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 Content
Chapter Page
Name of the Chapter
Number Numbers
1. Rational Numbers 1-16

2. Squares and Square Roots 17-43

3. Cubes and Cube Roots 44-53

4. Exponents and Powers 54-64

5. Playing with Numbers 65-78

6. Algebraic Expressions and Identities 79-98

7. Factorisation 99-105

8. Linear Equations in One Variable 106-120

9. Percentage and its Applications 121-136

10. Compound Interest 137-147

11. Direct and Inverse Proportions 148-157

12. Understanding Quadrilaterals 158-177

13. Practical Geometry 178-197

14. Visualising Solid Shapes 198-214

15. Perimeter and Area 215-226

16. Surface Area and Volume 227-237

17. Data Handling 238-261

18. Introduction to Graphs 262-277

Answers 278-297
Key Elements

Weblinks
links to different websites which will help you enrich
your knowledge further

Weblinks

Review Exercise
creatively designed questions and activities that Review
aim to evaluate your understanding of the concept Exercise
through different techniques

Check Your Understanding

short answer questions that help you to assess Check Your
and reinforce the understanding of a concept. Understanding

Recollections
the key concepts of the chapter are summarized
Recollections
and organized in a clear and logical manner to
help you understand and recollect you learning at
a glance.

Higher Order
Thinking
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Skills (HOTS)
questions that require Higher Order Thinking Skills
related to the content which enable you to critically
evaluate and analyse the content
 Hello children! I am Robittoo, the robot. I will be your friend and guide
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You Know
gives you a list of concepts you already know
that will come in use to learn new concepts in the
You Know chapter

You will Learn

You will Learn essential concepts that you will learn by the end of
the lesson before the chapter is introduced

Let’s Exercise
a variety of questions placed between concepts
Let’s Exercise
to evaluate and enhance your understanding of
the concepts

Math Lab
Activity Math Lab Activity
gives you an opportunity to apply the concept
while experiencing what you learn along with
collaboration
 1. Rational Numbers

You know
ŠŠ meaning of rational numbers
ŠŠ equivalent rational numbers
ŠŠ standard form of rational numbers
ŠŠ comparison of rational numbers
ŠŠ operations on rational numbers

You will learn

ŠŠ the properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of rational numbers
ŠŠ the distributive property of rational numbers
ŠŠ representation of rational numbers on a number line
ŠŠ to find rational numbers between two given rational numbers

Rational Numbers
In the previous class, you have learnt about rational numbers. Rational numbers are numbers which
p
can be expressed in the form of where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. Rational numbers include
q
natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and positive and negative fractions. Operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division can be performed on rational numbers.

You are familiar with the closure, commutative, associative, identity, inverse and distributive properties
of integers.

Let us now study these properties for rational numbers.

Properties of Addition of Rational Numbers

Closure Property

The sum of two rational numbers is always a rational number.

2 3 2+3 5 –4 7 –4 × 2 7 (–8) 7 –8 + 7 –1
For example, (i) + = = (ii) � �+ =� �+ = + = =
7 7 7 7 5 10 5×2 10 10 10 10 10

a c a c
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then + is always a rational number.
b d b d

This is called closure property of addition of rational numbers.

Thus, rational numbers are closed under addition.

1
Commutative Property
Two rational numbers can be added in any order.
5  –5  5 × 3  –5 × 2  15  –10  15 – 10 5
For example, + = + = + = =
6  9  6 × 3  9 × 2  18  18  18 18
–5  5  –5 × 2  5 × 3  –10  15 –10 +15 5
and  + = + = + = =
 9  6  9 × 2  6 × 3  18  18 18 18
5  –5   –5  5
∴ + =   +
6  9   9  6
a c a c c a
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then + = + is always a rational number.
b d b d d b

This is called commutative property of addition of rational numbers.

Thus, addition of rational numbers is commutative.
Associative Property
Three or more rational numbers can be grouped in any order to find their sum.
 1 3   −7  1  3  −7  
For example,  +  +  = + + 
 3 5   10  3  5  10  
 1 3   −7  5 + 9  −7  14  −7  28 + (−21) 7
LHS =  +  +  = +  = + = =
 3 5   10  15  10  15  10  30 30
1  3  −7   1  6 + (−7)  1 (−1) 10 + (−3) 7
RHS = + +  = + = + = =
3  5  10   3  10  3 10 30 30

∴ LHS = RHS
a c e a c e a c e
In general, if , and are any three rational numbers, then � + � + = + � + �
b d f b d f b d f

This is called associative property of addition of rational numbers.

Thus, addition of rational numbers is associative.
Additive Identity
When 0 is added to a rational number, it does not alter the number.
–5 –5 7 7
For example, (i) +0= (ii) +0=
8 8 11 11
a a a
In general, if is any rational number, then + 0 = .
b b b

The number 0 is called the additive identity of rational numbers.

Additive Inverse
a a
For any rational numberthere exists its opposite �– � such that their sum is 0.
b b
2 –2 2 + (–2) 0 –2 2 (–2) + 2 0
For example, +� �= = = 0 and � � + = = =0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2 –2 –2 2
∴ +� �=0=� �+
9 9 9 9

2
 a a –a –a a
In general, if is any rational number, then + � � = 0 = � � + .
b b b b b
–a a a –a
Thus, � � is called the additive inverse of and is called the additive inverse of � �.
b b b b

To find the additive inverse of any rational number change its sign.

Example 1 Find the additive inverse of the following.

–3 2
a. b.
5 3
Solution:
–3 3 2 –2
a. The additive inverse of is . b. The additive inverse of is .
5 5 3 3

Example 2 Add the following.

6 –3 2 –3 3 –6 2 –3
a. +� � b. +� � c. +� �+ +� �
7 7 5 25 5 7 10 8
Solution:
6 –3 6 + (–3) 3 2 –3
a. +� �= = b. +� �
7 7 7 7 5 25
2 (–3) 10 + (–3) 7
∴ + = =
5 25 25 25
3 –6 2 –3 3 2 –6 –3
c. +� �+ + � � = � + � + �� � + � ��
5 7 10 8 5 10 7 8
6+2 (–48 – 21)
=� �+� � LCM of 5 and 10 is 10; LCM of 7 and 8 is 56
10 56
8 –69 4 –69
= +� �= +� �
10 56 5 56
224 – 345
= LCM of 5 and 56 is 280
280
–121
=
280
9
Example 3 Verify that –(–x) = x for x =
11
Solution:
9 –9 9 –9
Additive inverse of x = is –x = since +� �=0
11 11 11 11
9 –9 –9 9
The same equality + � � = 0 shows that the additive inverse of is ,
11 11 11 11
i.e., –(–x) = x

Properties of Subtraction of Rational Numbers

Closure Property
The difference of two rational numbers is always a rational number.
4 5 4×2 5 8 5 8–5 3
For example, – = – = – = =
7 14 7 × 2 14 14 14 14 14

3
 a c a c
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then – is always a rational number.
b d b d

This is called closure property of subtraction of rational numbers.

Thus, rational numbers are closed under subtraction.
Commutative Property
When the order of rational numbers is changed the difference between two rational numbers does not
remain the same.
 −1   5   5   −1 
For example,  − ≠ − 
 3   12   12   3 
 −1   5   −9   −3 
LHS =   −   =  = 
 3   12   12   4 
 5   −1  9 3
RHS =   −   = =
 12   3  12 4
∴ LHS ≠ RHS
a c a c c a
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then – ≠ – .
b d b d d b

Thus, subtraction of rational numbers is not commutative.

Associative Property
Consider the following example.
 2 1  5  2  1 5 
 − −  ≠ − − 
 5 3   12  5  3 12 

 2 1  5   6−5  5  1 5 4 − 25  −21   −7 
LHS =  −  −   =  −  = − = = = 
 5 3   12   15   12  15 12 60  60   20 
2  1 5  2  4 − 5  2  −1  24 − (−5) 29
RHS = − −  = −  = −  = =
5  3 12  5  12  5  12  60 60
∴ LHS ≠ RHS
a c e a c e a c e
In general, if , and are any three rational numbers, then � – � – ≠ – � – �.
b d f b d f b d f

Thus, subtraction of rational numbers is not associative.

Properties of Multiplication of Rational numbers

The product of two rational numbers is always a rational number.
7 10 1 × 2 2 –2 –12 24 8
For example, (i) × = = (ii) � �×� �= =
5 21 1 × 3 3 9 13 117 39
a c a c
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then × is always a rational number.
b d b d

This is called closure property of multiplication of rational numbers.

Thus, rational numbers are closed under multiplication.

4
Commutative Property
Changing the order of the rational numbers does not change the product of the two rational numbers.
1 –4 –4 1 –4
For example, ×� �=� �× =
3 9 9 3 27
a c a c c a
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then × = × .
b d b d d b

Thus, multiplication of rational numbers is commutative.

Associative Property
Three or more rational numbers can be grouped in any order to find their product.
Consider the following example.
 7 5   −2  7  5 −2 
 × ×  =× × 
 9 12   5  9  12 5 

 7 5   −2   7 × 5   −2  35  −2  −7
LHS =  ×  ×   = ×  = ×  =
 9 12   5   9 × 12   5  108  5  54

7  5 ( −2 )  7  5 × ( −2 )  7  −1  −7
RHS = × ×  =×  =×  =
9  12 5  9  12 × 5  9  6  54

∴ LHS = RHS
a c e a c e a c e
In general, if , and are any three rational numbers, then � × � × = × � × �.
b d f b d f b d f

Thus, multiplication of rational numbers is associative.

Multiplicative Identity
The number 1 when multiplied to a rational number does not alter the value of the rational number.
12 12 –4 –4 × 1 –4
For example, (i) ×1= (ii) � � × 1 = � �=
25 25 15 15 15
a a a
In general, if is any rational number, then × 1 = .
b b b

1 is said to be the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.

Multiplicative Inverse
a b
For any rational number there exists its inverse � � such that their product is 1.
b a
–8 9 9 –8
For example, (i) � � × � � = 1 here, � � is the multiplicative inverse of � �.
9 –8 –8 9
2 3 3 2
(ii) × = 1 here, is the multiplicative inverse of .
3 2 2 3
a a b
In general, if is any rational number, then × = 1.
b b a
b a
Thus, is called the multiplicative inverse of .
a b
There is no multiplicative inverse of zero as zero cannot be used as a divisor. 0 can be written as
0 1
, however the reciprocal is not defined.
1 0

5
 Example 4 Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.

–7 –5 –2 d. –1 × –3 = 3
a. –15 b. c. ×
10 9 7 5 5
Solution:
1 –7 10 –10
a. Multiplicative inverse of –15 is . b. Multiplicative inverse of is or .
–15 10 –7 7
–5 –2 –5 × (–2) 10 –3 3
c. × = = c. –1 × =
9 7 9×7 63 5 5
–5 –2 63 3 5
∴ Multiplicative inverse of × = ∴ Multiplicative inverse of is .
9 7 10 5 3

Properties of Division of Rational Numbers

Closure Property
The quotient of two rational numbers is always a rational number except for division by zero.
3
3 5 3 8 24 –5 16 –5 (–5) × 3 (–15)
For example, (i) ÷ = × = (ii) � �÷� �=� �×� 9 �= =
7 8 7 5 35 12 9 12 16 4 × 16 64
a c a c
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then ÷ is always a rational number.
b d b d

Thus, rational numbers are closed under division.

Commutative Property
Consider the following example.
1 1 1 1
÷ ≠ ÷
2 3 3 2
1 1 1 3 1×3 3 1 1 1 2 1×2 2
LHS = ÷ = × = = RHS = ÷ = × = =
2 3 2 1 2×1 2 3 2 3 1 3×1 3
a c a c c a
In general, if and are two rational numbers, then ÷ ≠ ÷ .
b d b d d b

Thus, division of rational numbers is not commutative.

Associative Property
Consider the following example.
2 3 5 2 3 5
5 ÷ 7÷ 7 ≠ 5 ÷7 ÷ 7
   

 2 3  5  2 7  5 14 7 98
LHS =  ÷ ÷ = × ÷ = × =
 5 7  7  5 3  7 15 5 75
2  3 5  2  3 7  2  21  2 35 70 2
RHS = ÷
÷ = ÷ × = ÷ = × = =
5  7 7  5  7 5  5  35  5 21 105 3

∴ LHS ≠ RHS
a c e a c e a c e
In general, if , and are any three rational numbers, then � ÷ � ÷ ≠ ÷ � ÷ �.
b d f b d f b d f

6
Thus, division of rational numbers is not associative.

Division by zero is not defined.

Distributive Properties of Multiplication of Rational Numbers

a c e  a c a e 
a c e × +  =  ×  +  × 
If , and are any three rational numbers, then b d f  b d  b f 
b d f
a c e  a c a e  a c e  a c a e 
ŠŠ × +  =  ×  +  ×  ŠŠ × −  =  ×  − × 
b d f  b d  b f  b d f  b d  b f 

a c e  a c a e  2 8 2 2 8 2 2
Example
×  −5 Verify
=  ×the following:
− ×  � + � = × + ×
5 9 3 5 9 5 3
b d f  b d  b f 
Solution:
28 2  2  8 + 6  2  14  2 14 28
LHS =  + =  =  = × =
59 3 5 9  5 9  5 9 45

2 8 2 2 2×8 2×2 16 4 16 + 12 28
RHS = × + × = + = + = =
5 9 5 3 5×9 5×3 45 15 45 45
∴ LHS = RHS

28 2 2 8 2 2
⇒  + = × + ×
59 3 5 9 5 3
Simplify using properties.
Example 6
3 5 3 7 2 –12 20
a. × – × b. × ×
7 6 7 15 5 16 24
Solution:
a. 3 5 3 7 3 5 7  b. 2 –12 20  2 –12  20
× − × = × −  × × = × ×
7 6 7 15 7  6 15  5 16 24  5 16  24
3  25 − 14   −3  20
= ×  = ×
7  30   10  24
1
−1
3 11 =
= × 4
7 30
10

11
=
70
Let us summarize the properties for all number systems:-
Properties of Addition

Property
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers are all closed
Closure
under addition.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all show the
Commutative
commutative property for addition.

7
 Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all show the
Associative
associative property for addition.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all have 0 as the
Identity
identity for addition.

Properties of Subtraction

Property
Natural numbers, whole numbers are not closed under subtraction.
Closure
Integers and rational numbers are closed under subtraction.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers do not show the
Commutative
commutative property for subtraction.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers do not show the
Associative
associative property for subtraction.

Properties of Multiplication

Property
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers are all closed
Closure
under multiplication.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all show the
Commutative
commutative property for multiplication.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all show the
Associative
associative property for multiplication.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers all have 1 as the
Identity
multiplicative identity.

Properties of Division

Property
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers are not closed
Closure
under division. Rational numbers are closed under division.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers do not show the
Commutative
commutative property for division.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers do not show the
Associative
associative property for division.

19 33
Example 7 Two pieces of lengths m and m are cut off from a rope 23 m long. What is the
5 2
length of the remaining rope?
Solution:
19 33 38 + 165 203
Length of two pieces = + = =
5 2 10 10
Total length of rope = 23 m
203 23 203 230 – 203 27
∴ Length of the remaining rope = 23 – = – = =
10 1 10 10 10

8
Let's Exercise
Exercise 1.1
1. Name the properties illustrated in the following statements.
6 3 3 6 6 2 5 6 2 6 5
a. + = + b. � + �= × + ×
7 8 8 7 11 5 7 11 5 11 7
–8 –7 –7 –8 7 7
c. � �×� �=� �×� � d. ×1=
9 8 8 9 11 11
2. Find the additive inverse of the following.
8 –1 6 –2
a. b. � � c. � � d. � �
13 2 –7 –15
3. Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.
2 –4 8 9
a. b. � � c. d. � �
7 –11 35 –41
–2 9
4. If p = and q = , verify the following properties.
3 20
a. p × q = q × p b. p + q = q + p c. p – q ≠ q – p d. p ÷ q ≠ q ÷ p

5. Simplify the following.

–2 1 –5 9 –13 6 4 e. 7 – 8
a. � �+ b. � � – c. � �×� � d. ÷ 16
9 36 12 16 26 44 5 12 36
3 –9 –7 16 –10 1 26 7 4 –16
f. +� �+� �+ g. � �× × ×� � h. ÷� �
4 20 12 27 13 36 5 –8 22 11
18 5 7
6. If a = , b = , c = , then verify
35 9 12
a. a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c b. a × (b – c) = (a × b) – (a × c)

7. Verify that –(–x) = x for

–8 7
a. x = b. x =
13 15
8. Add the following using associative property of addition.
–1 7 9 1 –7 –3
a. � �+ + b. +� �+� �
2 38 19 4 12 7
9. Simplify the following using distributive property.
5 4 5 12 –9 –7 –9 –5
a. × + × b. � � × � � – � � × � �
14 15 14 25 13 18 13 24
2 –18
10. Multiply by the multiplicative inverse of .
7 49
1
11. Is 0.5 the multiplicative inverse of ? Why or why not?
2
–5 7
12. What number should be added to to get ?
12 6
2
13. Find the area of a square lawn whose one side is 1 m.
3
2 –8
14. The product of two rational numbers is . If one of the numbers is , find the other number.
15 9

9
 15. A basket contains three types of vegetables, onions, potatoes and brinjals. The total weight of the
4 65
vegetables in the basket is 19 kg. If the weight of onions is kg, and the weight of potatoes is
5 8
19
kg, then what is the weight of the brinjals in the basket?
5

Representation of Rational Numbers on a Number Line

Integers can be represented on a number line with positive integers to the right of zero and negative
integers to the left of zero.

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Here, …..,–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……. are called integers.

Just like integers, rational numbers can also be represented on a number line.
The positive rational numbers are represented to the right of zero and the negative rational numbers
are represented to the left of zero.
1 –1
Consider the rational numbers and .
2 2
To represent them on the number line, draw a number line and divide the unit length between 0 and 1
1
into 2 equal parts (since the denominator of is 2).
2
1
The point P will represent .
2
P

1
–1 0 1
2
Similarly, if the unit length between 0 and –1 is divided into 2 equal parts, then the point Q will represent
–1
.
2 Q P

–1 1
–1 0 1
2 2
1 –1 2 –2
Example 1 Represent , , and on the number line.
3 3 3 3
Solution:
–1 1 –2 2
Since the denominator is 3, to represent rational numbers , , and on the number line, we will
3 3 3 3
1 2
divide the unit length between 0 and 1 into 3 equal parts. The points A and B will represent and
3 3
respectively.
A B

1 2
–1 0 1
3 3

Similarly, if the unit length between 0 and –1 is divided into 3 equal parts, then the point C and D will
–1 –2
represent and respectively.
3 3
D C A B

–2 –1 1 2
–1 0 1
3 3 3 3

10
 1 2 –1 –2
Thus points A, B, C and D represent , , and on the number line respectively.
3 3 3 3
Till now we have represented numbers less than 1 on the number line. To represent numbers more than
1, express the numbers as mixed fractions.
11
Example 2 Represent on the number line.
3
Solution:
11
To represent on the number line, we will first represent the rational number as a mixed fraction
3
11 2 2
=3 =3+
3 3 3
Since it is a positive number it will be on the right of 0 on the number line. The whole part of the number
is 3; hence, the number will be placed ahead of 3.
1 2
Divide the length between 3 and 4 into 3 equal parts, the points X and Y, will represent 3 and 3 .
3 3
X Y

1 2
0 1 2 3 3 3 4
3 3
–5
Example 3 Represent on the number line.
2
Solution:
–5
To represent on the number line we will first represent the rational number as a mixed fraction
2
–5 1 1
= – �2 � = – �2 + �
2 2 2
Since it is a negative number it will be to the left of 0 on the number line. Divide the length between –2
–5 1
and –3 into 2 equal parts, the point P, will represent = – �2 �
2 2
P

1
–3 –2 –2 –1 0
2

Example 4 Identify the rational numbers P, Q and R marked on the number lines.
R P Q

–1 0 1
Solution:
1
The line segment between 0 and 1 is divided into 5 equal parts. Thus, each division represents .
5
1 3 –2
∴P represents , Q represents , R represents .
5 5 5

Rational Numbers between Two Rational Numbers

There are a countable number of numbers between any two given natural numbers, whole numbers
and integers.
For example,
Between natural numbers 5 and 9 there will be 3 numbers 6, 7 and 8.
Between integers –4 and 1 there will be 4 integers –3, –2, –1 and 0.

11
 However, between any two rational numbers there are infinite number of rational numbers.
To find rational numbers between two rational numbers two methods can be used.
Method 1: Add the two rational numbers and divide the sum by 2 as the average of the two numbers
will be a rational number between them.
a c 1 a c
If and are two given rational numbers then � + � will be a rational number lying between
b d 2 b d
a c
and .
b d
1 1
Example 5 Find two rational numbers between and .
4 3
Solution:
Step 1: Add the 2 numbers by taking LCM of the denominators.
1 1 3+4 7
+ = =
4 3 12 12
Step 2: Divide the sum by 2.
7 7 1 7
÷2= × =
12 12 2 24
7 1 1
lies between and .
24 4 3
1 7 7 1
To find the second rational number we can find the average of and or and .
4 24 24 3
1 1 7 1 6+7 1 13 13
� + �= � �= × =
2 4 24 2 24 2 24 48
7 13 1 1
and lie between and .
24 48 4 3
Method 2:
Take the LCM of the denominators to make the two rational numbers equivalent.
1 1
Example 6 Find three rational numbers between and .
3 2
Solution:
By Method 1
Step 1: Add the two numbers by taking LCM of the denominators.
1 1 2+3 5
+ = =
3 2 6 6
Step 2: Divide the sum by 2.
5 5 1 5
÷2= × =
6 6 2 12
5 1 1
lies between and .
12 3 2
1 5 5 1
To find the second rational number we can find the average of and or and .
3 12 12 2
1 1 5 1 4 5 1 4+5 1 9 3
∴ � + �= � + �= � �= × =
2 3 12 2 12 12 2 12 2 12 8
1 5 1 1 5 6 1 5+6 1 11 11
Also, � + � = � + � = � �= × =
2 12 2 2 12 12 2 12 2 12 24
1 1 5 3 11
Thus, the three rational numbers between and are , and .
3 2 12 8 24

12
By Method 2

Step 1: Take LCM of 3 and 2 and equate the denominators.

