavity
A) PERIOSTEUM
i) Outermost covering consists of two layers.
ii) Outer layer consist of WFCT in which blood circulation is present.
iii) Inner layer – consists of single layer of osteoblast cells. These cells are cube like in shape in which
oval shaped nucleus & basophilic granules are present in cytoplasm.
iv) They divide to form osteocyte and secrete layer of matrix.
B) Matrix
It is composed of inorganic & organic compounds. Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079
Inorganic Part – 65 – 68%
Ca 3(PO 4) 2 – 80% max. rest 20% CaCO 3, Mg 3 (PO 4) 2, Flourides.
Organic part – 32-35% Ossein in which bundle of collagen fibres suspended in sulphated
mucopolysaccharide.
Sharpey's fibre – extra bundle of collagen fibres which are present in the outermost layer of matrix
called Sharpey fibres. They are also found in the cement of teeth which provide
extra mechanical support to bone & teeth.
In the matrix of bone 2 types of canals are present.--------
1. Haversian canal 2. Volkmann's canal
1) Haversian canals are central Longitudinal canals which are arranged parallel to long axis of bone. In
this canal 1 or 2 blood capillaries and nerve fibres are present.
2) Volkman canals are transverse/horizontal or oblique canals.
3) Haversian canals are interconnected by means of volkmann's canal.
4) Matrix of bone is synthesized in the form of layer called Lamellae.
5) Haversian lamellae are Concentric layers of matrix which are present around Haversian Canal.

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079

6) Between these lamellae layer of Osteocyte cells are also present.
7)Haversian canal, Haversian lamellae & Osteocyte form Haversian system or Osteon.
8)Presence of Haversian system is a typical feature of mammalian compact bones.
9)Osteocyte are present in the lacuna.Each Osteocyte is inter con nected with adjacent Osteocyete by
their cytoplasmic process.
10) Cytoplasmic process of Osteocyte are present in the canals of lacuna called as canaliculi.
C) ENDOSTEUM
Endosteum consist of 2 layers---
(a) Towards bone marrow cavity lined with layer of reticular fibrous connective tissue.
(b) Towards matrix of bone line with layer of Osteoblast cell. They divide to form osteocyte &
synthesize matrix. So growth of bone is bidirectional (Periphery and central region). Whil e
Growth of cartilage is unidirectional.
D) BONE MARROW CAVITY
1) Bone marrow contains two types of stem cells: hemopoietic (which can produce blood cells) and stromal
(which can produce fat, cartilage and bone).
2) There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow (also known as myeloid tissue) and yellow marrow.
3) Red blood cells, platelets and most white blood cells arise in red marrow; some white blood cells develop in
yellow marrow.
4) The color of yellow marrow is due to the much higher number of fat cells.
5) Both types of bone marrow contain numerous blood vessels and capillaries.
6) At birth, all bone marrow is red. With age, more and more of it is converted to the yellow type.
7) Adults have on average about 2.6kg (5.7lbs) of bone marrow, with about half of it being red.
8) Red marrow is found mainly in the flat bones such as hip bone, breast bone, skull, ribs, vertebrae and
shoulder blades, and in the cancellous ("spongy") material at the proximal ends of the long bones femur and
humerus.
9) There are several serious diseases involving bone marrow.
10) In cases of severe blood loss, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow in order to increase
blood cell production.
11) The normal bone marrow architecture can be displaced by malignancies or infections such as tuberculosis,
leading to a decrease in the production of blood cells and blood platelets.
12) In addition, cancers of the hematologic progenitor cells in the bone marrow can arise; these are the
leukemias.

----------------------

Tarun sir – 7679598996 / 9153668079