1 1×2 2 1 1×3 3
= = ; = =
3 3×2 6 2 2×3 6
Step 2: Multiply and divide the numbers by 4.
2 2×4 8 3 3 × 4 12
= = and = =
6 6 × 4 24 6 6 × 4 24
8 9 10 11 12
∴ < < < <
24 24 24 24 24
1 9 10 11 1
or < < < <
3 24 24 24 2
9 10 11 1 1
Thus, , and lie between and .
24 24 24 3 2
1 1
We can also find more numbers between and by multiplying and dividing the numbers by 10, 100,
3 2
1000, .... etc.

There are infinite rational numbers between any two rational numbers.

Exercise 1.2
1. Represent the following numbers on a number line.
2 13 –4 –15
a. b. c. d.
5 7 11 9
2. Represent the following numbers on the same number line.
1 2 3 4 –1 1 3 –5 2 –7 1 –3 5 –2 –1 3
a. , , , b. , , , c. , , , d. , , ,
5 5 5 5 6 3 2 6 5 10 10 5 2 5 5 2
3. Identify the rational number represented by A, B and C on the given number line.
A C B
a.
1 2
A B C
b.
–3 –2 –1

4. Insert five rational numbers between

–3 –1 –1 1
a. and b. and
11 13 8 3
5. Find any five rational numbers between
1 2 2 3
a. and b. and
10 15 13 13
6. How many rational numbers can be written between 1 and 2?
5 11 –9 –8 –7
1. Simplify: + +� �+� �+� �
3 2 4 3 2
1
2. A number is 2 times as large as another number. The sum of the numbers is 28, find
2
the numbers.

13
 Recollections
ŠŠ Rational numbers are closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
ŠŠ The commutative property is true for addition and multiplication of rational numbers.
ŠŠ The associative property is true for addition and multiplication of rational numbers.
ŠŠ Subtraction and division of rational numbers are neither commutative nor associative.
ŠŠ 0 is the additive identity of rational numbers.
p –p
ŠŠ The negative of a rational number is .
q q
p –p p –p
ŠŠ and are additive inverse of each other. Thus, + � � = 0
q q q q
ŠŠ 1 is the multiplicative identity of rational numbers.
p q p q
ŠŠ and are the multiplicative inverse or reciprocals of each other. Thus, × = 1
q p q p
ŠŠ Zero has no reciprocal.
ŠŠ Infinite number of rational numbers can be found between two given rational numbers.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
–11
a. The additive inverse of is equal to
–15
–11 11 15
i. ii. iii. iv. 0
15 15 11
–5 3
b. On subtracting from we get
8 8
–2 –1
i. 1 ii. 8 iii. iv.
8 4
–3 25 –6
c. The value of × × is
10 18 5
1 1 –1 1
i. ii. iii. iv.
2 3 5 6
–3 12
d. The sum of rational numbers and is
7 7
–9 9 –15 15
i. ii. iii. iv.
7 7 7 7
2. Fill in the blanks.
a. The sum of two rational numbers is a number.
–5
b. The additive inverse of is .
6
2
c. The product of a and 1 is .
5
–8
d. The reciprocal of is .
11
e. is the multiplicative identity of rational numbers.

3. State whether the following statements are true or false.

a. The reciprocal of a positive rational number is a positive rational number.

14
 b. Only finite number of rational numbers can be found between two given rational numbers.
c. Subtraction of integers always gives an integer as the answer.
d. The identity element for addition of rational numbers is 1.
e. Zero has no reciprocal.
–3 –2
4. Find ten rational numbers between and .
4 5
2 2 2
5. If p = , q = and r = , then verify the following.
3 3 3
a. p + q = q + p b. p (q + r) = p × q + p × r c. p (q – r) = p × q – p × r

Review Exercise
1. Name the properties illustrated in the following statements.
2 –7 –7 2 –8 –8
a. + � � = � �+ b. � �+0=� �
7 8 8 7 15 15
–1 2 2 –1 2 1 6 2 1 2 6
c. � �× = ×� � d. � – �= × – ×
3 5 5 3 9 5 7 9 5 9 7
2. Find the additive inverse of the following.
–2 5 –8 9
a. � � b. c. � � d. � �
13 31 –11 –15
3. Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.
9 –6 –5 4
a. b. � � c. � � d. � �
21 13 –7 –17
8 –7
4. If p = and q = � �, verify the following properties.
9 12
a. p × q = q × p b. p + q = q + p c. p–q≠q–p d. p ÷ q ≠ q ÷ p

5. Add the following.

3 8 –9 –3 –5 2 2 2
a. + b. � �+� � c. � �+5 d. 4 + �–5 �
7 7 25 10 6 3 9 3
6. Subtract the following.
1 8 –5 –3 1 3 5 –1
a. from b. � � from c. �–5 � from 3 d. from � �
9 9 11 5 4 20 12 15
7. Simplify the following.
–4 9 5 –5 –90 –77 5 15
a. � �– b. � �+� � c. � �×� � d. ÷
15 10 12 8 11 72 9 27
–6 1 –4
8. If a = , b = , c = , then verify
7 3 15
a. a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c b. a × (b – c) = (a × b) – (a × c)

9. Add the following using associative property of addition.

5 7 –11 2 2 5
a. � � + + b. + �–4 � +
6 12 18 3 9 12
10. Simplify the following using distributive property.
–5 9 –5 7 –6 7 –6 –5
a. � �× +� �× b. � �×� �–� �×� �
6 20 6 25 15 8 15 12

15
 11. Simplify the following.
7 3 2 –25 –3 7 –8 20
a. � �× × ×� � b. � �× × × �– �
–9 10 15 42 4 18 15 21
1 1 1 1 5 –1 2 –1
c. + + + d. +� �+ +� �
2 3 4 5 17 51 3 3
7 –5 26 –6 –2 6 –5 1
e. ×� �× ×� � f. + +� �+
10 14 30 13 7 11 12 8
12. Represent the following numbers on a number line.
6 10 11 –8
a. b. c. d.
7 3 5 9
13. Represent the following numbers on the same number line.
1 3 –3 –5 –3 3 6 –1
a. , , � �, � � b. � �, , , � �
8 8 8 8 5 10 5 10
14. Identify the rational number represented by L, M and N on the given number line.

a. L M N

–1 0 1

b. L M N

2 3 4

15. Insert three rational numbers between

5 7 5 3
a. and b. and
8 8 21 14
16. Find any ten rational numbers between
–1 8 –5 –3
a. � � and b. �
� and � �
2 9 7 5
3 37
17. A basket contains four types of fruits weighing 20 kg in all. If 4 kg of these are apples, kg
27 4 6
are oranges, kg are pears and the rest are papayas. What is the weight of the papayas in the
5
basket?
62 1
18. Find the area of a rectangular park which is m long and 18 m broad.
3 3
169
19. A rope of length m has been cut into 13 pieces of equal length. What is the length of each
2
piece?

Weblinks
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/rational-numbers/properties-of-rational-numbers/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/rational-numbers/rational-numbers-on-a-number-line/
As on 09.05.2019

16
 2. Squares and Square Roots

You know
ŠŠ to find square of a number
ŠŠ to express a square in the exponential form

You will learn

ŠŠ to define a perfect square or a square number
ŠŠ identify perfect squares
ŠŠ to find square root of a perfect square number using the prime factorisation method
ŠŠ to find square root of a perfect square number using the division method
ŠŠ to find a square root of a number which is not a perfect square using division method

You have studied the concept of a ‘square’ in geometry. It is a quadrilateral that has
all sides equal and all angles equal to 90°.

3 cm
We know that the area of a square = side × side.
The figure alongside is a square with each side of length 3 cm.
3 cm
So, the area of the given square = 3 × 3 = 9 cm2

Square of a Number
Let us observe the following table.

Side of a square (in cm) Area of the square (in cm2)

1 1 × 1= 12 = 1
2 2 × 2 = 22 = 4
3 3 × 3 = 32 = 9
4 4 × 4 = 42 = 16
5 5 × 5 = 52 = 25
x x × x = x2

In the above table, 4 in the area column is expressed as 2 × 2 = 22, 9 is expressed as 3 × 3 = 32

You can see that 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, .... are natural numbers that can be expressed as the product of the
natural number by itself.
Such numbers are known as square numbers.
The square of a number is the product obtained when a number is multiplied by itself. That is, the
square of the number x is x2 = x × x.
For example, 52 = 5 × 5. This is read as ‘5 square’ or ‘5 raised to the power 2’.
The value of 52 is 5 × 5 = 25 . So, the square of the number 5 is 25.

17
 Find the squares of the following.
Example 1
2
a. 16 b. –23 c.
5
Solution:
a. Square of 16 is 162 = 16 × 16 = 256
b. Square of –23 is (–23)2 = (–23) × (–23) = 529
2 2 2 2 2 2×2 4
c. Square of is � � = � � × � � = =
5 5 5 5 5 × 5 25

Perfect Square
In general, if a natural number x can be expressed as y2, where y is also a natural number, then x is
a perfect square or a square number.
Consider the square numbers from 1 to 100 in the following table.

Number Square Number Square

1 1 6 36
2 4 7 49
3 9 8 64
4 16 9 81
5 25 10 100

The square numbers between 1 and 100 can be enlisted from the table. Rest of the natural numbers
between 1 and 100 are not perfect squares.

Prime Factorisation to check if a Given Number is a Perfect Square

To check if a given number is a perfect square by prime factorisation method.
a. First write the number as the product of its prime factors.
b. Then group the pairs of equal factors.
If all the factors can be grouped in pairs of equal factors, then the given number is a perfect square.
For example, 36 = (2 × 2) × (3 × 3). All factors can be grouped in pairs of equal factors. So, 36 is
a perfect square. In fact, 36 = (2 × 3)2 = 62
The number in which all the factors cannot be grouped in pairs of equal factors is not a perfect square.
If we multiply or divide the non-perfect square number by the factors which cannot be grouped, then
we get a perfect square.
For example, 32 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2. All factors cannot be grouped in pairs of equal factors as the
number 2 remains. So, 32 is not a perfect square.
32 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2 32 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2

32 × 2 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2 × 2 32 ÷ 2 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2 ÷ 2

64 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) 16 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2)
In the above example, if we multiply the non-perfect square number 32 by the number 2 (the factor
which cannot be grouped) then we get a perfect square 64.

18
Similarly, if we divide the non- perfect square number 32 by the number 2 (the factor which cannot be
grouped) then we get a perfect square 16.

Example 2 Is 9801 a perfect square?

Solution:
First write the number as the product of its prime factors. 3 9801
9801 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 11 × 11 3 3267
3 1089
Then group the equal factors.
3 363
∴ 9801 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × (11 × 11)
11 121
All the factors can be grouped in pairs of equal factors. 11 11
So, the number 9801 is a perfect square. 1

Now, 9801 = (3 × 3 × 11) × (3 × 3 × 11) = 99 × 99 = 992

Thus, 9801 is the square of 99.

Example 3 Show that 12544 is a perfect square. Also find the number whose square is 12544.

Solution: 2 12544
First write the number as the product of its prime factors. 2 6272
12544 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 2 3136
2 1568
Then group the equal factors.
2 784
∴ 12544 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (7 × 7) 2 392
All the factors can be grouped in pairs of equal factors. 2 196
So, the number 12544 is a perfect square. 2 98
7 49
Also, 12544 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7) = 112 × 112 = 1122
7 7
Thus, 12544 is the square of 112. 1
Is 7776 a perfect square? If not then find the smallest number by which 7776 must be
Example 4
multiplied so that the product is a perfect square.
Solution:
2 7776
First write the number as the product of its prime factors.
2 3888
7776 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 2 1944
∴ 7776 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2 × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × 3 2 972
2 486
The number 2 and 3 cannot be grouped.
3 243
Thus, the number 7776 is not a perfect square.
3 81
For a number to be a perfect square, all the prime factors should be paired. So we 3 27
must multiply 7776 by 6 so that the product is a perfect square. 3 9
Thus, the smallest number by which 7776 should be multiplied is 6. 3 3
1

19
 Is 4056 a perfect square? If not then find the smallest number by which 4056 should be
Example 5
divided so that the quotient is a perfect square.
Solution:
2 4056
First write the number as the product of its prime factors,
2 2028
4056 = (2 × 2) × 2 × 3 × (13 × 13)
2 1014
Then group the equal factors 3 507
∴ 4056 = (2 × 2) × 2 × 3 × (13 × 13) 13 169
13 13
The number 2 and 3 cannot be grouped.
1
Thus, the number 4056 is not a perfect square.
If we divide 4056 by 6, the quotient will be a perfect square.
Thus, the smallest number by which 4056 must be divided to make the number a perfect square is 6.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 2.1
1. Find the squares of the following.
4 2
a. 36 b. 48 c. d.
13 7
2. Check whether the following numbers are perfect squares. If it is a perfect square then find the
number whose square is the given number in each case.
a. 2025 b. 10584 c. 7056 d. 5376
3. Find the smallest number with which the following numbers should be multiplied, so that the
product is a perfect square.
a. 1728 b. 5103 c. 4375 d. 3675
4. Find the smallest number with which the following numbers should be divided, so that the quotient
is a perfect square.
a. 12960 b. 2700 c. 11200 d. 8820

Properties of Square Numbers

Look at the following squares of natural numbers from 1 to 30.

Number Square Number Square Number Square

1 1 11 121 21 441
2 4 12 144 22 484
3 9 13 169 23 529
4 16 14 196 24 576
5 25 15 225 25 625
6 36 16 256 26 676
7 49 17 289 27 729

20
 Number Square Number Square Number Square
8 64 18 324 28 784
9 81 19 361 29 841
10 100 20 400 30 900

Some observations from the above table:

ŠŠ The last digit of a number indicates the last digit of its square.

Last digit of a number Last digit of its square

0 0

1 or 9 1

2 or 8 4

3 or 7 9

4 or 6 6

5 5

ŠŠ The last digit of a square number is 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9. No square number has 2, 3, 7 or 8 as its last
digit.
Property 1: A perfect square has 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 in its unit's place. But any number ending with 0, 1,
4, 5, 6 or 9 is not always a perfect square.
For example, the last digit of the number 24 is 4, but 24 is not a perfect square.
Property 2: The unit place in a number and its square.
(i) If a number has 1 or 9 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 1.
(ii) If a number has 2 or 8 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 4.
(iii) If a number has 3 or 7 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 9.
(iv) If a number has 4 or 6 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 6.
(v) If a number has 5 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 5.
(vi) If a number has 0 in its unit’s place, then its square ends in 0.
Property 3: A number having odd number of zeroes at its end will never be a perfect square.
If a number has one zero at its end, then its square has two zeroes at the end.
For example, 302 = 900; 2002 = 40000; 10002 = 1000000
That is, the square of a number has twice the number of zeroes at the end than the number of zeroes
at the end of the given number.
Thus, any perfect square has even number of zeroes at the end.
Hence, a number having odd number of zeroes at its end will never be a perfect square.
Property 4: The square of an even natural number is even and the square of odd natural number is
odd.

21
 For example, observe the squares of even numbers and the odd numbers.
22 = 4, 42 = 16, 62 = 36, 82 = 64 12 = 1, 32 = 9, 52 = 25, 72 = 49, 92 = 81
The square of an even number is even. The square of an odd number is odd.
Check if the following numbers are perfect squares.
Example 1
a. 64000 b. 2343
Solution:
a. The number 64000 has three zeroes at the end. We know that a number with an odd number of
zeroes at its end will never be a perfect square.
So, 64000 is not a perfect square.
b. The number 2343 has the digit 3 at its units place. We know that a number with 2, 3, 7 and 8 at its
units place is not a perfect square.
So, 2343 is not a perfect square.
What will be the unit digit of the squares of the following numbers?
Example 2
a. 51 b. 36 c. 68 d. 87
Solution:
a. The number at the unit’s place of 51 is 1, hence the unit digit of its square will be 1.
b. The number at the unit’s place of 36 is 6, hence the unit digit of its square will be 6.
c. The number at the unit’s place of 68 is 8, hence the unit digit of its square will be 4.
d. The number at the unit’s place of 87 is 7, hence the unit digit of its square will be 9.

Some Interesting Patterns

Adding Triangular Numbers
A triangular number is a number whose dot pattern can be arranged as a triangle.
For example, 1, 3, 6, 10,... are triangular numbers. Note that a triangular number is the sum of
consecutive natural numbers.

1 3=1+2 6=1+2+3 10 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4

Consider the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers.

1 + 3 = 4 = 22 → 1 + 3 = 1 + (1 + 2) = 4
3 + 6 = 9 = 32 → 3 + 6 = (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) = 9
6 + 10 = 16 = 42 → 6 + 10 = (1 + 2 + 3) + (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 16

+ =
+ = + =
1 + 3 = 4 = 22 3 + 6 = 9 = 32 6 + 10 = 16 = 42
→1 + 3 = 1 + (2 + 1) →3 + 6 = (1 + 2) + (3 + 2 + 1) →6 + 10 = (1 + 2 + 3) + (4 + 3 + 2 + 1)
= 22 = 32 = 42

22
From the above patterns, we can say that a square number is obtained by adding two consecutive
triangular numbers.

Numbers Between Square Numbers

Observe the interesting pattern between two consecutive square numbers in the following table.

Total number of
Square of Non-perfect square
non perfect square
Number Square consecutive numbers between two
numbers between
number consecutive squares
consecutive squares
1 1 4 2, 3 2×1=2
2 4 9 5, 6, 7, 8 2×2=4
3 9 16 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 2×3=6
4 16 25 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 2×4=8
5 25 36 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 2 × 5 = 10
. . . 32, 33, 34, 35 .
. . . . .
. . . . .
n n2 (n + 1)2 n + 1, n + 2,..... n2 + 2n
2 2
2n = 2 × n

From the above pattern, we can say that there are 2n non perfect square numbers between two
consecutive square numbers n2 and (n + 1)2.

Example 3 Find the natural numbers that lie between 232 and 242.

Solution:
We know that there are 2n non perfect square numbers between n2 and (n + 1)2
∴ Natural numbers between 232 and (23 + 1)2 are 2 × 23 = 46
Thus, there are 46 natural numbers between 232 and 242.
Adding Odd Numbers
Observe the following.
12 = 1 (first 1 odd number)
22 = 1 + 3 = 4 (first 2 odd number)
32 = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 (first 3 odd number)
42 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 (first 4 odd number)
n2 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + …… (first n odd number)
From the above pattern, we can say that the square of any natural number n is the sum of n odd
numbers.
For example, let us consider number 25. Successively subtracting 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...... from it we get
a. 25 – 1 = 24 b. 24 – 3 = 21 c. 21 – 5 = 16 d. 16 – 7 = 9 e. 9 – 9 = 0

Thus, 25 is a square number.

23
 Now let us consider 18.
a. 18 – 1 = 17 b. 17 – 3 = 14 c. 14 – 5 = 9 d. 9 – 7 = 2 e. 2 – 9 = –7

We can clearly see that 18 cannot be expressed as the sum of consecutive odd numbers starting from
1 and so 18 is also not a perfect square.
Thus, if a number cannot be expressed as sum of n odd numbers, then it is not a perfect square.

Example 4 Without actual calculation, find the value of the sum 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13.

Solution:
The given sum 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 represents the sum of first 7 odd numbers. We know the
square of any natural number n is the sum of first n odd numbers.
So, the sum of first 7 odd numbers is the square of 7.
∴ 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = 72 = 49
Check whether the following numbers are perfect squares or not by expressing each as
Example 5
the sum of odd numbers.
a. 81 b. 75
Solution:
a. 81 b. 75
To express 81 as the sum of successive To express 75 as the sum of successive
odd numbers, we subtract 1, 3, 5, 7,… odd numbers, we subtract 1, 3, 5, 7,…
successively from the number. successively from the number.
81 →81 – 1 = 80 75 →75 – 1 = 74
→80 – 3 = 77 →74 – 3 = 71
→77 – 5 = 72 →71 – 5 = 66
→72 – 7 = 65 →66 – 7 = 59
→65 – 9 = 56 →59 – 9 = 50
→56 – 11 = 45 →50 – 11 = 39
→45 – 13 = 32 →39 – 13 = 26
→32 – 15 = 17 →26 – 15 = 11
→17 – 17 = 0 →11 – 17 = –6
∴ 81 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 ∴ 75 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 11
= 92 So, 75 is not the sum of first n odd numbers.
(sum of first 9 odd numbers) Thus, 75 is not a perfect square.
Thus, 81 is a perfect square.

A Sum of Consecutive Natural Numbers

An odd perfect square can be written as sum of two consecutive natural numbers.
Let us observe the following.
32 – 1 32 + 1 52 – 1 52 + 1
32 = 9 = � �+� � = 4 + 5 52 = 25 = � �+� � = 12 + 13
2 2 2 2
72 – 1 72 + 1 92 – 1 92 + 1
72 = 49 = � �+� � = 24 + 25 92 = 81 = � �+� � = 40 + 41
2 2 2 2

24
From the above pattern, we can say that if n is an odd number then n2 is also an odd number. So, n2 – 1
n2 – 1 n2 + 1
and n2 + 1 are even numbers and � � and � � are consecutive natural numbers.
2 2
n2 – 1 n2 + 1
n2 = � �+� �
2 2
Thus, n2 is the sum of consecutive natural numbers.
For example,
152 – 1 152 + 1
152 = � �+� �
2 2
225 – 1 225 + 1
∴ 225 = � �+� � = 112 + 113
2 2
Thus, the square of 15 is the sum of consecutive natural numbers 112 and 113.

Example 6 Write the square of 17 as the sum of two consecutive natural numbers.

Solution:

We know that an odd perfect square can be written as the sum of two consecutive natural numbers as
n2 – 1 n2 + 1
n2 = � �+� �, where n is an odd number.
2 2
172 = 289
172 – 1 172 + 1 289 – 1 289 + 1
172 = � �+� �=� �+� � = 144 + 145
2 2 2 2
Thus, 172 = 144 + 145.
Product of Two Consecutive Even or Odd Natural Numbers
Consider the following.
5 × 7 = 35 = 62 – 1
Also 5 × 7 = (6 – 1) (6 + 1)
Thus, 5 × 7 = (6 – 1) (6 + 1) = 62 – 1
7 × 9 = (8 – 1) (8 + 1) = 82 – 1
11 × 13 = (12 – 1) (12 + 1) = 122 – 1
14 × 16 = (15 – 1) (15 + 1) = 152 – 1
24 × 26 = (25 – 1) (25 + 1) = 252 – 1
So, in general we can say that (a + 1) (a – 1) = a2 – 1
Squares of Numbers Ending with 5
If a number has 5 in its unit's place, then we can find its square using a shortcut method as follows.

Step 1: Divide the number into two parts: first part consists of all digits except
6 5
the last digit 5 and the second part consists of the digit 5.
Step 2: Multiply the number in the first part with its consecutive natural number. 6 × 7 = 42
Then multiply the product by 100.
42 × 100 = 4200

25
 Step 3: Now square the second part and add this square to the above product. 52 = 25
4200 + 25 = 4225
Step 4: The number so obtained is the required square. ∴ 652 = 4225

Example 7 Find the square of 85.

Solution:
Dividing the number in two parts. 8 5
Multiplying the number in the first part with its consecutive number. 8 × 9 = 72
Multiplying the product by 100. 72 × 100 = 7200
Squaring the second part. 52 = 25
Adding the square to the above product. 7200 + 25 = 7225
Thus, 85 = 7225
2

Some More Patterns in Square Numbers

Observe the squares of numbers; 1, 11, 111, .....etc
12 = 1
112 = 1 2 1
1112 = 1 2 3 2 1
1111 2
= 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
111112 = 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
.
.
.
1111111112 = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 8 Find the square of 111111 using the above pattern.

Solution:
The number of digits in 111111 is 6.
∴ 1111112 = 12345654321
Another interesting pattern
72 = 49
672 = 4489
6672 = 444889
66672 = 44448889
666672 = 4444488889
6666672 = 444444888889

Example 9 Find the square of 66666667 using the above pattern.

Solution:
Using the above pattern 666666672 = 4444444488888889

26
Exercise 2.2
1. Find the unit digit of the squares of the following numbers.
a. 41 b. 356 c. 224 d. 372 e. 2469
f. 5833 g. 3428 h. 60745 i. 74289 j. 594827

2. The following numbers are not perfect squares. Give reasons.

a. 2757 b. 5738 c. 34000 d. 548762 e. 790523
f. 155860 g. 564000 h. 67547 i. 98548 j. 345563

3. The square of which of the following numbers would be odd numbers?

a. 241 b. 3246 c. 5469 d. 2384
e. 4328 f. 9875 g. 3247 h. 2450

4. Without adding, find the sum of the following.

a. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 b. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13
c. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21

5. Find the natural numbers that lie between the squares of the following numbers.
a. 13 and 14 b. 45 and 46 c. 78 and 79 d. 99 and 100

6. Check whether the following numbers are perfect square or not, by expressing each as the sum of
odd numbers.
a. 91 b. 196

7. Express 64 as the sum of 8 odd numbers.

8. Express 232 as the sum of two consecutive natural numbers.

9. Find the squares of the following numbers using the shortcut method.
a. 1252 b. 352 c. 752 d. 152

10. Observe the following pattern and find the missing digits.
a. 12 = 1 b. 12 = 1

112 = 121 112 = 121

1012 = 10201 1012 = 10201

10012 = 1002001 101012 = 102030201

100012 100020001 10101012 =

…

10000012 = 1 2 1 = 102030405060504030201

100000012 =

27
 11. Using the given pattern, find the missing numbers.
(Try to see the pattern how the numbers are related for example in 22 + 32 + 62 = 72, 2 × 3 = 6 and
6 + 1 = 7)

12 + 22 + 22 = 32

22 + 32 + 62 = 72

32 + 42 + 122 = 132

42 + 52 + 202 = 212

+ 62 + 302 = 312

62 + 72 + = 432

72 + 82 + =

Finding Square of a Number

It is easy to remember the squares of smaller numbers like 5, 6, 7, 8, etc. but to find the squares of
bigger numbers we need to multiply the number by itself.
There is an easier method to find the squares of bigger numbers without multiplying by itself.
For example to find the square of 52, we know that
52 = 50 + 2
∴ 522 = (50 + 2)2
= (50 + 2) (50 + 2)
= 50(50 + 2) + 2(50 + 2)
= 2500 + 100 + 100 + 4
= 2704
Find the square of the following numbers without actual multiplication.
Example 1
a. 59 b. 73
Solution:
a. 59 = (60 – 1) b. 73 = 70 + 3
∴ 592 = (60 – 1)2 ∴ 732 = (70 + 3)2
= (60 – 1)(60 – 1) = (70 + 3)(70 + 3)
= 60 (60 – 1) – 1(60 – 1) = 70(70 + 3) + 3(70 + 3)
= 3600 – 60 – 60 + 1 = 4900 + 210 + 210 + 9
= 3481 = 5329

Pythagorean Triplets
Three numbers a, b and c are said to form a Pythagorean triplet, if a2 + b2 = c2.
For example, (3, 4, 5) is a Pythagorean triplet as 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 52.

28
For any natural number m other than 1, (2m, m2 – 1, m2 + 1) is a Pythagorean triplet.
Let m = 3
Then,
2m = 2(3) = 6
m2 – 1 = 32 – 1 = 8
m2 + 1 = 32 + 1 = 10
and 62 + 82 = 36 + 64 = 100 = 102
Thus, (6, 8, 10) is a Pythagorean triplet.

Example 2 Write a Pythagorean triplet having 10 as its smallest member.

Solution:
We know (2m, m2 – 1, m2 + 1) is a Pythagorean triplet with 2m as the smallest member and m2 + 1 as
the largest member.
So, 2m = 10 ⇒ m = 5
∴ m2 – 1 = 52 – 1 = 25 – 1 = 24
and m2 + 1 = 52 + 1 = 25 + 1 = 26
∴ The Pythagorean triplet with 10 as its smallest member is (10, 24, 26).

Example 3 Write a Pythagorean triplet having 10 as its largest member.

Solution:
We know (2m, m2 – 1, m2 + 1) is a Pythagorean triplet with 2m as the smallest member and m2 + 1 as
the largest member.
So, m2 + 1 = 10 ⇒ m2 = 9 ⇒ m2 = 32 ⇒ m = 3
∴ 2m = 2 × 3 = 6 and m2 – 1 = 32 – 1 = 9 – 1 = 8
∴ The Pythagorean triplet with 10 as its largest member is (6, 8, 10).

Example 4 Find a Pythagorean triplet in which one member is 18.

Solution:
If we take m2 – 1 = 18
Then, m2 = 18 + 1 = 19
Then the value of m will not be a natural number.
So we try to make m2 + 1 = 18. Again m2 = 17 will not give the value of m as a natural number.
∴ Let us take 2m = 18
⇒m=9
So, m2 – 1 = 81 – 1 = 80 and m2 + 1 = 81 + 1 = 82
Thus, the required triplet is 18, 80, 82.

29
 Exercise 2.3
1. Find the square of the following numbers.
a. 33 b. 42 c. 86 d. 61 e. 49 f. 78 g. 97 h. 56

2. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose smallest member is the following.

a. 8 b. 12 c. 28 d. 34

3. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose largest member is the following.

a. 17 b. 26 c. 50 d. 82

4. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose one member is the following.

a. 14 b. 15 c. 30 d. 63

Square Roots
The square root of a number n is the number which when multiplied by itself gives n as the product.
If m2 = m × m = n, then n is called the square of m, and m is called the square root of n.
The symbol ' ' or ' 2 ' is used to denote a square root.
2
Thus, m2 = n ⇒ n = m or n = m.

Finding Square Roots

Finding square root is an inverse operation of finding the square.
For example, the square of the number 7 is 72 = 7 × 7 = 49. The square root of 49 is 7 written as 49 = 7.
Also, (–7)2 = 49. So, 49 = –7
Thus, the square root of 49 is 7 as well as –7.
∴ Every square number has two square roots, one positive and one negative.

Note that the square root of a number may be negative but the square of a number is always
positive.

The square of any number is always positive. Hence, a negative number does not have a square root.
In this chapter, we will consider only positive square roots.

Finding Square Root through Repeated Subtraction

In this method, we use the property that the square of any natural number n is the sum of the first n odd
numbers. So, we subtract odd natural numbers successively, starting from 1 till the answer is 0. Then
the square root of the given number is equal to the number of times subtraction is performed.

Example 1 Find the square root of 36 using successive subtraction method.

Solution:
36 – 1 = 35 (Subtract 1) 35 – 3 = 32 (Subtract 3)
32 – 5 = 27 (Subtract 5) 27 – 7 = 20 (Subtract 7)
20 – 9 = 11 (Subtract 9) 11 – 11 = 0 (Subtract 11)

30
To get 0, we subtracted first 6 odd numbers from 36. That is, we performed subtraction for 6 times.

∴ 36 = 62 or 36 = 6
This method is not useful for large numbers as the calculations become more tedious with the increase
in the number of subtractions.

Finding Square Root through Prime Factorisation

To find the square root of a given perfect square,
Step 1: First write the number as the product of its prime factors.
Step 2: Then group the pairs of equal factors.
Step 3: From each pair, select a prime factor and find their product.
Step 4: This product is the required square root.
Find the square roots of the following numbers.
Example 2
a. 729 b. 1764 c. 5625 d. 324
Solution:

Write the number as the Select a prime factor from

Prime
Numbers product of its prime factors and each pair and find their
factorisation
group the pairs of equal factors product. Write the square root
a. 729 3 729 729 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 729 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
3 243 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) ∴ 729 = 27
3 81
3 27
3 9
3 3
1
b. 1764 2 1764 1764 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 1764 = 2 × 3 × 7 = 42
2 882 = (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) × (7 × 7) ∴ 1764 = 42
3 441
3 147
7 49
7 7
1
c. 5625 3 5625 5625 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 5625 = 3 × 5 × 5 = 75
3 1875 = (3 × 3) × (5 × 5) × (5 × 5) ∴ 5625 = 75
5 625
5 125
5 25
5 5
1
d. 324 2 324 324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 324 = 2 × 3 × 3 = 18
2 162 = (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) ∴ 324 = 18
3 81
3 27
3 9
3 3
1

31
 7225 saplings are to be planted in a farm in such a way that each row contains as many
Example 3
saplings as the number of rows. Find the number of rows and the number of saplings
in each row.
Solution:
5 7225
Let the number of rows be x. 5 1445
∴ Number of saplings in each row = x 17 289
17 17
∴ Total number of saplings = x × x = x2 1
But total saplings given = 7225
∴ x2 = 7225
∴ x = 7225 = 5 × 5 × 17 × 17 = 5 × 17 = 85
Therefore, the number of rows = 85 and the number of saplings in each row = 85.
Is 4608 a perfect square? If not, find the smallest number by which 4608 should be
Example 4
multiplied to make it a perfect square. Find the square root of the perfect square so
obtained.
Solution: 2 4608
4608 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 2 2304
2 1152
Group the pairs of equal factors. 2 576
4608 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × 2 × (3 × 3) 2 288
2 144
As the prime factor 2 has no pair, 4608 is not a perfect square. 2 72
So if we multiply 4608 by 2 (to form a pair for factor 2 which cannot be paired) 2 36
2 18
then we get a perfect square. 3 9
So, 4608 × 2 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) 3 3
1
⇒ 9216 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3)
Therefore, the required smallest number is 2.
9216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 96
Find the smallest number by which 3024 must be divided so that the quotient is a perfect
Example 5
square. Find the square root of the quotient.
Solution: 2 3024
3024 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 2 1512
2 756
Group the pairs of equal factors. 2 378
3024 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) × 3 × 7 3 189
3 63
If we divide 3024 by 21 (7 × 3) (the factors that cannot be paired) then we get a perfect
3 21
square.
7 7
3024 ÷ 21 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) 1
⇒ 144 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) which is a perfect square
Therefore, the required smallest number is 21.
144 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12.

32
 Example 6 Find the smallest square number which is divisible by each of the numbers 4, 8 and 10.

Solution:
2 4, 8, 10
The least number divisible by each one i.e. 4, 8, 10 is their LCM. 2 2, 4, 5
2 1, 2, 5
The LCM of 4, 8 and 10 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 = 40
5 1, 1, 5
Prime factorisation of 40 = (2 × 2) × 2 × 5 1, 1, 1

Prime factors 2 and 5 are not paired and so 40 is not a perfect square.
To make 40 a perfect square, we need to multiply 40 by 2 × 5 i.e. 10.
Therefore, the required square number = 40 × 10 = 400.

Exercise 2.4
1. Find the square root of the following numbers using the successive subtraction method.
a. 16 b. 64 c. 81 d. 121

2. Find the square roots of the following numbers by the prime factorisation method.
a. 2601 b. 484 c. 1225 d. 7569
e. 8464 f. 6084 g. 7396 h. 4761

3. For each of the following numbers, find the smallest natural number by which it should be multiplied
so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained.
a. 768 b. 891 c. 1620 d. 1458
e. 1536 f. 6860 g. 3388 h. 8064

4. For each of the following numbers, find the smallest natural number by which it should be divided
so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained.
a. 972 b. 588 c. 5120 d. 1728
e. 9072 f. 2541 g. 12696 h. 46240

5. Find the smallest square number that is exactly divisible by each one of the following numbers.
a. 5, 6, 8 b. 12, 15, 9 c. 4, 10, 16 d. 10, 15, 20

6. The students of grade VIII collected ` 1296 in all, for the decoration in the class in diwali. Each
student contributed as many rupees as the number of students in the class. Find the number of
students in the class.
7. Find the length of the square plot whose area is 4356 sq. m.
8. A group of girls collected 784 flowers to make a big garland for Ganpati festival. The collections
from each girl was equal to the number of girls in the group. How many girls are there in the group?

Finding Square Root by Division Method

To find square root of large numbers through prime factorisation and successive subtraction becomes
very difficult and tedious as the calculations becomes very lengthy with the increase in number of
subtractions. Hence, square root of large numbers can be found using Long Division Method.

33
 Example 1 Find the square root of 5184 using long division method.

Solution:

To find the square root of a number (say 5184) using the long division method, we use the following
steps:

Step 1: Pair the digits in the given number starting from the 51 84
units digit and place a bar above each pair. If the number of
digits is even in the given number, then all digits are paired. If
the number of digits is odd in the given number, then the leftmost
digit remains unpaired.

Step 2: Find the largest number x whose square is less than or The largest number whose
equal to the leftmost pair or digit. square is less than or equal to 51
is 7 as
7 = 49 and 82 = 64 > 51
2

Step 3: Write the given number as the dividend and this digit x 7
as the divisor as well as the quotient. 7 51 84

Step 4: Now subtract the square of x from the leftmost pair or 7

digit of the dividend and write the remainder. 7 51 84
49
2

Step 5: Write the number under the next bar in front of the 7
remainder to get a new dividend, multiply the quotient by 2 and 7 5184
write it as the divisor with a blank space to its right.
49
14_ 284

Step 6: Now find a largest digit to fill the blank space and to 72
complete the division. Write the same digit as the quotient. 7 5184
49
142 284
284
0

Step 7: Repeat the process till all the digits under the bar are
used. The quotient obtained is the square root of the given
number. ∴ 5184 = 72

34
 Example 2 Find the square root of 14161 using long division method.

Solution:

Step 1: Pair the digits in the given number starting from the units digit 14161
and place a bar above each pair. If the number of digits in it is odd, then
the left most digit too will have a bar.
Step 2: The largest number whose square is less than or equal to 1 is 1
1 as 12 = 1 and 22 = 4 > 1. 1 14161
Write the number 14161 as the dividend and this digit 1 as the divisor as
well as the quotient.

Step 3: Now subtract the square of 1 from the leftmost digit of the dividend 1
and write the remainder. 1 14161
1
0

Step 4: Write the number 41 under the next bar in front of the remainder 1
0 to get a new dividend, multiply the quotient 1 by 2 and write 2 as the 1 14161
divisor with a blank space to its right.
1
2_ 041

Step 5: Now find a largest digit to fill the blank space and to complete the 11
division. Write the same digit as the quotient. 1 14161
1
21 041
21
20

Step 6: Write the number 61 under the next bar in front of the remainder 11
20 to get a new dividend, multiply the quotient 11 by 2 and write 22 as the 1 14161
divisor with a blank space to its right.
1
21 041
21
22_ 2061

Step 7: Now find a largest digit to fill the blank space and to complete the 119
division. Write the same digit as the quotient. 1 14161
1
21 041
21
229 2061
2061
0

Step 8: The quotient obtained is the square root of the given number. ∴ 14161 = 119

35
 Note that the number of digits in the square root is the same as the number of pairs formed in
the case of a number having even number of digits. In the case of a number having odd number
of digits, the number of digits in its square root is 1 more than the number of pairs.

Estimating the Number of Digits of the Square Root

We pair the digits and place a bar above each pair on the number while finding the square root of it
using long division method.
Let us see the estimation of number of digits in the square root of a perfect square with the help of these
bars.
Observe the following.

a. 5 76 = 24 b. 32 49 = 57 c. 5 95 36 = 244 d. 12 8164 = 358

We can see that,

a. There are 2 bars in 576 and the number of digits in its square root is 2.
b. There are 2 bars in 3249 and the number of digits in its square root is 2.
c. There are 3 bars in 59536 and the number of digits in its square root is 3.
d. There are 3 bars in 128164 and the number of digits in its square root is 3.
Thus, we can say that number of bars in the square is equal to the number of digits of its square root.
Find the number of digits in the square root of the following numbers without calculating
Example 3
its square root.
a. 24964 b. 1000000 c. 550564
Solution:
a. 24964
Placing bars over it , we get 2 49 64
There are 3 bars, hence the number of digits in its square root is 3.
b. 1000000
Placing bars over it, we get 100 00 00
There are 4 bars, hence the number of digits in its square root is 4.
c. 550564
Placing the bars over it, we get 55 05 64
There are 3 bars, hence the number of digits in its square root is 3.

Example 4 Find the least number to be subtracted from 7400 to get a perfect square.

Solution: 86
Let us perform long division method of finding square root for the number 7400. 8 7400
The remainder is 4. 64
166 1000
So, if we subtract 4 from 7400, we get a perfect square 7400 – 4 = 7396 = 862
996
∴ The least number to be subtracted from 7400 to get a perfect square is 4. 4

36
 Example 5 Find the least number to be added to 980 to get a perfect square.

Solution:
Let us perform long division method of finding square root for the number 980. 31
The remainder is 19. So, if we subtract 19 from 980, we get a perfect square 3 980
980 – 19 = 961 = 312 9
That means, 312 < 980. 61 080
61
∴312 < 980 < 322
19
Thus, the required number is 322 – 980 = 1024 – 980 = 44
∴ The least number to be added to 980 to get a perfect square is 44.

Example 6 Find the greatest 4-digit number which is a perfect square.

Solution: 9

The greatest 4-digit number is 9999. 9 9999

–81
Let us perform long division method to find the square root for the number 999.
189 1899
The remainder is 198. This shows that 992 is less than 9999 by 198. –1701
So if we subtract 198 from 9999, we get a perfect square 198

Thus, the required perfect square is 9999 – 198 = 9801

Square Roots of Decimals

A perfect square decimal number is a number which is obtained by multiplying a decimal number with
itself.
To find the square root using long division method, we use the following steps:
Step 1: Pair the digits in the given number from right to left starting from the units place, and place a
bar above each pair for the integral part. If the number of digits is odd in the given number, then the
leftmost digit remains unpaired.
Step 2: For the decimal part, pair the digits from left to right starting from the tenths place and place a
bar above each pair. If there are odd number of digits in the decimal part, add a zero at the end so that
no digit remains unpaired.
Step 3: Perform the long division as in case of integers.
Step 4: Place a decimal point in the quotient when all the number, in the integral part are used.

Example 7 Find the square root of 149.5729 using long division method.

Solution:

Pair the digits in the given number from right to left starting from the units 149.5729
place for the integral part and from left to right starting from the tenths
place for the decimal part and place a bar above each pair.

37
 The largest number whose square is less than or equal to 1 is 1 as 1
12 = 1 and 22 = 4 > 1. 1 149.5729
Write the number 149.5729 as the dividend and this digit 1 as the
divisor as well as the quotient.

Now subtract the square of 1 from the leftmost digit of the dividend and 1
write the remainder. 1 149.5729
1
0

Write the number 49 under the next bar in front of the remainder 0 to get 1
a new dividend, multiply the quotient 1 by 2 and write 2 as the divisor with 1 149.5729
a blank space to its right. 1
2_ 049
Now find the largest digit to fill the blank space and to complete the 12
division. Write the same digit as the quotient. 1 149.5729
1
22 049
44
5
All pairs in the integral part are used. So, now place a decimal point in the 12.
quotient and write the number 57 under the next bar in the decimal part in 1 149.5729
front of the remainder 5 to get a new dividend, multiply the quotient 12 by 1
2 and write 24 as the divisor with a blank space to its right
22 049
44
24_ 557
Now find the largest digit to fill the blank space and to complete the 12.2
division. Write the same digit as the quotient. 1 149.5729
1
22 049
44
242 557
484
73
Write the number 29 under the next bar in front of the remainder 73 to get 12.2
a new dividend, multiply the quotient 122 (ignoring the decimal point) by 1 149.5729
2 and write 244 as the divisor with a blank space to its right. 1
22 049
44
242 557
484
244_ 7329

38
 Now find the largest digit to fill the blank space and to complete the 12.2
division. Write the same digit in front of the quotient. 1 149.5729
1
22 049
44
242 557
484
2443 7329
7329
0
The quotient obtained is the square root of the given number. ∴ 149.5729 = 12.23

Example 8 Find the square root of 436.81 using the long division method.

Solution: 20.9
Let us perform long division method of finding the square root of the 2 436.81
number 436.81. 4
Note that as 36 is not divisible by a number greater than 40, we place a zero 40 036
in the quotient and write 36 as well as the next pair 81 as the next dividend. 0
Then continuing the same process, we get 436.81 = 20.9 409 3681
3681
0
436.81 = 20.9 ⇒ 43681 = 209
⇒ 4.3681 = 2.09
⇒ 0.043681 = 0.209
⇒ 4368100 = 2090

Square Root of a Rational Number

p
A number of the form with p and q integers and q ≠ 0 is called a rational number.
q
p p p
If both p and q are perfect squares, then the square root of denoted by =
q q q
p
If any one or both p and q are not perfect squares, then first find the decimal representation of and
q
use long division method to find its square root.
Find the square root of the following rational numbers.
Example 9
25 24 525 1
a. b. c. d. 2
144 384 21 4
Solution:
25 25 52 5 24 1 1 1
a. = = = = 0.416 b. = = = = 0.25
144 144 12 12
2 384 16 4 2 4

525 = 1 = 9 = 32 = 3 = 1.5
c. 25 = 52 = 5 d. 2
21 4 4 22 2

39
 In an auditorium of a school, the number of benches in a row is the same as the number
Example 10
of rows in the auditorium. One bench can be occupied by two students. There are
968 students in the class and no seat is left vacant. Find the number of rows in the
auditorium of the school.
Solution:
Total number of students when no seat is vacant = 968
968
∴ Total number of benches in the auditorium = = 484
2
We know that the total number of benches in the auditorium = number of benches in one row × number
of rows
But the number of benches in a row = the number of rows.
Thus, total number of benches in the auditorium = (number of rows)2.
∴ 484 = (number of rows)2
∴ number of rows = 484 = 22
Therefore, there are 22 rows in the auditorium with 22 benches in each row.
What will be the length of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle if its perpendicular
Example 11
sides measure 20 cm and 21 cm?
Solution:
29
Let the length of the hypotenuse be x cm.
2 841
By Pythagoras theorem, 202 + 212 = x2
4
x = 202 + 212 49 4 41
= 400 + 441 4 41
= 841 0

= 29
∴ The length of the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle is 29 cm.

Exercise 2.5
1. Find the square root of the following numbers using the long division method.
a. 784 b. 3481 c. 6724 d. 12996
e. 5776 f. 21316 g. 13225 h. 21904

2. Find the number of digits in the square root of each of the following numbers (without any calculation).
a. 289 b. 60516 c. 715716 d. 27225

3. Find the least number which must be subtracted from each of the following numbers so as to get
a perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained.
a. 684 b. 855 c. 2425 d. 9414

4. Find the least number which must be added to each of the following numbers so as to get a perfect
square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained.
a. 183 b. 219 c. 1825 d. 3118

40
5. Find the square root of the following decimal numbers using long division method.
a. 68.89 b. 1.3456 c. 7.84 d. 108.16

6. Find the length of the side of a square with area 324 sq. cm.
7. Find the square root of 2601 using long division method and hence find the value of the expression.
2601 + 26.01 + 0.2601 + 0.002601
8. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle if its perpendicular sides measure 5 cm
and 12 cm.
9. A farmer has 1500 mango saplings. He wants to plant these in such a way that the number of rows
and the number of columns remain same. Find the minimum number of plants he needs more for
the same.
10. There are 600 students in a school. For the morning assembly they have to stand in such a manner
that the number of rows is equal to the number of columns. How many students would be left out
in this arrangement?
11. Find the square root of the following rational numbers.
225 1 1 49
a. b. 6 c. 56 d.
400 4 4 144
Find the values of the following expressions.
1.
57600 + 256 + 4900 + 121

2.
1 + 200 + 400 + 50000 + 252

Recollections
ŠŠ The square of a number is the product obtained when a number is multiplied by itself.
ŠŠ A natural number is said to be a square number or a perfect square, if it is a square of a natural
number.
ŠŠ Properties of Perfect Squares
• Any perfect square cannot have 2, 3, 7 and 8 at its units place.
• The square of a number is always positive.
• The product of two perfect squares is also a perfect square.
• Any perfect square has even number of zeroes at the end. If a number has one zero at its end
then its square has two zeroes at the end.
• The square of any number can be expressed as the sum of odd natural numbers.
• The number of non-perfect square numbers between the squares of two consecutive natural
numbers is twice the smaller number.
• An odd perfect square can be written as the sum of two consecutive natural numbers.
ŠŠ To check if a given number is a perfect square by prime factorisation method, we first write the
number as the product of its prime factors and then group the pairs of equal factors. If all the factors
can be grouped in pairs of equal factors, then the given number is a perfect square.

41
 ŠŠ Any perfect square can be expressed as the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers.
ŠŠ Three numbers a, b and c are said to form a Pythagorean triplet if a2 + b2 = c2.
ŠŠ The square root of a number n is the number which when multiplied with itself gives n as the product.
ŠŠ A negative number does not have a square root.
ŠŠ There are three methods of finding square roots
• Successive subtraction method
• Prime Factorisation Method
• Long Division Method
ŠŠ The number of digits in a square root of a number is same as the number of bars over it.
p p p
ŠŠ If both p and q are perfect squares in a rational number then the square root of is .
q q q
Check Your Understanding
1. Choose the correct option.
12
a. The square of is
15
24 144 12 1728
i. ii. iii. iv.
30 225 15 3375
b. The square root of 16 is
i. 4 ii. 2 iii. 256 iv. 8
c. Which of the following numbers is not a perfect square?
i. 4096 ii. 4356 iii. 4228 iv. 4489
d. The square of 25 is
i. 1225 ii. 625 iii. 225 iv. 50
e. The number of zeroes in the square of 300 is
i. 2 ii. 8 iii. 6 iv. 4
2. Match the following numbers in the first column to their respective square roots.

Numbers Square Roots

a. 40000 i. 0.06
b. 225 ii. 0.6
c. 0.0036 iii. 200
d. 400 iv. 20
e. 0.36 v. 15

3. Write the least number x such that the following numbers are perfect squares.
a. 1800 – x b. 1800 + x c. 1800 × x d. 1800 ÷ x
4. Find the squares of the following numbers.
7
a. 34 b. 2.65 c. 23 d.
9

42
5. Check if the following numbers are perfect squares.
a. 8100 b. 1022 c. 1370 d. 4346
6. Find the square roots of the following numbers.
a. 441 b. 20449 c. 126.1129 d. 400

Review exercise
1. Find the squares of the following:
2
a. 62 b. –21 c. 35 d.
3
2. Check if the following numbers are perfect squares.
a. 64 b. 1243 c. 3300 d. 4475
3. Without actual calculations find the value of the following expressions.
a. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 b. 282 – 272 c. 22 + 32 + 62
4. Without calculation find the natural numbers between the squares of 31 and 32.
5. Find the smallest number which when multiplied by 4050, the product is a perfect square.
6. Find the smallest number by which 2048 must be divided so that the quotient is a perfect square.
7. Find the smallest number which when subtracted from 5330, the difference is a perfect square.
8. Find the smallest number which when added to 4050, the sum is a perfect square.
9. Find a Pythagorean triplet having 48 as its smallest number.
10. Find the square root of the 144 using repeated subtraction method.
11. Find the square roots of the following numbers by prime factorisation method.
a. 3136 b. 900 c. 2304 d. 196
12. Find the square root of the following numbers using long division method.
a. 15129 b. 4356 c. 1056.25 d. 1790.9824
13. Find the square root of the following rational numbers.
144 196 14 240
a. b. c. 70 d. 1
441 256 25 784
14. Find the square root of 6084 using long division and hence find the value of the expression.
6084 + 60.84 + 0.6084.
15. Find the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with area 1092 sq. cm and breadth 13 cm.
16. A piece of copper wire is bent into the shape of a square which encloses an area of 2116 sq. cm.
Find the length of the copper wire.

Weblinks
http://www.math-play.com/square-roots-game.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/square-root-activities-games.html
https://www.mathsisfun.com/square-root.html
As on 09.05.2019

43
 3. Cubes and Cube Roots

You know
ŠŠ to express a number in exponential form

You will learn

ŠŠ to find a perfect cube
ŠŠ identify perfect cubes
ŠŠ to find cube root of a number using the prime factorisation method

Cube of a Number
In geometry, we use the term cube for 3-D solids having the same length,
breadth and height.
The figure given alongside, represents a cube with length, breadth and height 3 cm
measuring 3 cm each.
3 cm
To calculate the volume of a cube, we multiply its dimensions.
3 cm
Volume of the cube = 3 cm × 3 cm × 3 cm = 27 cm3
In algebra, the cube of a number is the product obtained when a number is multiplied by itself three
times. That is, if x is a number then its cube is x3.
For example, 23 = 2 × 2 × 2. This is read as ‘2 cube’ or ‘2 raised to the power 3’.
The value of 23 is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8. So, the cube of the number 2 is 8.
Find the cubes of the following numbers.
Example 1 1
a. 4 b. –3 c.
3
Solution:
a. Cube of 4 is 43 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64 b. Cube of –3 is (–3)3 = (–3) × (–3) × (–3) = –27
1 3
1 1 1 1×1×1 1
c. Cube of � � = � � × � � × � � = =
3 3 3 3 3 × 3 × 3 27
Perfect Cubes
The cube of the number 2 is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8. The number 8 is called a cube number or a perfect cube.
A natural number is said to be a cube number or a perfect cube, if it is a cube of a natural number.
That is, a natural number m is a perfect cube if m = n3, where n is a natural number.
Look at the following cubes of natural numbers from 1 to 20.

Number Cube Number Cube Number Cube Number Cube

1 1 6 216 11 1331 16 4096
2 8 7 343 12 1728 17 4913
3 27 8 512 13 2197 18 5832
4 64 9 729 14 2744 19 6859
5 125 10 1000 15 3375 20 8000

44
Some observations from the above table:
ŠŠ There are only ten perfect cubes from 1 to 1000.
ŠŠ The cube of an even number is even and an odd number is odd.
ŠŠ The last digit of a number indicates the last digit of its cube.
• The cubes of the numbers with last digits 1, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 0 have the same last digit.
• If the last digit of a number is 2, then the last digit of its cube is 8.
• If the last digit of a number is 3, then the last digit of its cube is 7.
• If the last digit of a number is 7, then the last digit of its cube is 3.
• If the last digit of a number is 8, then the last digit of its cube is 2.

Properties of Perfect Cubes

1. The cube of a positive number is positive. The cube of a negative number is negative.
For example, the cube of 2 is 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 and the cube of –2 is (–2)3 = (–2) × (–2) × (–2) = –8.
2. The product of two perfect cubes is also a perfect cube.
For example, 8 and 27 are perfect cubes.
8 = 23, 27 = 33
8 × 27 = 23 × 33
i.e, 216 = 63
Thus, the product 216 is also a perfect cube.

Some Interesting Patterns

Cubes as Sum of Consecutive Odd Numbers
The cube of any number can be expressed as the sum of consecutive odd numbers.
13 = 1 = 1
23 = 8 = 3+5
33 = 27 = 7 + 9 + 11
43 = 64 = 13 + 15 + 17 + 19
53 = 125 = 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29
Successive Subtraction
Observe the following pattern.
23 – 13 = 1+2×1×3
33 – 23 = 1+3×2×3
43 – 33 = 1+4×3×3
53 – 43 = 1+5×4×3

Prime Factorisation to Check if a given Number is a Perfect Cube

To check if a given number is a perfect cube by prime factorisation method.
i. First write the number as the product of its prime factors.
ii. Then group the triplets of equal factors.
If all the factors can be grouped in triplets of equal factors then the given number is a perfect cube.

45
 For example, 216 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (3 × 3 × 3). All factors can be grouped in triplets of equal factors. So,
216 is a perfect cube. In fact, 216 = (2 × 3)3 = 63.

Example 2 Check if 9261 is a perfect cube.

Solution:
3 9261
9261
3 3087
First write the number as the product of its prime factors
3 1029
9261 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 × 7 7 343
Then group the equal factors in triplets. 7 49
∴ 9261 = (3 × 3 × 3) × (7 × 7 × 7) 7 7
1
All factors can be grouped in triplets of equal factors.
Thus, the number 9261 is a perfect cube.

Example 3 Check if 1536 is a perfect cube.

2 1536
Solution:
2 768
1536
2 384
First write the number as the product of its prime factors
2 192
1536 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
2 96
Then group the equal factors in triplets. 2 48
∴ 1536 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 3 2 24
The number 3 cannot be grouped. 2 12
2 6
So, all factors cannot be grouped in triplets of equal factors.
3 3
Thus, the number 1536 is not a perfect cube.
1
Smallest Multiple that is a Perfect Cube
The number in which all the factors cannot be grouped in triplets of equal factors is not a perfect cube.
If we multiply or divide the non-perfect cube number to get triplets for the factors that cannot be grouped
in triplets, then we get a perfect cube.
For example, 128 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 2. All factors cannot be grouped in triplets of equal factors
as the number 2 remains. So, 128 is not a perfect cube.
In the above example, if we multiply the non- perfect cube number 128 by the number 4 (to form a triplet
for the factor which cannot be grouped) then we get a perfect cube 512. (512 = 83)
128 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 2
128 × 2 × 2 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 2 × 2 × 2
⇒ 512 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2)
Similarly, if we divide the non-perfect cube number 128 by the number 2 (the factor which cannot be
grouped) then we get a perfect cube 64. (64 = 43)
128 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 2

46
 128 ÷ 2 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 2 ÷ 2
⇒ 64 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2)
Is 4608 a perfect cube? If not, then find the smallest number by which 4608 must be
Example 4
multiplied so that the product is a perfect cube.
Solution: 2 4608
4608 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 2 2304
Group the equal factors in triplets. 2 1152
2 576
4608 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × 3 × 3
2 288
The number 3 cannot be grouped. 2 144
So, all factors cannot be grouped in triplets of equal factors. 2 72
2 36
Thus, 4608 is not a perfect cube.
2 18
If we multiply the non perfect cube number 4608 by 3 (to form a triplet for the factor 3 which 3 9
cannot be grouped) then we get a perfect cube 13824.
3 3
Hence, the smallest number by which 4608 should be multiplied to make a perfect cube 1
is 3.
Is 19208 a perfect cube? If not, then by which smallest natural number should 19208
Example 5
be divided so that the quotient is a perfect cube?
Solution: 2 19208
19208 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 2 9604
Group the equal factors in triplets. 2 4802
7 2401
∴ 19208 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (7 × 7 × 7) × 7
7 343
The number 7 cannot be grouped. 7 49
So, all factors cannot be grouped in triplets of equal factors. 7 7
1
Thus, the number 19208 is not a perfect cube.
If we divide the non-perfect cube number 19208 by the number 7 (the factor which cannot be grouped)
then we get a perfect cube 2744.
Hence, the smallest number by which 19208 should be divided to make a perfect cube is 7.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 3.1
1. Find the cubes of the following.
2
a. 6 b. –5 c. d. 25
7
2. Find the last digit in the cube of the following numbers.
a. 32 b. 68 c. 35 d. 47

3. Which of the following are not perfect cubes?

a. 4096 b. 5488 c. 1944 d. 13824 e. 36864 f. 17576

47
 4. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be multiplied to obtain
a perfect cube.
a. 448 b. 1125 c. 3267 d. 27783 e. 331776

5. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be divided to obtain
a perfect cube.
a. 1536 b. 1625 c. 3645 d. 134456 e. 12096

Cube Roots
The cube root of a number n is that number which when multiplied by itself three times gives n as the
product.
If m3 = m × m × m = n, then n is called the cube of m and m is called the cube root of n.
Thus, finding cube root is the inverse operation of finding cube.
3
The symbol denotes ‘cube-root.’
Therefore, m3 = n ⇒ 3 n = m. Also (–m)3 = –n ⇒ 3 –n = –m
A positive cube number has a positive cube root and a negative cube number has a negative cube root.
For example, the cube of a number 7 is 73 = 7 × 7 × 7 = 343, then 343 is the cube of 7 and 7 is the cube
root of 343.
We write, 3 343 = 7. Also (–7)3 = –343. So 3 –343 = –7

Cube Root through Prime Factorisation Method

To find the cube root of a given perfect cube,
Step 1: First write the number as the product of its prime factors.
Step 2: Then group the triplets of equal factors.
Step 3: From each triplet, select a prime factor and find their product.
Step 4: This product is the required cube root.
Find the cube roots of the following numbers using prime factorisation.
Example 1 343 12
a. 5832 b. c. 4
3375 125
Solution:
a. 5832 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 2 5832
2 2916
Group the equal factors in triplets.
2 1458
∴ 5832 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (3 × 3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3) 3 729
Select a prime factor from each triplet and find their product. 3 243
3 81
2 × 3 × 3 = 18
3 27
Thus, the cube root of 5832 is 18. 3 5832 = 18 3 9
3 3
1

48
b. 343 = 7 × 7 × 7
3 3375
3375 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5
3 1125
343 7×7×7 3 375
∴ =
3375 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5
5 125
Group the equal factors in triplets.
5 25
343 7×7×7 5 5
∴ =
3375 (3 × 3 × 3) × (5 × 5 × 5)
1
7 7
Select a prime factor from each triplet and find their product. =
3 × 5 15
343 7 343 7
Thus, the cube root of is �∴ 3 = �
3375 15 3375 15
12 512 2 512
c. 4 =
125 125 2 256
512 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
2 128
512 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 2 64
∴ =
125 5×5×5
2 32
Group the equal factors in triplets.
2 16
512 (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) 2 8
∴ =
125 (5 × 5 × 5)
2 4
Select a factor from each triplet and find their product.
2 2
2×2×2 8 3 1
= =1
5 5 5
12 3 12 3
Thus, the cube root of 4 is 1 . �∴ 3 4 =1 �
125 5 125 5
3
512 = 8

512 83 8
⇒ 3 0.512 =
3 =
3
3
== 0.8
1000 10 10

512 83 8
⇒ 3 000.512 =
3 =
3
3
== 0.08
1000000 100 100

⇒ 3 512000 =3 512 × 1000 =3 83 × 103 =8 × 10 =80

3 3
⇒ 3 512000000 =3
512 × 1000000 = 8 × 106 =×
8 102 =
800

By what smallest number should 11979 be multiplied so that the product becomes
Example 2
a perfect cube? Also find the cube root of the product.
Solution:
11979 = 3 × 3 × 11 × 11 × 11 3 11979
3 3993
Group the equal factors in triplets.
11 1331
11979 = 3 × 3 × (11 × 11 × 11) 11 121
If we multiply the non-perfect cube number 11979 by 3 (to form a triplet for the factor 11 11
3 which cannot be grouped) then we get a perfect cube 35937. 1
∴ 35937 = (3 × 3 × 3) × (11 × 11 × 11)

49
 Select a factor from each triplet and find their product.
∴ 3 35937 = 3 × 11 = 33
Thus, the cube root of 35937 is 33.
Divide 118125 by the smallest number so that the quotient is a perfect cube. Also find
Example 3
the cube root of the quotient.
Solution:
118125 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 7
Group the equal factors in triplets.
∴ 118125 = (3 × 3 × 3) × (5 × 5 × 5) × 5 × 7
If we divide the non cube number 118125 by the number 35 (the factors that cannot be grouped) then
we get a perfect cube 3375.
Select a factor from each triplet and find their product.
∴ 3 3375 = 3 × 5 = 15
Thus, the cube root of 3375 is 15.

Cube Root of a Cube Number through Estimation

We have already seen that the last digit of a number indicates the last digit of its cube.
Thus, the last digit of a cube gives us the last digit of its cube root. For example, if the last digit of a cube
number is 8 then the last digit of its cube root is 2.
Note that the smallest 1 digit natural number is 1 and its cube is 13 = 1 and the largest 1 digit natural
number is 9 and its cube is 93 = 729. So, the number of digits in a cube of a one digit number is 1, 2 or 3.
Similarly, the smallest 2 digit natural number is 10 and its cube is 103 = 1000 and the largest 2 digit
natural number is 99 and its cube is 993 = 970299. So, the number of digits in a cube of a two digit
number is 4, 5 or 6.
The smallest 3 digit natural number is 100 and its cube is 1003 = 1000000 and the largest 3 digit natural
number is 999 and its cube is 9993 = 997002999. So, the number of digits in a cube of a three digit
number is 7, 8 or 9.
To find the cube root of a number with less than 7 digits, the following steps are used:
Step 1: Guess the last digit of the cube root using the last digit of the given number.
Step 2: Now strike off the digits in the units, tens and hundreds place (last three digits).
Step 3: Find the largest number whose cube is less than or equal to the number obtained in the
previous step. This number represent the digit at tens place of the cube root.
Step 4: Now combine both digits and write the cube root of the given number.
Find the cube roots of the following cube numbers through estimation.
Example 4
a. 4096 b. 59319 c. 456533 d. 551368

50
Solution:

Last Number
The last Digit in the tens place of the cube Cube
Given digit obtained
digit of root (Largest number whose cube root of
Cube of the by striking
its cube is less than or equal to the number the given
number cube off the last
root obtained) number
number three digits

a. 4096 6 6 4 1 (∴ 13 = 1 < 4 and 23 = 8 > 4) 16

b. 59319 9 9 59 3 (∴ 33 = 27 < 59 and 43 = 64 > 59) 39

c. 456533 3 7 456 7 (∴ 73 = 343 < 456 and 83 = 512 > 456) 77

d. 551368 8 2 551 8 (∴ 83 = 512 < 551 and 93 = 729 > 551) 82

Exercise 3.2
1. Find the cube roots of the following numbers by prime factorisation method.
a. 970299 b. 592704 c. 35937 d. 1728

2. Find the cube root of the following cube numbers through estimation.
a. 4913 b. 103823 c. 205379 d. 12167

3. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be multiplied to obtain
a perfect cube. Also find the cube root of the product.
a. 2916 b. 6125 c. 19773 d. 36864

4. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be divided to obtain
a perfect cube. Also find the cube root of the quotient.
a. 6561 b. 12800 c. 13182 d. 159720

Find the values of the following expressions.

1. 3
250
2000
250 3 6750 3 27
2. 3 + +
2000 2000 2

Recollections
ŠŠ The cube of a number is the product obtained when a number is multiplied by itself three times.
ŠŠ A natural number is said to be a cube number or a perfect cube, if it is the cube of a natural
number.
ŠŠ Properties of Perfect Cubes
1. The last digit of a number indicates the last digit of its cube.
a. The cubes of the numbers with last digits 1, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 0 have the same last digit.
b. If the last digit of a number is 2, then the last digit of its cube is 8.
c. If the last digit of a number is 3, then the last digit of its cube is 7.

51
 d. If the last digit of a number is 7, then the last digit of its cube is 3.
e. If the last digit of a number is 8, then the last digit of its cube is 2.
2. The cube of a positive number is positive. The cube of a negative number is negative.
3. The cube of an even number is even. The cube of an odd number is odd.
ŠŠ To check if a given number is a perfect cube by prime factorisation method, we first write the number
as the product of its prime factors and then group the triplets of equal factors. If all the factors can
be grouped in triplets of equal factors then the given number is a perfect cube.
ŠŠ The cube root of a number n is the number which when multipled with itself three times gives m as
the product.
ŠŠ A positive cube number has a positive cube root and a negative cube number has a negative cube
root.
ŠŠ The number of digits in a cube of a one digit number is 1, 2 or 3, the number of digits in a cube of a
two digit number is 4, 5 or 6 and the number of digits in a cube of a three digit number is 7, 8 or 9.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. The cube of 6 is
i. 36 ii. 216 iii. 1296 iv. 108

b. The cube root of 64 is

i. 2 ii. 4 iii. 6 iv. 8

c. The last digit of the cube of 128 is

i. 3 ii. 7 iii. 2 iv. 9

d. If 3 125 = 5 then 3 0.125

i. 0.5 ii. 5 iii. 0.005 iv. 15

e. The last digit of the cube root of 4913 is

i. 3 ii. 7 iii. 9 iv. 2

2. Match the following expressions in the first column to their respective sums.

a. 1 + 7 + 19 i 102
b. 31 + 33 + 35 + 37 + 39 + 41 ii 33
c. 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 iii 63
d. 13 + 23 + 33 iv 10
e. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 v 62

3. Find the cubes of the following numbers.

2 4
a. 41 b. 20 c. d.
3 5
4. Check if the following numbers are perfect cubes.
a. 1000 b. 3456 c. 20653 d. 1648

52
5. Find the cube roots of the following numbers.
729
a. 29791 b. 3375 c. 512 d.
1331

Review Exercise
1. Find the cubes of the following.
15
a. 62 b. –21 c. 35 d.
19
2. Check if the following numbers are perfect cubes.
a. 125 b. 1089 c. 238328 d. 65536

3. Find the cube roots of the following numbers through estimation.

a. 592704 b. 35937 c. 5832 d. 970299

4. Find the cube roots of the following numbers by prime factorisation method.
a. 4096 b. 13824 c. 97336 d. 117649

5. Find the cube root of the following rational numbers.

8 43 81 271
a. b. 2 c. 10 d. 1
125 343 125 729
6. Find the smallest number which when multiplied by 3125, the product is a perfect cube.

7. Find the smallest number by which 14641 must be divided so that the quotient is a perfect cube.

8. Check whether the number 10935 is a perfect cube using prime factorisation method. If not, find
the least number by which the number should be multiplied to get a perfect cube. Also find the cube
root of the product.

9. Check whether the number 29478 is a perfect cube using prime factorisation method. If not, find
the least number by which the number should be divided to get a perfect cube. Also find the cube
root of the quotient.
40
10. Find the value of 3 .
320

125 250 3
125
11. Find the value of 3 +3 +
1000 2000 10
12. Find the largest cube number less than 2000.

13. Find the smallest cube number greater than 2000.

Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/cube-root.html
https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/perfect-cubes.html
https://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-cube-roots-of-numbers.html
As on 09.05.2019

53
 4. Exponents and Powers

You know
ŠŠ to express repeated multiplication using powers
ŠŠ laws of exponents
ŠŠ to express numbers in standard form

You will learn

ŠŠ negative integers as exponents
ŠŠ laws of exponents with integral powers
ŠŠ to express very small and very large numbers in scientific notation

Any number multiplied by itself several times, say n times, can be expressed in the exponential form.
For example, 3 multiplied with itself 5 times, 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 can be written as 35, read as ‘three raised
to the power of 5’. Here, 3 is said to be the base and 5 is the exponent or power.
We can also express a given number in the form of exponents taking its prime factors.
For example, 64 can be expressed as 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 (its prime factors).
In the exponential form it can be written as 26.
A rational number can also be expressed in an exponential form as:
3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3
× × × = � � read as’ whole raised to the power of 4’, the base is and the power or
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
exponent is 4.
–3 –3 –3 –3 –3 4
Similarly, � �� �� �� �=� � .
7 7 7 7 7
–3
Here the base is � � and the power is 4.
7
–5 3 –125
If the power is odd, the negative integer will give a negative value. for example, � � =
7 343
–5 2 25
If the power is even, the negative integer will give a positive value � � =
7 49

A given rational number can also be expressed in exponential form taking the prime factors of the
25 5 × 5 52 5 2
numerator and the denominator. For example, = = 2=� �
49 7 × 7 7 7
Powers with Negative Exponents
8 4 2
We know that, 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8; 22 = 2 × 2 = 4 = ; 21 = 2 = ; 20 = 1 = ;
2 2 2
We can see that as the exponent is decreasing by 1, value of the new number formed is one-half of the
previous value.

54
If we continue to apply the same pattern, then we have:
1
2–1 =
2
1 1 1 1 1
2–2 = ÷ 2 = × = =
2 2 2 4 22
1 1 1 1 1
2–3 = ÷ 2 = × = =
4 4 2 8 23
Let us see the same pattern for 5.
125 25 5
53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125; 52 = 5 × 5 = 25 = ; 51 = 5 = ; 50 = 1 = ;
5 5 5
We can see that as the exponent is decreasing by 1, value of the new number formed is one-fifth of the
previous value.

Thus,
1
5–1 =
5
1 1 1 1 1
5–2 = ÷ 5 = × = =
5 5 5 25 52
1 1 1 1 1
5–3 = 2 ÷ 5 = × = = 3
5 25 5 125 5
1
In general, if a is any non-zero integer, then a–m = where m is any positive integer.
am
a–m is called the multiplicative inverse of am and am is said to be the multiplicative inverse of a–m.
−m m
p  p 1 q
Also, if is any non-zero rational number, then =  =  =  
q q  p
m
 p
 
q
−m m
 p q
Thus, we can say that the reciprocal of   =  
q  p
Example 1 Find the value of the following.

1
a. 4–3 b.
7–2
Solution:
1 1 1
a. 4–3 = = b. = 72 = 49
43 64 7–2

Example 2 Find the multiplicative inverse of the following.

2 –8
a. 24 b. 3–2 c. 10–84 d. � �
5
Solution:
1 1
a. Multiplicative inverse of 24 is b. Multiplicative inverse of 3–2 is = 32
24 3–2
1 2 –8 1 2 8
c. Multiplicative inverse of 10–84 is = 1084 d. Multiplicative inverse of � � is =� �
10–84 5 2 –8 5
� �
5

55
 Expanded Form of Numbers
A number can be written in expanded form.
For example, 2324 can be written as 2 × 1000 + 3 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 4 × 1
A decimal number can also be expressed in the expanded form.
For example,
1 1 1
(i) 452.369 = 4 × 100 + 5 × 10 + 2 × 1 + 3 × +6× +9×
10 100 1000
= 4 × 102 + 5 × 101 + 2 × 100 + 3 × 10–1 + 6 × 10–2 + 9 × 10–3
1 1 1
(ii) 71825.278 = 7 × 10000 + 1 × 1000 + 8 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 + 2 × +7× +8×
10 100 1000
= 7 × 104 + 1 × 103 + 8 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 100 + 2 × 10–1 + 7 × 10–2 + 8 × 10–3

Example 3 Write the expanded form of the following numbers using exponents.

a. 6578.507 b. 26.3591

Solution:
a. 6578.507 = 6 × 104 + 5 × 103 + 7 × 102 + 8 × 101 + 5 × 10–1 + 0 × 10–2 + 7 × 10–3
b. 26.3591 = 2 × 101 + 6 × 100 + 3 × 10–1 + 5 × 10–2 + 9 × 10–3 + 1 × 10–4

Laws of Exponents
In the previous class we have studied the laws of exponents for rational numbers with natural numbers
or positive integers as exponents.
Let us explore if these laws hold true for negative exponents also.
1 1 1
(iii) 3–2 × 3–1 = × = = (∵ am × an = am+n)
32 3 32+1
1
= 3 = 3–3
3
∴ 3–2 × 3–1 = 3(–2) + (–1) = 3–3
Similarly,
1 25 am
(iv) 2–2 × 25 = 2 × 2 =
5
2 = 2 �∵
3
= am–n�
2 2 an
∴ 2–2 × 25 = 2(–2) + 5 = 23
From the above statements we can conclude that if a is any rational number and m and n are non-zero
integers then, am × an = am+n
Similarly, we can verify that the other laws of exponents which hold true for exponents as natural
number also hold true for non-zero negative exponents.

Law I am × an = am+n Law II am ÷ an = am–n (if m > n)

Law III (am)n = amn Law IV am × bm = (ab)m

am a m
Law V = � � Law VI a0 = 1
bm b

56
 Example 4 Simplify and write in exponential form.

a. 34 × 3–6 × 35 b. (–2)–3 × (–2)–5 × (–2)7

Solution:
a. 34 × 3–6 × 35 = 34 + (–6) + 5 = 33 (∵ am × an = am+n)
1 1
b. (–2)–3 × (–2)–5 × (–2)7 = (–2)(–3) + (–5) + 7 = (–2)–1 = �∵ am × an = am+n; a–m = m �
21 a

Example 5 Express 16–3 as a power with base 2.

Solution:
We know, 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24

∴ 16–3 = (24)–3 = 2–12 �∵ (am)n = amn�

Example 6 Simplify the following and write in exponential form with positive exponents.
2 2
( )
( 9 ) –2 ÷ 34  =  32 ÷ 34 
–2

   
Solution: 2×( –2 )
2
= ( 3 ) –2 ÷ 34 2
( 9 ) ÷ 3 4  =  3 2 ÷ 3 4  

2


–2
  ( ) 
2
= ( 3 ) ÷ 3 4  2
–4
 2×( –2)  4
= ( 3 ) ÷3 
 –4– 4 2 
= 3 
2
( a m
÷ an =
a m−n )
= ( 3 ) ÷ 3 4 
–4
 –8 2  1  −m 1 
= 3 ( ) = 3 –16 = 16
3
 a = m 
 m a  m−n
( )
2
= 3 –4– 4   a ÷ an =
a

1  −m 1 
( )
2
= 3 –8 = 3 –16 =  a = m 
316  a 

Example 7 Simplify:

5 3 25 3 –2 4 –16 4
a. � � ÷ � � b. � � ÷� �
7 21 3 9
Solution:
a. � 5 � ÷ � 25 � = � 5 ÷ 25 �
3 3 3

7 21 7 21
5 21 3 3 3 27
=� × � =� �= [∵ am × bm = (ab)m]
7 25 5 125
b. �–2� ÷ �–16� = ��–2� ÷ �–16��
4 4 4

3 9 3 9
–2 –9 4 3 4 a m
= �� � × � �� = � � �(∵ am ÷ bm = � � �
3 16 8 b

57
 Evaluate:
Example 8 –1
1 4 1 4 b. �3–1 + 5–1�
a. � � ÷ � �
4 4
Solution:
b. �3–1 + 5–1� = � 1 + 1 �
–1 –1
a. 1 4 1 4 1 4–4
� � ÷� � =� � 3 5
4 4 4
1 0 8 –1 15 1
= � � = 1 �∵ a0 = 1� =� � = �∵ a–1 = �
4 15 8 a

Example 9 Solve the following to find the value of x.

–5 –6 –5 –3 –5 3x
a. 52x + 1 ÷ 25 = 125 b. � � ×� � =� �
6 6 6
Solution:
b. �–5� × �–5� = �–5�
–6 –3 3x
a. 52x + 1 ÷ 25 = 125
6 6 6
⇒ 52x + 1 ÷ 52 = 53
–5 (–6) + (–3) –5 3x
⇒� � =� �
⇒ 52x + 1 – 2 = 53 6 6
–5 (–6 –3) –5 3x
⇒5 2x – 1
=5
3 ⇒� � =� �
6 6
Since bases are same, we can compare –5 (–9) –5 3x
⇒� � =� �
the exponents. 6 6

∴ 2x – 1 = 3 ⇒ –9 = 3x

⇒ 2x = 4 ∴ x = –3

⇒x=2

Let's Exercise
Exercise 4.1
1. Find the value of the following.
1 1 –4
a. 3–4 b. (–5)4 c. d. � �
2–5 10
2. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following.
3 2 –5 –2 1 5
a. 7–3 b. � � c. � � d. � �
11 9 2
3. Write the expanded form of the following numbers using exponents.
a. 632.542 b. 1023.981 c. 4.569 d. 0.1235

4. Simplify:
5 –1 –2
a. 2–1 + 3–1 + 4–1 b. (3–2)–4 c. �� � � d. (3–1 + 4–1)–1
6
5. Simplify and write each of the following in exponential form with a positive exponent.
1 2 1 –5 2 –2
a. (–5)4 × 125–3 b. �24 × � � � c. � � ×� � d. (3–7 ÷ 34) × 35
2 3 3

58
6. Express the following as negative exponents.
4 3 12 5 –9 9
a. (–5)2 b. � � c. � � d. � �
7 31 11
7. Evaluate the following.
3 –2 5 2 3 –4 3 –4 –4 2 –4 –3 1 3
a. � � × � � b. � � ÷� � c. � � ×� � d. (–2)3 × � �
4 –6 55 11 9 9 10
8. Solve the following to find the value of x.
1 1 3
a. 8x = 512 b. (–3)x = –243 c. =� �
1000 x
4 x 1024 3 5 3 3 3 3x + 2
d. � � = e. 22x + 1 = 32 f. � � � � =� �
5 3125 7 7 7
9. Find the value of m for which 32m + 1 ÷ 9 = 27.
2 5 9 –4 2 3 2x 9 –3
10. Find x if � � × � � = �� � � × � �
9 2 9 2
11. By what number should (–6)–1 be divided so that the quotient is (–2)–1?

Standard Form of a Number

When a number is expressed as a product of a number between 0 and 10 (excluding both 0 and 10)
and exponents of 10, then it is said to be in standard form or in scientific notation.
For example, Speed of Light: 30,000,000,000 cm/sec., to write it in standard form we shift the decimal 10
places to the left.
∴ In standard form, 30,000,000,000.0 is expressed as 3.0 × 1010 cm/sec.

Small numbers can also be written in standard form using negative exponents.
For example, 0.000054 can be written in the standard form by moving decimal point 5 places to the right
to get a number between 0 and 10.(excluding 0 and 10)
0.000054 = 5.4 × 10–5

Similarly, 0.00000000456 can be written as 4.56 × 10-9 in the standard form by moving the decimal point
9 places to the right.
0.00000000456 = 4.56 × 10–9

In general, we can say that the standard form of a number is k × 10n where 1 ≤ k < 10 and n is an integer.

Converting from standard form to a usual form

To convert a large number of the form k × 10n to the decimal form, move the decimal place to the right
by as many places as n. Add zeroes if necessary.
For example,
(i) 1.2 × 104 can be written in the decimal form by shifting the decimal four places to the right. To do
so, we will add three zeroes after 2.
1.2 × 104 = 1.2 × 10000 = 12000
(ii) 75.851 × 105 = 75.851 × 100000 = 7585100

59
 To convert a small number of the form k × 10–n to the decimal form move the decimal place to the left by
as many places as n. We can insert zeroes if necessary.
For example,
(i) 8.12 × 10-4 can be written in the decimal form by shifting the decimal four places to the left.
1 8.12
∴ 8.12 × 10–4 = 8.12 × = = 0.000812
10000 10000
1 9.238
(ii) 9.238 × 10–5 = 9.238 × = = 0.00009238
100000 100000

ŠŠ When the given number is greater than 1, the power of 10 will be either 0 or a positive integer.
ŠŠ When the given number is less than 1, the power of 10 will be a negative integer.

Write the following numbers in standard form.

Example 1
a. 23000000 b. 0.0000205 c. 912.5400
Solution:
a. 23000000 = 2.3 × 107 [shifting decimal 7 places to the left.]
b. 0.0000205 = 2.05 × 10-5 [shifting decimal 5 places to the right.]
c. 912.5400 = 9.125400 × 102 [shifting decimal 2 places to the left.]
Write the following numbers in the usual form.
Example 2
a. 1.2 × 10-3 b. 2.0934 × 107
1 1 1 1
c. 5 × 100 + 7 × 10 + 3 × 1 + 2 × +1× +5× +6×
10 100 1000 10000
Solution:
1
a. 1.2 × 10–3 = 1.2 × = 0.0012 b. 2.0934 × 107 = 2.0934 × 10000000 = 20934000
1000
1 1 1 1
c. 5 × 100 + 7 × 10 + 3 × 1 + 2 × +1× +5× +6× = 573.2156
10 100 1000 10000

Comparing very large and very small numbers

Very large and very small numbers can be compared easily if they are written in their standard form.
The diameter of Earth is 12.742 × 106 m and the diameter of the Moon is 3.474 × 106m.
Example 3
Compare the diameter of the Earth with the diameter of the Moon.
Solution:
Diameter of Earth 12.742 × 106 m
= = 3.67(approx)
Diameter of the Moon 3.474 × 106 m
Thus, we can say that the diameter of the Earth is nearly 3.67 times the diameter of the Moon.
We have studied about atom and the particles of atom like the electron, proton and neutron.
The mass of an electron is 9.11 × 10–31 kg and the mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10–27 kg.
Example 4
Compare the masses of the two particles.
Solution:
Mass of a proton 1.67 × 10–27 1.67 × 10–27–(–31) 1.67 × 104
= = = = 0.1833 × 104 = 1830 (approx)
Mass of an electron 9.11 × 10–31 9.11 9.11
Thus, we can say that the proton is nearly 1830 times heavier than an electron.

60
 A bug which is of length 8 × 10–3 m, can jump 3.3 × 102 times of its length. How far can
Example 5
it jump?
Solution:
Length of bug = 8 × 10–3 m
It jumps 3.3 × 102 times of its length.
∴ It jumps (3.3 × 102) × (8 × 10–3) m
= 3.3 × 8 × 102+(–3) (since the bases are the same exponents can be added)
= 26.4 × 10–1 = 2.64 m
Thus, the bug can jump 2.64 m.
In a stack, there are 8 notebooks each of thickness 20 mm and 9 sheets of paper each
Example 6
of thickness 0.016 mm. What is the total thickness of the shelf? Express your answer in
standard form.
Solution:
Thickness of each notebook = 20 mm
Thickness of 8 notebooks = 8 × 20 mm = 160 mm
Thickness of each sheet of paper = 0.016 mm
Thickness of 9 sheets of paper = 9 × 0.016 mm = 0.144 mm
Total thickness of the stack = Thickness of 8 notebooks + Thickness of 9 sheets of paper
= 160 mm + 0.144 mm = 160.144 mm
In standard form, 160.144 mm = 1.60144 × 102 mm

Exercise 4.2
1. Write the following numbers in usual form.
a. 1.5268 × 104 b. 1.2 × 10-5 c. 6.6 × 106 d. 20.359 × 10–6
2. Express the given numbers in standard form.
a. 790000 b. 0.0000282 c. 0.00157 d. 31313 × 100
3. Express the following in standard form.
a. Thickness of a piece of paper = 0.0016 cm
b. Speed of light: 1,080,000,000 km per hour
c. Number of cells in the human body 100,000,000,000,000
d. Length of the shortest wavelength of visible light (violet): 0.0000004 metre
e. Thickness of red blood cell: 0.000007 m.
f. Mass of a dust particle: 0.000000000753 kg
4. Compare the following.
a. Distance from Neptune to the Sun 4.55 × 109 km to the distance of Earth from the Sun
1.49 × 1011 m.

61
 b. Size of plant cell 0.00001275 m to the size of a red blood cell 7 ×10–6 m.
c. Diameter of the Sun 1.4 × 109 m to the diameter of the Earth 1.2746 × 107 m.
5. In a shelf, there are 6 notebooks each of thickness 20 mm and 6 sheets of paper each of thickness
0.015 mm. What is the total thickness of the shelf? Express your answer in standard form.

Recollections
ŠŠ A given rational number when repeatedly multiplied by itself can be expressed in exponential form.
ŠŠ If the powers are odd, the negative integer will give a negative value.
ŠŠ If the powers are even, the negative integer will give a positive value.
1
ŠŠ If a is any non-zero integer, then: a–m = m .
a
ŠŠ a–m is called the multiplicative inverse of am and am is said to be the multiplicative inverse of a–m.
p p –m q m
ŠŠ If is any non-zero rational number, � � = � �
q q p
ŠŠ If a is any rational number and m and n are non-zero integers, then the following laws hold true.

Law I am × an = am+n Law II am ÷ an = am–n (if m > n)

Law III (am)n = amn Law IV am × bm = (ab)m

am a m
Law V = � � Law VI a0 = 1
bm b
ŠŠ A number can be written in expanded form.
ŠŠ When a number is expressed as a product of a number between 0 and 10 (excluding both 0 and
10) and exponents of 10, then it is said to be in standard form or in scientific notation.
ŠŠ When the given number is greater than 1, the power of 10 will be either 0 or a positive integer.
ŠŠ When the given number is less than 1, the power of 10 will be a negative integer.
ŠŠ Very large and very small numbers can be compared easily if they are written in their standard form.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
7 –3
a. The multiplicative inverse of � � is
8
8 –3 7 3 8 3 7 –3
i. � � ii. � � iii. � � iv. � �
7 8 7 8
b. The exponential form of 256 will be
i. 26 ii. 48 iii. 46 iv. 28

c. The value of 20 + 30 + 40 is
i. 9 ii. 1 iii. 3 iv. 0
2 2 2 –3 2 4
d. The value of � � × � � × � � is
5 5 5
8 16 4 125
i. ii. iii. iv.
125 625 25 8

62
 e. The standard form of 0.00534 is
i. 53.4 × 103 ii. 5.34 × 10–3 iii. 5.34 × 10–4 iv. 5.34 × 103

2. State true or false.

2 5 2 –3 2 4 72 × 73 × 75 1 2 –1
a. � � ÷ � � = � � b. = 73 c.
�� = 4 ��
3 3 3 74 2
1 1
d. If 22x – 2 = 1 then x = 2 e. The expanded form of 0.0031 = 3 × +1×
1000 10000
3. Solve for x.
2 x–2 2 –3 2 4
a. (–5)x + 1 × (–5)5 = (–5)7 b. � � ÷ � � = � �
3 3 3
3 5 3 4 3 0
4. Simplify, � � × � � ÷ � �
7 7 7
5. Express the following in standard form.
1
a. 0.000087 b. 602000 c. d. 2146.3 × 105
10000000

Review Exercise
1. Simplify:
1 3 4 2 1 –3
a. (–1)23 b. (4–1 ÷ 6–1)2 c. (5–1 – 4–1)3 ÷ 5–3 d. � � × � � × � �
2 9 3
2. Find the reciprocal of the following.
7 –2 1 4 6 –1
a. � � b. (–3)4 c. � � d. � �
8 3 7
3. Evaluate the following using laws of exponents.
2 5 2 2 3 –2 –2 3 2 100 –3 3 –3 5 –3 2
a. � � × � � b. �� �� c. � � ×� � d. �� � ÷� ��×� �
3 3 5 5 81 19 19 19
4. Simplify:
a. 50 + 60 + 70 b. (–2)–1 × (–4)–1

5. Express the following as negative exponents.

1 5 –2 2 216 –8 2
a. � � b. � � c. � � d. � �
5 7 125 9
6. Write the following numbers in expanded form.
a. 540123 b. 2.4104 c. 0.001205 d. 4.2005

7. Write the following numbers in usual form.

a. 2.1 × 105 b. 1.03 × 10-4 c. 1.4209 × 103 d. 1.004 × 10-4

8. Express the given numbers in standard form.

a. 0.0000542 b. 85.03 c. 60200 d. 0.000000009

63
 9. Find the value of x.

a. 3x–2 × 33 = 35 b. 2x × 24 = 22x
13 4 13 –5 13 2x + 1 5 –5 5 3x 1 –2
c. � � ×� � =� � d. � � × � � = � �
21 21 21 7 7 3
10. If a dust particle has a mass of 7.53 × 10-10 grams, find the weight of 6 lakh dust particles.
11. How many seconds are there in a year of 365 days? Express the answer in standard notation.
12. Find the value of x in the following equations.
5 x 25
a. 5x = 625 b. (–10)x = –100000 c. � � =
8 64
13. Simplify:

a. 92 × 12–4 b. 3–3 ÷ (–6)–4

4 –3 4 –5
14. By which number should � � be multiplied to get � � ?
5 5
1 3
15. By which number should � � be divided to get 1?
7

16. Find the value of 10 + 100 + 1000 + 10000 + 100000

17. The thickness of a piece of paper is 0.0016 cm and the diameter of a wire of a computer chip is
0.0003 cm. Compare the thickness of the two.

Weblinks
https://mcckc.edu/tutoring/docs/br/math/expon_logar/Exponent_Rules_Practice.pdf
http://www.mesacc.edu/~scotz47781/mat120/notes/exponents/review/review.html
https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/scientific-notation.html

As on 09.05.2019

64
 5. Playing with Numbers

You know
ŠŠ to write numbers in expanded form
ŠŠ the divisibility tests for the numbers 2, 3, 5, 9 and 10

You will learn

ŠŠ to write the general form of 2-digit and 3-digit numbers
ŠŠ to identify the digits that can replace letters in given equations
ŠŠ to explain the reason for the rules for divisibility tests for numbers.

Introduction
In earlier classes, we have learnt about 2-digit, 3-digit, 4-digit, 5-digit numbers and have solved many
sums involving them.
In this chapter we will understand the generalized form of 2-digit and 3-digit numbers and use it to
solve puzzles and deduce the divisibility rules.
General Form of a Number
Any number can be written in the expanded form.
For example,
37 = 30 + 7 = 3 tens + 7 ones = 3 × 10 + 7 × 1
64 = 60 + 4 = 6 tens + 4 ones = 6 × 10 + 4 × 1
Thus, in the general form, a two digit number ab with the digit a in its tens place and digit b in its units
place can be written as ab = 10a + b, where a can be a whole number from 1 to 9 and b can be a whole
number from 0 to 9.
On reversing the number, the ones digit becomes the tens digit and the tens digit is the ones digit.
∴ ba = 10b + a
A three-digit number can be written in the expanded form as
243 = 200 + 40 + 3 = 2 hundreds + 4 tens + 3 ones = 2 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 3 × 1
861 = 800 + 60 + 1 = 8 hundreds + 6 tens + 1 one = 8 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 1 × 1
Thus, in general form a three digit number abc can be written as:
abc = 100a + 10b + c = a × 102 + b × 101 + c × 100
Where a can be a whole number from 1 to 9 and b and c can be whole numbers from 0 to 9.
Similarly,
bca = 100b + 10c + a = b × 102 + c × 101 + a × 100
cba = 100c + 10b + a = c × 102 + b × 101 + a × 100

65
 ŠŠ The number ab does not mean a × b.
ŠŠ Similarly, the number abc does not mean a × b × c.
ŠŠ In general form, ab and abc are used to represent a 2-digit and a 3-digit number respectively..

Example 1 Write the following numbers in the generalized form.

a. 75 b. 497
Solution:
a. 75 = 7 × 10 + 5 b. 497 = 4 × 100 + 9 × 10 + 7

Example 2 Write the following numbers in the usual form.

a. 8 × 10 + 9 b. 7 × 100 + 8 × 10 + 1
Solution:
a. 8 × 10 + 9 = 89 b. 7 × 100 + 8 × 10 + 1 = 781
The sum of digits in a 2-digit number is 13 and the difference between the number and
Example 3
that formed by reversing the digits is 27. Find the number.
Solution:

Let the 2-digit number be ab = 10a + b where a is the digit at the tens place and b is the digit at the ones
place.

Given,

a + b = 13 ⇒ b = 13 – a---------(i)

Number formed by reversing the digits is 10b + a

(10a + b ) − (10b − a ) =
27
⇒ 10a − a + b − 10b = 27
⇒ 9a − 9b = 27
⇒ a − b = 3 − − − − − − − − − −(ii)
From
a−b =(i)3 and (ii)
⇒ a − (13 − a ) =3
⇒ a − 13 + a =3
⇒ 2a = 10 ⇒ a = 8
∴ From (i) b = 13 – a = 13 – 8 = 5
Hence, the required 2-digit number is 85.

Games With Numbers

There are many kind of number games that we come across in our everyday life in newspapers,
magazines or with friends. These games are all based on simple mathematical logic. Let us understand
the logic which helps to solve such games.

66
Reversing the Digits of a 2-digit Number
Let us consider a 2-digit number 84; on reversing the number we get 48.
Add the original number and the reversed number: 84 + 48 = 132
On dividing by 11 (132 ÷ 11) quotient = 12 and remainder = 0
The remainder will be 0, for all numbers in which the digit in the tens place is greater than the digit at
the ones place.
Also, the number is also divisible by the sum of the digits 12. (8 + 4 = 12)
Let us take the general form of the number to understand it.
Original number ab = 10a + b; reversed number ba = 10b + a
Adding these numbers:
ab + ba= 10a + b + 10b + a
⇒ ab + ba= 11( a + b )
ab + ba
⇒ a+b
=
11
ab + ba ab + ba
⇒ 11 and
= a+b
=
a+b 11
Thus, for a 2-digit number ab, if a > b, the sum of the number and the number obtained by reversing
the digits is:
i. divisible by 11 and the quotient is the sum of its digits (a + b).
ii. divisible by the sum of its digits, (a + b), and the quotient is 11.
Let us consider a number in which a < b, for example 59,
Reversing the digit we get the reversed number 95
Subtracting the original number from reversed number we have 95 – 59 = 36
On dividing by 9, 36 ÷ 9, quotient = 4 and remainder = 0
Also, the number is divisible by the difference of the digits 4 (9 – 5 = 4),
Let us take the general form of the number ab, in which a < b

ba − ab= 10b + a − 10a − b

⇒ ba − ab = 9b − 9a
⇒ ba − ab = 9(b − a )
ba − ab ba − ab
⇒ b − a and
= 9=
=3×3
9 b−a

Thus, for a 2-digit number ab, if a < b, the difference of the number and the number obtained by
reversing the digits is:

i. divisible by 3 and 9 and and the quotient is 3(b – a) and (b – a) respectively.

ii. divisible by the difference of the digits (b – a) and the quotient is 9.
When a = b, the sum or the difference of the number is 0. If ab = ba then ab – ba = 0

67
 Without actual division, find the quotient when the sum of 94 and the number obtained
Example 4
by reversing the digits is divided by:
a. 11 b. sum of the digits
Solution:
Given number = 94; Reversed number = 49
Sum = 94 + 49 = 143
a. Dividing the sum by 11, quotient is sum of digits, (9 + 4) = 13, remainder = 0
b. Dividing by sum of the digits 9 + 4 = 13, quotient = 11, remainder = 0
Without actual division, find the quotient when the difference of 37 and the number
Example 5
obtained by reversing the digits is divided by:
a. 9 b. Difference of the digits
Solution:
Given number = 37, Reversed number = 73
Difference = 73 – 37 = 36
a. Dividing the difference by 9, quotient is difference of digits, (7 - 3) = 4, remainder = 0
b. Dividing by difference of the digits (7 – 3 = 4), quotient = 9, remainder = 0

Reversing the Digits of a 3-digit Number

Let us consider the general form of a 3-digit number abc. Reversed number will be cba.
In the expanded form: abc = 100a + 10b + c
cba = 100c + 10b + c
Case 1: If a > c
abc − cba
= 100a + 10b + c − 100c − 10b −=
a 99( a − c )
⇒ abc − cba = 99( a − c )
abc − cba abc − cba
⇒ a − c or
= 99
=
99 a−c
For a 3-digit number abc, if a > c, the difference the number and the number obtained by reversing the
digits is always:
i. divisible by 99 and the quotient is (a – c).
ii. divisible by (a – c) and the quotient is 99.
Case 2 : If a < c
cba − abc
= 100c + 10b + a − 100a − 10b −=
c 99( c − a )
⇒ cba − abc = 99(c − a )
cba − abc cba − abc
⇒ c − a or
= 99
=
99 c−a
For a 3-digit number abc, if c > a, the difference between the number and the number obtained by
reversing the digits is always

68
i. divisible by 99 and the quotient is (c – a).
ii. divisible by (c – a) and the quotient is 99.
Case 3: When a = c the difference is 0.
For example 757, reversed number is 757
Hence abc – cba = 0
When a = c the difference is 0, hence abc – cba = 0

Example 6 Find the quotient when the difference between 684 and 486 is divided by:

a. 99 b. 33
Solution:
Difference = 684 – 486 = 198
a. Dividing the difference 198 by 99, quotient = 2, remainder = 0
b. Difference = 198 = 2 × 99 = 2 × 3 × 33
Dividing by 33, quotient = 6, remainder = 0

Let's Exercise
Exercise 5.1
1. Write the following number in generalised form.
a. 62 b. 75 c. 385 d. 405
2. Write the number corresponding to the following expanded forms.
a. 300 + 20 + 3 b. 900 + 40 + 5 c. 300 + 40 + 6 d. 700 + 10 + 6
3. Without actual calculations, find the quotient when the difference between 28 and 82 is divided by
the following numbers.
a. 3 b. 6 c. 9 d. 18
4. Without actual division, find the quotient when the sum of 81 and the number obtained by reversing
the digits is divided by the following
a. 11 b. Sum of the digits
5. Without actual division, find the quotient when the difference of 27 and the number obtained by
reversing the digits is divided by the following
a. 9 b. Difference of the digits
6. Without actual division, find the quotient when the difference of 582 and 285 is divided by by the
following numbers.

a. 99 b. 33

7. Without actual calculations, find the quotient when the difference between 925 and 529 is divided
by the following numbers.
a. 11 b. 9 c. 33 d. 99

69
 8. Without actual calculations, find the quotient when the sum of 628, 286 and 862 is divided by the
following numbers.
a. 16 b. 37 c. 111 d. 3

Letters for Digits

Here, we will solve mathematical puzzles in which letters or symbols are used in arithmetic sum or
multiplication. We have to find the digits represented by the letters or symbols.
The following rules are followed while solving such problems:
1. Each letter in the given puzzle can represent only one digit. Each digit can be represented using a
single letter.
2. The first digit of a number cannot be 0.
Thus, the number ninety one can be written as 91 and not 091.
Find the values for the letters Z in Find the values for the letters A and
Example 1 Example 2
the following addition problem. B in the following addition problem.
3 6 Z 3 1 A
+2 Z 9 +5 B 2
6 5 7 8 A6

Solution: Solution:
In the given addition we have: A + 2 = 6 ⇒ A = 6 – 2 = 4, So the addition becomes,
Z + 9 = 7, thus, we get a number in which the ones 3 1 4
digit is 7. This is possible only when Z = 8 +5 B 2
Replacing Z with 8 we have, 8 4 6

1 1 1 + B = A ⇒ 1 + B = 4 ⇒ B = 4 –1 ⇒ B = 3
3 6 8 ∴ A = 4, B = 3
+2 8 9 Checking the sum: 3 1 4
6 5 7 +5 3 2
8 4 6
Thus, the value of Z is 8

Example 3 Find the values for the letters in the following multiplication problems.

a. BA b. q356
× BA ×p
44A 5 p2 p
Solution:
a. If A = 1 then,
B1
× B1
441
If B = 1, then we have 11 × 11 = 221, but the product should be 441
If B = 2, then we have 21 × 21 = 441
Hence, A = 1, B = 2

70
b. In the given multiplication, we have 6 × p = p.

We know, 6 × 2 = 12, 6 × 4 = 24, 6 × 6 = 36, 6 × 8 = 48. Thus, p can have values 2, 4, 6 or 8. Let
us execute each possibility

If p = 2 the multiplication If p = 4 the multiplication If p = 6 the multiplication If p = 8 the multiplication

becomes, becomes, becomes, becomes,
1 1 2 2 3 4
q3 5 6 q356 q3 5 6 q3 5 6
× 2 × 4 × 6 × 8
5p 2 2 5424 5p 2 6 5p 2 8
1 3 4

Then 2 × 5 + 1 = 11, so Then 4 × 5 + 2 = 22, so Then 6 × 5 + 3 = 33, so Then 8 × 5 + 4 = 44, so

the second digit from the second digit from the second digit from the second digit from
the right should be 1. the right should be 2. the right should be 3. the right should be 4.

∴p≠2 ∴p=4 ∴p≠6 ∴p≠8

1 2 2
Hence, p = 4 and the multiplication becomes, q356
Now, 4 × q + 1 = 5 ⇒ 4 × q = 4 ⇒ q = 1 × 4
5424
∴ p = 4 and q = 1

Puzzles
Observe the numbers written in the square alongside. 2 7 6
The sum of numbers in any row is 15 (∴ 2 + 7 + 6 = 15, 9 + 5 + 1 = 15, 4 + 3 + 8 = 15). 9 5 1
4 3 8
The sum of numbers in any column is 15 (∴ 2 + 9 + 4 = 15, 7 + 5 + 3 = 15, 6 + 1 + 8 = 15).

Also, the sum of numbers on both diagonals is 15 (∴ 2 + 5 + 8 = 15, 4 + 5 + 6 = 15).

Complete the magic square using digits 1 to 9 only once so that the sum of
Example 4
all numbers along each row, column and diagonal is 15.
3 5
Solution: A 8
First complete the diagonal 8 + 5 + A = 15 ⇒ A = 2 3 5 B
8
Second row: 3 + 5 + B = 15 ⇒ B = 7
4 9 2
Now complete the whole square.
3 5 7
Magic triangle: 8 1 6

A magic triangle is one in which the sum of all numbers on a side of the triangle is same for all the sides.
Fill in the numbers from 1 to 6 (without repetition) so that each side
Example 5
of the magic triangle adds up to 12.
Solution:
We are required to fill up the triangular puzzle with numbers 1 to 6.

71
 4

Place the largest numbers at the corners.

5 6

4
Now, 4 + 5 = 9, 4 + 6 = 10 and 5 + 6 = 11
Hence, if we place 3 between 4 and 5, 2 between 4 and 6, and 1 between 5 3 2
and 6 we will get the desired magic triangle.
5 1 6

3
There are many solutions to the above puzzle.
We can also have a solution as shown. Here, we started by placing the 4 5
largest numbers in the centre and then the smaller numbers in the corners.
2 6 1

Exercise 5.2
1. Find the values for the letters used in the following operations.
a. AB b. AB c. 6 8 8 8 d. A2 B 4 e. 4 2 2 A f. AB 3 4
+ 2 4 × B + 1 2 B 4 + 1 4 6 B × A × A
4 A 1 AB 8 1 AA 8 6 9 A B 2 6 6 9 B 6 1 7 0

2. Fill in the numbers from 1 to 9 (without repetition) so that each side of the
magic triangle adds up to 17.

3. Fill in the magic square using digits 5-13 so that the sum along each row,
column and diagonal is 27.

Tests of Divisibility
We know when a given number is said to be divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9 and 10. Let us understand the
divisibility tests using generalized form of three-digit numbers.
Divisibility by 10: A number is divisible by 10 if the digit in the units place is 0.
Consider a three digit number in its general form abc = 100a + 10b + c, where c is in the ones place, b in
the tens place and a in the hundreds place.
The hundreds and the tens place in the number 100a + 10b + c are divisible by 10. So, the number
100a + 10b + c will be divisible by 10 if c is also divisible by 10, that is, if c = 0.
Thus, a number is divisible by 10, if the digit at its units place is 0.
For example, the number 120 is divisible by 10 whereas the number 123 is not divisible by 10.

72
Divisibility by 5: A number is divisible by 5 if the digit in the units place is 0 or 5.
Consider a three digit number in its general form, abc = 100a + 10b + c, where c is in the ones place,
b in the tens place and a in the hundreds place.
The hundreds and the tens place in the number 100c + 10b + a are divisible by 5, hence, the number
100c + 10b + a will be divisible by 5 if c is also divisible by 5,that is, if c = 0 or c = 5.
Thus, a number is divisible by 5, if the digit at its ones place is 0 or 5.
For example, the number 120 is divisible by 5; the number 125 is divisible by 5 whereas the number
258 is not divisible by 5.
Divisibility by 2: A number is divisible by 2 if the digit in the units place is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
Consider a three digit number in its general form abc = 100a + 10b + c, where c is in the ones place, b in
the tens place and a in the hundreds place.
The hundreds and the tens place in the number 100a + 10b + c are divisible by 2. So, the number
100a + 10b + c is divisible by 2 if c is also divisible by 2, that is, if c = 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
Thus, a number is divisible by 2, if the digit in the units place is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
For example, the number 358 is divisible by 2; the number 124 is divisible by 2 whereas the number
183 is not divisible by 2.
Divisibility by 9: A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Consider a three digit number in its general form.
abc = 100a + 10b + c
= ( 99a + a ) + ( 9b + b ) + c
= 99a + 9b + ( a + b + c )
= 9(11a + b ) + ( a + b + c )
The first two terms in the number, that is 9(11a + b) are divisible by 9. So, the number will be divisible by
9, if the last term (a + b + c) is also divisible by 9. That is, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Thus, a number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
For example,
i. The sum of digits of 126 is 1 + 2 + 6 = 9, which is divisible by 9. So, the number 126 is divisible by 9.
ii. The sum of digits of 124 is 1 + 2 + 4 = 7, which is not divisible by 9. So, the number 124 is not
divisible by 9.
Divisibility by 3: A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Consider a three digit number in its general form.
abc = 100a + 10b + c
= ( 99a + a ) + ( 9b + b ) + c
= 99a + 9b + ( a + b + c )
= 9(11a + b ) + ( a + b + c )

73
 The first two terms in the number, that is, 9(11a + b) are divisible by 3. So, the number will be divisible
by 3 if the last term (a + b + c) is also divisible by 3. That is, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Thus, a three digit number (abc = 100a + 10b + c) is divisible by 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
For example,
i. The sum of digits of 327 is 3 + 2 + 7 = 12, which is divisible by 3. So, the number 327 is divisible
by 3.
ii. The sum of digits of 214 is 2 + 1 + 4 = 7, which is not divisible by 3. So, the number 214 is not
divisible by 3.

Example 1 Check if 5890 is divisible by the following numbers.

a. 10 b. 3
Solution:
a. To check divisibility by 10:
The ones digit of the number 5890 is 0, hence it will be divisible by 10
Verification: 5890 ÷ 10 = 589 (quotient); remainder = 0
Since, remainder is 0, hence 5890 is divisible by 10.
b. To check divisibility by 3:
The sum of the digits of 5890 is 5 + 8 + 9 + 0 = 22, since 22 is not divisible by 3, hence 5890 is not
divisible by 3.

Example 2 Check if the number 3160 is divisible by the following numbers.

a. 2 b. 9 c. 5
Solution:
a. To check divisibility by 2:
We know that a number is divisible by 2 if the digit at its units place is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
The last digit of the number 3160 is 0. So, the number is divisible by 2.
Verification:
3160 ÷ 2 = 1580 (quotient); remainder = 0
Since, remainder is 0, hence 3160 is divisible by 2.
b. To check divisibility by 9:
We know that a number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
The sum of the digits of 3160 is 3 + 1 + 6 + 0 = 10. Since 10 is not divisible by 9, hence 3160 is not
divisible by 9.
c. To check divisibility by 5:
We know that a number is divisible by 5 if the digit at its units place is 0 or 5.
The last digit of the number 3160 is 0. So, the number is divisible by 5.

74
 In the number 3*257, replace the * by a number such that the number so formed is
Example 3
divisible by 9.
Solution:
To make ,3*257 divisible by 9, the sum of its digits should be divisible by 9.
∴ 3 + * + 2 + 5 + 7 = 17 + *
This is possible only when 17 + * = 18 since 18 is divisible by 9
Hence * = 1
The number so formed is 31257.
In the number 48*25 replace the * by a number such that the number so formed is
Example 4
divisible by 3?
Solution:
To make, 48*25 divisible by 3, the sum of its digits should be divisible by 3.
∴ 4 + 8 + * + 2 + 5 = 19 + *
This is possible only when 19 + * = 21, since 21 is divisible by 3
Hence, * = 2
The number so formed is 48225.

Example 5 If 23a12a is a multiple of 3, find all possible values of a.

Solution:
We know that a number is divisible by 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
The sum of the digits of the number 23a12a is 2 + 3 + a + 1 + 2 + a = 8 + 2a.
Since 23a12a is divisible by 3, 8 + 2a is also divisible by 3.
a = 0 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 0 = 8
a = 1 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 1 = 10
a = 2 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 2 = 12
a = 3 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 3 = 14

…

a = 5 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 5 = 18
a = 8 ⇒ 8 + 2a = 8 + 2 × 8 = 24
From the above numbers, 12, 18, 24 are divisible by 3 corresponding to the values 2, 5 and 8 of a.
Thus, the number 23a12a is divisible by 3 for a = 2, 5 or 8.

Example 6 Find numbers of the form 562ab which are divisible by 9 and 5.

Solution:
We know that a number is divisible by 5, if the digit at its units place is 0 or 5.
∴b = 0 or 5

75
 Also, a number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
The sum of the digits of the number 562ab is 5 + 6 + 2 + a + b = 13 + a + b.
If b = 0 ⇒ 13 + a + b = 13 + a
Then 13 + a divisible by 9 ⇒ 13 + a = 18 ⇒ a = 5
If b = 5 ⇒ 13 + a + 5 = 18 + a
Then 18 + a divisible by 9 ⇒ a = 0 or a = 9
Thus, 56250, 56205 and 56295 are the numbers which are divisible by 5 and 9.

Exercise 5.3
1. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 2?
a. 6745 b. 7654 c. 9033 d. 2080
2. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 3?
a. 1234 b. 6369 c. 1251 d. 2001
3. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 5?
a. 1375 b. 9866 c. 5490 d. 2345
4. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 10?
a. 1230 b. 3709 c. 4105 d. 4150
5. Which of the following numbers are divisible by 9?
a. 2136 b. 82215 c. 78123 d. 93726
6. In the number 7*8612, replace the * by a number such that the number so formed is divisible by 9?

7. In the number 4036*, replace the * by a number such that the number so formed is divisible by 3?

8. Find the value of the digit a in the number 1235a such that the number is a multiple of 3.

9. Find the value of the digit p in the number 25p1 such that the number is a multiple of 9.

10. Find the value of the digit b in the number 3b14 such that the number is a multiple of 3.

Recollections
ŠŠ A two digit number ab with the digit a in its tens place and digit b in its units place can be written in
the general form as ab = 10a + b
ŠŠ Any three digit number abc can be written as: abc = 100a + 10b + c = a × 102 + b × 101 + c × 100
ŠŠ In puzzles of finding the values of letters certain rules are followed.
• A particular letter can represent only one digit and a digit can be represented using a single
letter. Also, any number cannot start with 0.
ŠŠ For a 2-digit number ab the following is always true:

• If a > b, the sum the number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is divisible by 11
and the quotient is the sum of its digits (a + b) and also divisible by the sum of its digits, (a + b),
and the quotient is 11.

76
 • if a < b, the difference of the number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is divisible
by 3 and 9 and and the quotient is 3(b – a) and (b – a) respectively and also divisible by the
difference of the digits (b – a) and the quotient is 9.
• When a = b, the sum or the difference of the number is 0. if ab = ba then ab – ba = 0
ŠŠ For a 3-digit number abc, abc the following is always true:
• If a > c, the difference the number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is always
divisible by 99 and the quotient is (a – c) and also divisible by (a – c) and the quotient is 99.
• If c > a, the difference between the number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is
always divisible by 99 and the quotient is (c – a) and also divisible by (c – a) and the quotient
is 99.
• When a = c the difference is 0, hence abc – cba = 0
ŠŠ Tests of divisibility
• A number is divisible by 2 if the last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
• A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3.
• A number is divisible by 5 if the last digit is 5 or 0.
• A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
• A number is divisible by 10 if the last digit is 0.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. If the sum of two-digit number ab and the number obtained by reversing the digits is divided
by (a + b), then the quotient is:
i. 9 ii. 12 iii. 10 iv. 11
b. Which of the following is divisible by 2?
i. 11015 ii. 25812 iii. 43125 iv. 234789
c. Which of the following is divisible by 3?
i. 1251 ii. 8756 iii. 21358 iv. 14023
d. If 45*67 is divisible by 9, then the value of * will be
i. 2 ii. 5 iii. 1 iv. 3
2. Complete the following table using the letters Y or N.

Divisible by numbers 2 3 5 9 10
16384 Y N
10215
14520
23112

(Note: Y indicates the number 16384 is divisible by 2 and N indicates the number 16384 is not
divisible by 3.)

77
 3. Without actual calculations find the quotient when the sum of 76 and 67 is divided by 11.
AB6
4. Find the values of A and B such that
× B
3A80
Review Exercise
1. Write the following number in generalised form.
a. 70707 b. 2307 c. 5678 d. 123

2. Write the number corresponding to the following expanded forms.

a. 4000 + 500 + 70 + 3 b. 2000 + 300 + 5 c. 1000 + 80 + 6 d. 20000 + 20 + 2

3. In the following pairs of numbers, check whether the first number in the pair is divisible by the
second number.
a. 6747, 3 b. 7654, 2 c. 9033, 9 d. 3080, 10

4. From the following numbers, find the numbers which are divisible by the numbers 3 and 5
a. 3400 b. 1728 c. 7110 d. 8640

5. Find the quotient when the sum of 49 and 94 is divided by 13.

6. Find the quotient when the difference between 83 and 38 is divided by 9.

7. Find the quotient when the difference between 871 and 178 is divided by 7.

8. Find the quotient when the difference between 523 and 325 is divided by 99.

9. Find the quotient when the sum of 356, 563 and 635 is divided by 37.

10. Find the values of b such that the number 87b31 is a multiple of 3.

11. Find the values of A such that the number 425325a is a multiple of 9.

12. Find the values of A and B in each of the following.

a. A 08 b. 7B 5 c. A9 d. 422A
+ 1A + 4A A × 8 × A
AA0 12 5 3 A3A B2669
6
13. Complete the magic square using numbers 1 to 9 so that the sum of each side and
5
the diagonals is 15.
2
5

14. Fill in the triangle with numbers 1 to 9, so the sum of each side is 20
20
1 9
Weblinks
https://www.learn-with-math-games.com/math-number-tricks.html
https://www.nctm.org/mathforum/
As on 09.05.2019

78
 6. Algebraic Expressions and Identities

You know
ŠŠ to write the terms, coefficients and factors of an algebraic expression
ŠŠ to classify an algebraic expression as monomial, binomial, trinomial
ŠŠ to identify like terms
ŠŠ to add and subtract algebraic expressions

You will learn

ŠŠ the difference between an identity and an equation
ŠŠ algebraic identities and their applications
ŠŠ multiplication and division of given polynomials

Let us recall the basic definitions of algebra.

Constants and variables: A quantity having a fixed numerical value is called a constant whereas
variables are x, y, z or any other letter used to represent unknown numbers.
Algebraic expression: An expression which has a combination of constants and variables connected
to each other by one or more operations (+, –, ×, ÷) is called an algebraic expression.
For example, 5a3, 2p + 7,3a2 – 2b2 + 4c are all algebraic expressions.
Term: The parts of an algebraic expression separated by an addition or a subtraction sign are called
terms of the expression. In the expression, 5x3 + 3x – 4 the terms of the expression are 5x3, 3x and (–4).
5x3 and 3x are variable terms as their values will change with the value of x, while (–4) is a constant
term.
On the basis of the number of terms in an algebraic expression, they are classified as monomials,
binomials, trinomials and polynomials.
2
Monomials are algebraic expressions having one term, for example, 3x, 5y, – p, 4x2
5
Binomials are algebraic expressions having two terms, for example, 2x + y, 6p + 8p2, 4x2y – 2xz
Trinomials are algebraic expressions having three terms, for example, 3x + 5y – z, 3x2 – 5xy + 2xz
Polynomials are algebraic expressions having one or more than one term.

Only expressions with positive powers of variables are called polynomials. An expression of the
2 2
type 6x2 + – 1 is not a polynomial as = 2x–1 and the power of variable x is –1, which not a
x x
whole number.

Example 1 Classify the algebraic expressions as monomials, binomials or trinomials.

a. 3x5 + 4 b. 5p3q3r c. 4x + 5y + 8 d. 5a2 e. 7a + 8b

Solution:
a. binomial b. monomial c. trinomial d. monomial e. binomial

79
 Like and Unlike Terms
Terms having the same algebraic factors are called like terms, the numerical coefficients of the terms
may be different. For example,
i. 2x, 5x, 8x and –6x are like terms. ii. 3p3q2, 7p3q2 and 9p3q2 are also like terms.

Terms having different algebraic factors are called unlike terms. For example,
i. –5x and –8xy are unlike terms. ii. 3x2yz and 3p3q2 are unlike terms.

Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Expressions

In algebra, like terms can be added or subtracted.
To add or subtract algebraic expressions we can use the horizontal method or the column method.
Addition of Algebraic Expressions

Example 2 Add the following.

8p2q2, 7p2q2 and –4p2q2

Solution:
8p2q2 + 7p2q2 + (–4p2q2)
= �8 + 7 + (–4)� p2q2 = 11p2q2

Example 3 Add the following algebraic expressions.

a. 2x2 + 5 and 9x2 + 8 b. –12x2 + 5x – 8 and 3x2 – 5

Solution:
Horizontal method: Column method:
All algebraic expressions are written in a horizontal In the column method, each expression is written
line and the like terms are then grouped. The sum in a separate row in such a way that the like terms
or difference of the numerical coefficients is then are arranged one below the other in a column. The
found. sum or difference of the numerical coefficients is
then found.
a. (2x2 + 5) + (9x2 + 8) a. 2 x2 + 5
= 2x2 + 9x2 + 5 + 8 + 9 x2 + 8
= 11x2 + 13 11x 2 + 13
b. (–12x2 + 5x – 8) + (3x2 – 5) b. − 12 x 2 + 5 x − 8
= –12x2 + 3x2 + 5x – 8 – 5 + 3 x2 −5
2
= –9x2 + 5x – 13 − 9 x + 5 x − 13

Example 4 Add: 5x2y + 6y2x + 10xy – 3, (–4x2y) + 3y2x – 5xy + 7 and x2y + 2y2x + 3xy + 6

Solution:
Horizontal method:
= [5x2y + (–4x2y) + x2y] + [6y2x + 3y2x + 2y2x] + [10xy + (–5xy) + 3xy] + [(–3) + 7 + 6]

80
= (5 – 4 + 1)x2y + (6 + 3 + 2)y2x + (10 – 5 + 3)xy + (–3 + 7 + 6)
= 2x2y + 11y2x + 8xy + 10
Column method:

5x2y + 6y2x + 10xy – 3

–4x2y + 3y2x – 5xy + 7
x2y + 2y2x + 3xy + 6
2x2y + 11y2x + 8xy + 10

Subtraction of Algebraic Expressions

We know that the subtraction of two algebraic expressions or terms is addition of the additive inverse
of the second term to the first term. Since the additive inverse of a term has opposite sign of the term,
hence we can say that in subtraction of algebraic expressions, change (+) to (–) and change (–) to (+)
for the term to be subtracted and then add the terms.

Example 5 Subtract 9a3b2c from –4a3b2c

Solution:

(–4a3b2c) – (9a3b2c) = (–4 – 9)a3b2c = –13a3b2c

Example 6 Subtract the following.

a. 5y2 – 4 from –6y2 + 1 b. 2x2 + 3x – 1 from –9x2 – 4x + 6

Solution:
Horizontal method: Column method:

All algebraic expressions are written in a horizontal In the column method, each expression is written
line and the like terms are then grouped. The sum in a separate row in such a way that the like terms
or difference of the numerical coefficients is then are arranged one below the other in a column. The
found. sum or difference of the numerical coefficients is
then found.

a. (–6y2 + 1) – (5y2 – 4) a. − 6 y2 + 1
= –6y2 + 1 – 5y2 + 4 5 y2 − 4
(–) ( + )
= –6y2 – 5y2 + 1 + 4
−11y 2 + 5
= –11y + 5
2

b. (–9x2 – 4x + 6) – (2x2 + 3x – 1) b. − 9 x2 − 4 x + 6
= –9x2 – 4x + 6 – 2x2 – 3x + 1 2 x2 + 3 x − 1

= –9x2 – 2x2 – 4x – 3x + 6 + 1
(−) (−) ( +)
− 11x 2 − 7 x + 7
= –11x2 – 7x + 7

81
 Example 7 Subtract 4xy + 6x + 5y – 10 from 5xy – 9x + 8y – 7.

Horizontal method: Column method:

(5xy – 9x + 8y – 7) – (4xy + 6x + 5y – 10) 5xy − 9 x + 8 y − 7
4 xy + 6 x + 5 y − 10
= 5xy – 9x + 8y – 7 – 4xy – 6x – 5y + 10
( −) ( −) ( −) ( + )
= 5xy – 4xy – 9x – 6x + 8y – 5y – 7 + 10
xy − 15 x + 3 y + 3
= xy – 15x + 3y + 3

Example 8 What should be added to 16p3 – 5p2 + 5 to get –7p3 + 6p2 – 7?

Solution:
To get (–7p3 + 6p2 – 7) we will subtract the expression (16p3 – 5p2 + 5) from (–7p3 + 6p2 – 7)
Arranging in columns we have

–7p3 + 6p2 – 7
16p3 – 5p2 + 5
(–) (+) (–) (changing signs of all the terms to be subtracted)
–23p3 + 11p2 – 12

Thus, –23p3 + 11p2 – 12 should be added to 16p3 – 5p2 + 5 to get –7p3 + 6p2 – 7.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 6.1
1. Classify the algebraic expressions as monomials, binomials or trinomials. Also write the terms of the
expression.
7 8
a. 5x3 + 4x2 – 6 b. 5p3 + 6p2q c. 4x2y2z d. 5a2 + 6a + 9 e. abc + bc
9 13
2. Add the following algebraic expressions.

a. 3xy, 5xy, –8xy and 2xy b. x2y + 5x + 4, 5x2y – 8x

1 3 2 3 2
c. x y + 5xy, x3y2 – 2xy and x3y2 + 7xy
3 7 3
d. 9x2 – xy + 6y2, – 4x2 + 7xy – 4y2 and 2x2 + 5xy + 5y2

3. Add the following.

a. xy + yz, yz + xz, xz + xy b. a + b – ab, b + c – bc, c + a – ac

c. 3x2y – 5xy2 – 6, 4x2y – 6xy2 –1, 2x2y – 3xy2 –1, x2y + 5xy2 + 8

d. 2a + 5b – 8c + abc, 3a + 3b – 2c –7abc, a – 2b – 4c – 6abc

82
4. Add the following algebraic expressions.
a. b. c. d.
7p2 + 5p 8x + 5y – 6 4x3y2 + 3x2y – 2x – 7 5a2b – 3ab2 + 7b3
+ 9p2 – 4p + 5x – 7y + 7 5x3y2 – 8x2y + 7x + 9 8a2b + 5ab2 – 2b3
–6x3y2 – 2x2y – 4x + 5 –6a2b + 6ab2 + 5b3

5. Subtract the following expressions.

a. 5pqr from 7pqr b. 2a2bc + 5ab – 7 from –3a2bc + 3ab + 4
c. 5a3 – 8a2 – 4a from 7a3 + 4a2 – 12a d. 4x – 7xy + 6y – 8 from 13x – 5xy – 8y + 1
6. Two adjacent sides of a rectangle are 3a2 – 5b2 and 2a2 + 9b2. What will be the perimeter of the
rectangle?
7. The perimeter of a triangle is 6x2 + 8x and the measure of two sides is –5 – 3x + 5x2 and
9 + 3x + 12x2. What will be the measure of the third side?
8. What should be added to 6a2 – 5b2 to get 4a2 – 3ab + 3b2?
9. What should be subtracted from 19a3 + 6a2b2 to get 4a3 – 2a2b2 – 5?
10. Subtract 2a2b – 3ab + 4ab2 – 5a + 6b – 4 from 7 – 3b + 5a – 2ab2 + 7ab – 5a2b

Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions

When two numbers/expressions are multiplied then the first number/expression is called the multiplicand
and second number/expression is called the multiplier. For example, in the numerical expression
2 × 3, 2 is the multiplicand and 3 is the multiplier. Similarly in the expression, (a + 2) (a + 3), (a + 2) is
the multiplicand and (a + 3) is the multiplier.
Multiplication of a Monomial by Another Monomial
To multiply 2 monomials:
Step 1: Multiply the numerical coefficients.
Step 2: Multiply the literal coefficients and use laws of exponents if the variables are same.
The product of two monomials is always a monomial.
Find the product of each of the following.
Example 1
a. 5p and 4q b. 2a, 6b and 5c c. 4p3 and 3p4 d. a3b3 and a4b2
Solution:
a. 5p × 4q = (5 × 4) × (p × q) = 20pq b. 2a × 6b × 5c = (2 × 6 × 5) × (a × b × c) = 60abc
c. 4p × 3p = (4 × 3) × (p ) = 12p
3 4 3+4 7
d. a3b3 × a4b2 = (a3+4) × (b3+2) = a7b5
Geometrical interpretation of product of two monomials 4p
A B
The area of a rectangle is given by the product of length and breadth. If we
consider the length as l and breadth as b, then 3p
Area of rectangle = l × b
D C
Thus, it can be said that the area of a rectangle is product of two monomials.
Let us consider a rectangle of length 4p and breadth 3p,
Area of rectangle ABCD = AB × AD = 4p × 3p = 12p2

83
 Multiplication of a Monomial by a Binomial
To multiply a monomial by a binomial, we use the distributive law.
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Step 1: Multiply the first term of the binomial with the monomial.
Step 2: Multiply the second term of the binomial with the monomial.
The result is the sum of the two terms. The product of a monomial and a binomial is always a binomial.

Geometrical interpretation of product of a monomial and a binomial

Area of rectangle = l × b D Q C

Let us draw a rectangle ABCD with length (p + q) and breadth k.

k
Take a point R on AB such that AR = p and RB = q.
Draw a line parallel to AD from the point R. Thus, RQ meets DC at Q. A p R q B

Area of rectangle ABCD = Area of rectangle ARQD + Area of rectangle RBCQ

=k×p+k×q
= k(p + q)
Thus, the product k(p + q) represents the area of a rectangle with length as a binomial (p + q) and
breadth as a monomial k.

Example 2 Find the following products.

3 5
e. 3(a + 4) f. 4a2(5a3 – 7a) g. pq�25pq + p2q�
5 6
Solution:
a. 3(a + 4) = 3a + 12
b. 4a2(5a3 – 7a) = (4a2 × 5a3) – (4a2 × 7a) = (4 × 5) × (a2+3) – (4 × 7) × (a2+1) = 20a5 – 28a3
3 5 3 3 5
c. pq�25pq + p2q� = � pq × 25pq� + � pq × p2q�
5 6 5 5 6
1
= 15p2q2 + p3q2
2
Multiplication of a Monomial by a Polynomial
To multiply a monomial with a polynomial, we can extend the distributive law further.
a(b + c + d + e) = (a × b) + (a × c) + (a × d) + (a × e)

The product of a monomial and a polynomial is a polynomial.

Example 3 Find the product of 4a2 and (3a3 – 4a2 – 5a + 9)

Solution:
4a2(3a3 – 4a2 – 5a + 9) = (4a2 × 3a3) – (4a2 × 4a2) – (4a2 × 5a) + (4a2 × 9)
= 12a5 – 16a4 – 20a3 + 36a2

84
In all the above examples, we have multiplied the terms using the horizontal method. Multiplication can
also be done by arranging the terms vertically as shown below.
To multiply 4a2(3a3 – 4a2 – 5a + 9), vertically arrange the multiplicand and multiplier as shown below
and multiply.

3a3 – 4a2 – 5a + 9

× 4a2

12a5 – 16a4 – 20a3 + 36a2

Geometrical interpretation of product of a monomial and a polynomial

Let us consider a rectangle with length = (p + q + r) and breadth = k D X Y C

Take points M and N on AB such that AM = p and MN = q and NB = r.

rk
From the points M and N draw lines parallel to AD, MX  AD and k pk qk
NY  AD meeting DC at X and Y respectively.
A p M q N r B
Area of rectangle ABCD = area of rectangle AMXD + area of rectangle
MNYX + area of rectangle NBCY

Area of rectangle ABCD pk + qk + rk = k(p + q + r)

Thus, the product of a monomial and a polynomial represents the area of a rectangle with polynomial
as length and monomial as breadth.

Example 4 Simplify 4p(2p2q + 3pq2 – 4) + 5p(5p2q – 2pq2 + 6)

Solution:

4p(2p2q + 3pq2 – 4) + 5p(5p2q – 2pq2 + 6)

= (4p × 2p2q) + (4p × 3pq2) – (4p × 4) + (5p × 5p2q) – (5p × 2pq2) + (5p × 6)

= 8p3q + 12p2q2 – 16p + 25p3q – 10p2q2 + 30p

= (8p3q + 25p3q) + (12p2q2 – 10p2q2) – (16p – 30p) (grouping like terms)

= 33p3q + 2p2q2 + 14p

Multiplication of Polynomial by a Polynomial

A polynomial is an algebraic expression having 1 or more than one term. To multiply two polynomials,
we will use the distributive property that is multiply each term of the first polynomial with each term of
the second polynomial.

Multiplication of Binomials

To multiply two binomials, we will use the distributive property that is multiply each term of the first
binomial with each term of the second binomial.

(a + b) (c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = (ac + ad) + (bc + bd) = ac + ad + bc + bd

85
 Example 5 Multiply (3a + 4b) (2a + 5b)

Solution:

(3a + 4b) (2a + 5b) = 3a(2a + 5b) + 4b(2a + 5b) = (3a × 2a) + (3a × 5b) + (4b × 2a) + (4b × 5b)

= 6a2 + 15ab + 8ab + 20b2

= 6a2 + (15ab + 8ab) + 20b2 (grouping like terms)

= 6a2 + 23ab + 20b2

In all the above examples, we have multiplied the terms using the horizontal method. Multiplication can
also be done by arranging the terms vertically as shown below.

3a + 4b

× 2a + 5b

6a2 + 8ab (multiply (3a + 4b) by 2a)

15ab + 20b2 (multiply (3a + 4b) by 5b)

6a2 + 23ab + 20b2 (adding like terms)

Multiplication of a binomial by a Trinomial

Example 6 Multiply (2a + 9) by (3a2 + 5a – 9)

Solution:
Horizontal method: Column method:

(2a + 9) by (3a2 + 5a – 9) 3a 2 + 5a − 9

= 2a(3a2 + 5a – 9) + 9(3a2 + 5a – 9) 2a + 9

= 6a3 + 10a2 – 18a + 27a2 + 45a – 81 6a 3 + 10a 2 − 18a (Multiplying by 2a )

= 6a3 + 10a2 + 27a2 – 18a + 45a – 81 27a 2 + 45a − 81 (Multiplying by 9)

= 6a3 + 37a2 + 27a – 81 6a 3 + 37a 2 + 27a − 81 (Adding like terms)

Multiplication of a trinomial by a trinomial

Example 7 Multiply (2x2 – 5x + 3)(x2 – 5x + 2)

Solution:
2 x2 − 5 x + 3
× x2 − 5 x + 2
2 x 4 − 5 x3 + 3 x2
− 10 x 3 + 25 x 2 − 15 x
4 x 2 − 10 x + 6
2 x 4 − 15 x 3 + 32 x 2 − 25 x + 6

86
Example 8 Multiply (5a – 2b + 1) (4a + 8b – 1)

Solution:
 5a  2b  1  4a  8b  1
 5a  4a  8b  1  2b  4a  8b  1  1 4a  8b  1

 20a 2  40ab  5a  8ab  16b 2  2b  4a  8b  1

 20a 2   40ab  8ab    5a  4a   16b2   2b  8b   1  grouping like terms 

 20a 2  32ab  a  16b 2  10b  1

Exercise 6.2
1. Multiply the following monomials.
a. 2a and 9b b. 9xy and 3xy c. 2p4 and 3p6 d. 3a22 and 5a26

2. Find the following products and evaluate for x = 1, y = –1 and z = 2.

a. 4xy, 5yz, 9xz b. 2x, 3y, 4z, –5xyz
–4 2 3 1 –3
c. � x y �, (3xy) and (–4x2y� d. (–4) � xy�, � x�
5 2 4
3. Find the following products.
a. 3a(2a + 9) b. (–5) (3mn – 7) c. p2q2 (2pq2 – 4q) d. –y(y4 – 5y3)

4. Find the following products.

a. (2a + 3b) (3a + 2b) b. (x + 2)(x – 5) c. (2p2 – 3r2) (p2 + 4r2) d. (3x + 2) (3x – 2)

5. Find the area of the rectangle with the given measurements

a. Length = 3p, breadth = 4p b. Length = (2a + 4), breadth = 5a

6. Find the volume of the following rectangular boxes with the given measurements.
a. length = 5x, breadth = 6x and height = 2x b. length = 2aq, breadth = 8pq and height = 3ap

7. Find the following products by horizontal method.

a. 3a(2a + 5) b. (–5) (3mn – 7) c. p2q2 (2pq2 – 4q)
d. –y(y4 – 5y3) e. 3x(5x2 + 6x – 4) f. (–4a)(2a2 + 5a – 8)

8. Find the product of the following.

a. (2a + 3b + 4c) (5a – 5b + 6c) b. (6p – 5q + 5r)(–2p –7q + 8r)
c. (3 – 8y + 6y2)(4 – 7y – 2y2) d. (2x2 + xy – 1)(x2 – 4xy – 3)

9. Simplify the following expressions.

1 
a. a (b + c) − b(a − c) ( 2
) 2
b. 3 2 x + 3 + 4(3 x − 5) c.  x − y  ( x + y ) + ( x − y) ( x + y )
2 
d. ( 3 x − 1)( −2 x ) + 6 ( 3 x − 1) (
2
)
e. 3 x 2 x + 6 x + 5 − 4 x ( − x + 7 )
2

f. ( 2 p + 5 )( −3 p + 1) + 6 g. 3 p ( p + q + r ) − 6q ( 2 p − 8q + 3r ) + 2r ( 4 p + q − 2r )

87
 10. Multiply (5x – 2) and (2x + 4).

11. Simplify x2(a – x) + x2 (a + x)

12. If the length of a rectangle is (a2 + b2 + c2) and breadth is 3abc, find the area of the rectangle.

13. Simplify 4x(7x2 + 15) and find the value for x = – 1.

14. Add: 9x(x2 + y + z) and –2y(x + y + z)

15. Subtract 6q(2p – 8q + 3r) from the sum of 3p(p + q + r) and 2r(4p + q – 2r)

16. If the length of a rectangle is (a2 + b2 + c2) and breadth is 3abc, find the area of the rectangle.

17. Find the area of a rectangle with length 2x2 + 5xy + 5y2 and breadth x2 – xy + 6y2.

Algebraic Identities
An identity is a special type of equation in which the LHS and the RHS are equal for all values of the
variables.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 is an identity as LHS and RHS are equal for all values of a and b.
Let us check for a = 1 and b = 2
Substituting a = 1 and b = 2 we get,
LHS = (a + b)2 RHS = a2 + 2ab + b2
LHS = (1 + 2)2 = 32 = 9 RHS = 12 + 2 × 1 × 2 + 22 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9
∴LHS = RHS = 9
The above equation is true for all possible values of a and b, hence it is called an identity.
An identity is different from an equation. An equation is not true for all values of variables,; it has a
unique solution.
For example, 2a + 3 = 11 is an equation, as it will hold true only for a = 4 and not for any other value of a.
There are a number of identities which are used in mathematics to make calculations easy. We are
going to study 4 basic identities.

1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 2. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

3. (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 4. (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

Verification of Identities

1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 2. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

Taking LHS Taking LHS
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) (a – b)2 = (a – b)(a – b)
= a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a(a – b) – b(a – b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a2 – ab – ba + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2 = RHS = a2 – 2ab + b2 = RHS

88
3. (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 4. (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Taking LHS Taking LHS
(a + b)(a – b) = a(a – b) + b(a – b) (x + a)(x + b)
= a2 – ab + ba – b2 = x(x + b) + a(x + b)
= a2 – b2 = RHS = x2 + xb + ax + ab (taking x as the common factor from terms xb
and ax)
= x2 + (b + a)x + ab
= x2 + (a + b)x + ab = RHS (b + a = a + b, addition is commutative)
In this identity a and b can be positive or negative

Geometrical verification of identities

S a C R
1. Geometrical demonstration for (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 b
Draw a square with length (a + b) as shown in the figure. A1 A2
Let the area of original square be X.
then, area of square PQRS = (side)2
D B
∴ A = (a + b) ,
2
A3 A4

Mark a point M on PQ such that length of PM = a and length of MQ= b. P M Q

a+b
Draw a line MC parallel to PS intersecting SR at C.
Similarly, mark a point B on RQ such that RB = a and QB = b.
Draw a line BD parallel to QP intersecting PS at D.
The whole square is divided into 2 squares, A1 and A4, and 2 rectangles, A2 and A3.
Area of Square A1 = side2 = a2
Area of rectangle A2 = length × breadth = ab
Area of rectangle A3 = length × breadth = ab
Area of Square A4 = side2 = b2
Area of Square PQRS = area of A1 + area of A2 + area of A3 + area of A4.
(a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ab + b2
⇒ (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
S a–b C R
2. Geometrically demonstration for (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 b

We draw a square with length a as shown in the figure. A1 A2

a–b
Let the area of original square is A
Then, area of square PQRS = (side)2
D B
∴ A = a2 A3 A4 b

Mark a point C on SR such that, P M Q

a
length of SC = a – b and length of CR = b.

89
 Draw a line CM parallel to SP intersecting PQ at M.
Similarly, mark a point B on RQ such that RB = a – b and QB = b.
Draw a line BD parallel to QP intersecting PS at D.
The whole square is divided into 2 squares namely A1 and A4 and 2 rectangles A2 and A3
Area of square A1 = side2 = (a – b)2
Area of rectangle A2 = length × breadth = (a – b)b
Area of rectangle A3 = length × breadth = (a – b)b
Area of square A4 = side2 = b2
Area of square PQRS = sum of inside area = area of A1 + area of A2 + area of A3 + area of A4
a2 = (a – b)2 + b(a – b) + b(a – b) + b2
a2 = (a – b)2 + ab – b2 + ab – b2 + b2
a2 = (a – b)2 + 2ab – b2
⇒ (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

Application of Identities
Use of the identities gives a simple alternative method for solving problems on multiplication of binomial
expressions and multiplication of numbers.
Find the following products using suitable identities.
Example 1
a. (5x + 3y)2 b. (2a – 3b)2
Solution:
a. (5x + 3y)2 b. (2a – 3b)2
Using the identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2, we Using the identity (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2, we
have have
(5x + 3y)2 = (5x)2 + 2 × 5x × 3y + (3y)2 (2a – 3b)2 = (2a)2 – 2 × 2a × 3b + (3b)2
= 25x2 + 30xy + 9y2 = 4a2 – 12ab + 9b2
Find the following products.
Example 2
a. (2x + 5)(2x – 5) b. (a2 + 1)(a2 – 1)
Solution:
a. (2x + 5)(2x – 5) b. (a2 + 1)(a2 – 1)
Using the identity (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2, we Using the identity (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2, we
have have
2
(2x + 5)(2x – 5) = (2x)2 – 52 = 4x2 – 25 (a2 + 1)(a2 – 1) = (a2) – 12 = a4 – 1
Find the following products.
Example 3
a. (p + 1)(p – 2) b. (–2x + 3)(–2x – 5)
Solution:
a. (p + 1)(p – 2)
Using the identity, (x + a)(x – b) = x2 –(b – a)x – ab, we have

90
 (p + 1)(p – 2) = p2 – (2 – 1)p – (1 × 2)
= p2 – p – 2
b. (–2x + 3)(–2x – 5)
Using the identity, (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab, we have
(–2x + 3)(–2x – 5) = (–2x)2 + [3 + (–5)] (–2x) + [3 × (–5)] = 4x2 + 4x – 15
Using identity find
Example 4
5 1 5 1
a. � p + q�� p – q� b. 972 – 32
7 3 7 3
Solution:
5 1 5 1 b. Using identity (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
a. � p + q�� p – q�
7 3 7 3
972 – 32 = (97 + 3) (97 – 3) = 100 × 94 = 9400
Using the identity (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
5 1
Here, a = p, b = q
7 3
5 1 5 1 5 2 1 2
� p + q�� p – q� = � p� – � q�
7 3 7 3 7 3
25 1
= p2 – q2
49 9
Using a suitable identity, evaluate the following.
Example 5
a. 112 b. 992 c. 98 × 102
Solution:

a. 112 = (10 + 1)2

Using the identity, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

112 = (10 + 1)2 = 102 + 2 × 10 × 1 + 12 = 100 + 20 + 1 = 121

b. 992 = (100 – 1)2

Using the identity, (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

992 = (100 – 1)2 = 1002 – 2 × 100 × 1 + 12 = 10000 – 200 + 1 = 9800 + 1 = 9801

c. 98 × 102 = (100 – 2) × (100 + 2)

Using the identity, (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2

98 × 102 = (100 – 2)(100 + 2) = 1002 – 22 = 10000 – 4 = 9996

Example 6 Simplify: (t – 3)2 – (t + 3)2

Solution:
a. (t – 3)2 – (t + 3)2 = (t2 – 2 × t × 3 + 32) – (t2 + 2 × t × 3 + 32)
= t 2 − 6t + 9 − t 2 − 6t − 9

= −12t
This can also be solved by using identity a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)

91
 (t − 3) − ( t + 3 ) , here, a = ( t − 3 ) and b = ( t + 3 )
2 2

(t − 3) − ( t + 3 ) =( t − 3 ) + ( t + 3 )  ( t − 3 ) − ( t + 3 ) 
2 2

= [t − 3 + t + 3][t − 3 − t − 3]

=[2t ][ −6] =−12t

Example 7 Show that (3x + 5y)2 – 60xy = (3x – 5y)2

Solution:
Taking LHS : ( 3 x + 5 y ) − 60 xy
2

(3 x + 5 y )
2
− 60 xy =9 x 2 + 30 xy + 25 y 2 − 60 xy
=9 x 2 − 30 xy + 25 y 2
Taking RHS : ( 3 x − 5 y ) =9 x 2 − 30 xy + 25 y 2
2

= LHS
Since LHS = RHS
hence, ( 3 x + 5 y ) − 60 xy =( 3 x − 5 y )
2 2

Example 8 Show that (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 – 4ab = 0

Solution:

(
Taking LHS : ( a + b ) − ( a − b ) − 4ab = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 − a 2 − 2ab + b 2 − 4ab
2 2
) ( )
=a 2 + 2ab + b 2 − a 2 + 2ab − b 2 − 4ab
= 4ab − 4ab
=0
= RHS
Since LHS = RHS
hence, ( a + b ) − ( a − b ) − 4ab =
2 2
0

Exercise 6.3
1. Find the product of the following using identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2.
2
 2a 
a. (a + 2b) 2
b. (3x + 7y) 2
c. (2pq + 3) 2 d.  + 3
 3 
2. Find the product of the following using identity (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2.
2
c.  3 x 1y 
a. (6x – 5y)2 b. (p2 – 2q2)2  −  d. (4m2 – 3n)2
 5 5
3. Find the product of the following using identity (a+b) (a–b) = a2–b2.
c.  1  1
a. (2x – 7y)(2x + 7y) b. (p2 +q2)(p2 –q2)  x +  x −  d. (4ab – 3)(4ab + 3)
 x  x

92
4. Find the product of the following using identity (x+a) (x+b) = x2 + (a+b)x+ab.
a. (x + 7)(x + 6) b. (a2 + 4)(a2 – 6) c. (mn – 2)(mn – 6) d. (–4x – 7)(–4x + 3)

5. Find the product of the following using identity (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab.

a. 48 × 56 b. 12 × 18 c. 99 × 104 d. 198 × 204

6. Find the product of the following using suitable identity.

a. 101 × 101 b. 2.1 × 1.9 c. 99 × 101
d. 999 × 999 e. (10.5)2 f. 301 × 297

7. Find the following products using identity a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

a. 212 – 192 b. (2.02)2 – (1.98)2 c. 2012 – 1992 d. 15.42 – 4.62

8. Find the following products using identities.

2 5 2 5 2 2
a. � x – y�� x + y� b. �3x – y��3x + y�
3 7 3 7 5 5
9. Show that:
a. (2x + 3y)2 = (2x + 3y)2 + 24xy b. (4a + 7b)2 – 112ab = (4a – 7b)2
c. (3p + q)2 – (3p – q)2 = 12pq d. (x + y)(x – y) + (y + z)(y – z) + (x + z)(x – z) = 0

Division of Algebraic Expressions

Division of a Monomial by a Monomial
If a is any variable and m and n are any two integers then,
by the laws of exponents we know am ÷ an = am–n
Using this property we can divide the variables of two or more monomials.

Example 1 Divide 12a2b2c by 2abc

Solution:
12a 2b 2 c  12  2−1 2−1 1−1
12a 2b 2 c ÷ 2abc
= =   a b c = 6ab
2abc  2 
The above division can also be done by writing the factors of the two monomials and cancelling the
common factors of both the monomials.
12a 2b 2 c 2 × 2×3× a × a × b ×b× c
12a 2b 2 c ÷ 2abc
= = = 2 × 3 × a × b = 6ab
2abc 2×a×b×c
Example 2 Divide –32a3b3c3 by 6a2bc2

Solution:
−32a 3 b3 c3
−32a 3 b3 c3 ÷ 6a 2bc 2 =
6a 2bc 2

=
(
− 2 × 2× 2× 2× 2× a × a × a × b ×b×b× c × c × c )
2 ×3× a × a × b × c × c
− ( 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × a × b × b × c ) −16 2
= = ab c
3 3

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 Division of a Polynomial by a Monomial
Division of a polynomial by a monomial can be done by dividing each term by the monomial separately.

Example 3 Divide 16a3b2 + 2a2b – 8a by 2ab

Solution:
16a 3 b 2 + 2a 2b − 8ab
(16a b
3 2
)
+ 2a 2b − 8ab ÷ 2ab =
2ab
16a 3 b 2 2a 2b 8ab
= + − (separate each term of the polynomial)
2ab 2ab 2ab
= 8a3 −1b 2−1 + a 2−1b1−1 − 4a1−1b1=
−1
8a 2b + a − 4
Division of Polynomial by a Binomial
To divide a polynomial by a binomial follow the steps given below.
Step 1: Arrange the dividend and the divisor in descending order of their degrees.
Step 2: Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor to get the first term of the
quotient.
Step 3: Multiply the divisor by the quotient and subtract the answer from the dividend.
Step 4: Take the remainder as the new dividend.
Step 5: Continue the division till the remainder is zero or the degree of the remainder is less than the
divisor.

Example 4 Divide x2 + 4x + 5 by x + 2

Solution:
x+2
The dividend and the divisor are already in descending order of their degrees, x+2 x2 + 4 x + 5
so we need not rearrange. x2 + 2 x
x2 (−) (−)
= x, ∴ x is the first term of the quotient.
x
2x + 5
Multiply x with the divisor x + 2 to get x2 + 2x and subtract it from the dividend.
2x + 4
The degree of the remainder 2x + 5 is 1, hence further division can be done. The (−) (−)
remainder is the new dividend.
1
2x
Again divide the first term of the dividend by x, =2
x
Multiply 2 with the divisor x + 2 to get 2x + 4 and subtract it from the dividend to get the remainder 1.
Since, the degree of the remainder is less than the divisor hence we cannot divide further.

Verification of result
We know that if a number is divided by another number then,
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
This is called the division algorithm.
In the same way, when a polynomial is divided by another polynomial, then the above result is satisfied.

94
In the above example, the result can be verified by using the division algorithm.
divisor × quotient + remainder = dividend
LHS = [(x + 2)(x + 2)] + 1
= [x(x + 2) + 2(x + 2)] + 1
= x2 + 2x + 4 + 1
= x2 + 4x + 5 = RHS = dividend

Example 5 Divide 2x3 – 5x2 + 5x – 3 by 2x – 3

Solution:
x2 − x + 1
2 x − 3 2 x3 − 5 x2 + 5 x − 3
2 x3 − 3 x2 Verification : Divisor × quotient + remainder = dividend
( −) ( + )
LHS = [(2x – 3)(x2 – x + 1)] + 0
− 2 x2 + 5 x − 3
− 2 x2 + 3 x = 2x(x2 – x + 1) – 3(x2 – x + 1)
(+) (–)
= 2x3 – 2x2 + 2x – 3x2 + 3x – 3
2x − 3
2x − 3 = 2x3 – 5x2 + 5x – 3 = Dividend = RHS
( −) ( + )
0

Exercise 6.4
1. Divide the following monomials.
a. 12x3y3 by 2xy b. 15x4y3 by (–5x2y) c. 144ab2 by 4ab

d. 13x3y3 by 2x2yz2 e. 5 x 2 y 2 z 2 by 2 xyz f. 14p3q2 by (–4p2q)

6 5
2. Divide the following.
a. 12ab2 – 2a2b by 4ab b. 20a2 – 3ab by 2a
c. 6x2y2 – 2x2y + 4x by 3x d. –15a2bc2 – 30ab2c – 45a2bc by (–5abc)
e. x6 + x5 – x4 – x3 by (–x2) f. 18a4b3c3 – 12a2b2c2 + 21abc by 3abc

3. Divide the following by long division method.

a. 6x2 – 7x – 5 by 2x + 1 b. 5x2 – 6x + 1 by x – 1
c. 2x2 + 3x – 65 by 2x + 13 d. 6x2 + 5x – 50 by 2x – 5

4. Divide and find the quotient and remainder if any. Verify your result.
a. 12m2 + 57m + 66 by 4m +11 b. 2x3 – 11x2 – 2x + 2 by 2x + 1
c. 5x3 – 7x2 + 6x + 1 by x – 1 d. –x2 –94x + 600 by x + 100

Recollections
ŠŠ An expression which has a combination of constants and variables connected to each other by one
or more operation (+,–,×,÷) is called an algebraic expression

95
 ŠŠ The parts of an algebraic expression separated by an addition or subtraction sign are called terms
of the expression.
ŠŠ Algebraic expressions are classified as monomials, binomials, trinomials and polynomials on the
basis of the number of terms they have.
ŠŠ Terms having the same algebraic factors are called like terms.
ŠŠ Terms having different algebraic factors are called unlike terms
ŠŠ Like terms can be added or subtracted using either horizontal method or column method
ŠŠ The product of two monomials is always a monomial.
ŠŠ The product of a monomial and a binomial is always a binomial
ŠŠ The product of a monomial and a polynomial is a polynomial.
ŠŠ An identity is a special type of equation in which the LHS and the RHS are equal for all values of
the variables.
ŠŠ Four basic identities are:
(a + b) (a − b)
2 2
=a 2 + 2ab + b 2 =a 2 − 2ab + b 2

( a + b )( a − b ) = a 2 − b2 ( x + a )( x + b ) = x 2 + ( a + b ) x + ab

ŠŠ Division of a polynomial by a monomial can be done by dividing each term of polynominal by the
monomial separately.
ŠŠ Division of a polynomial by a polynomial can be done by long division method.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. How many terms are there in a trinomial?
i. One ii. Two iii. Three iv. More than three

b. The numerical coefficient in –8x2y3z is

i. –8x ii. –8 iii. 8 iv. 8xyz

c. Which of the following is a like term of 8x2yz?

i. 8xyz ii. x2yz iii. –x2yz iv. x2 + y + z

d. Which of the following is a binomial?

i. x3 × 5y × z ii. a2 + 5 iii. a3 + b3 + c iv. 2xy

e. The sum of (x + y) and (x – y) is

i. x3 × 5y × z ii. a2 + 5 iii. a3 + b3 + c iv. 2xy

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. (a + b)2 = b. A polynomial with three terms is a
5a2bc
c. (a – b)2 = d. (a + b)(a – b) = e. =
ab

96
3. State true or false.

a. 2x + y is a binomial

b. The product of two monomials is a binomial.

c. Dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder.

d. In algebra, unlike terms can be added or subtracted.

e. The expanded form of (2x + 3y)2 = 4x2 + 6xy + 9y2.

4. What should be added to 3x2 – 2x + 9 to get x2 – 3x + 8?

5. Divide 10x3 – 27x2 + 36x – 27 by 2x – 3.

6. Multiply a2 + 7ab – 3b by a2 – b2.

7. Evaluate 10022 – 9982.

Review exercise
1. Add the following algebraic expressions.
a. 6p2q + 5pq – 3q; 2p2q – pq + 2q; p2q + 5pq + 8q b. 9x(y – z); 9y(z – y); 9z(x – y)
c. 8p(p – q – r); –7(p2 – qp – rp)

2. Subtract the following algebraic expressions.

a. 5x(x + y) from 8x(x – y) b. 6x(x + y) from 6x(y – x) – 4xy + y
c. x(y – z – x) from 2(xy + xz + x2)

3. Do as directed.
a. Subtract the sum of 4p + 6q and 8p –12q from the sum of 13p – 6q and 15p + 8q.
b. Subtract the sum of 2a – 3b + c and a – b – c from the sum of 3a – 4b and 3a – 4b + c.
4. Find the product of the following.
−5 2 2 −1 3 3
a. 10xyz and y z b. x8 and yz c. x y and –9x2y3
2 3
d. 0.1a2b and 0.01ab2 e. 12xy + 3x and 5x f. (x2y–xy2)12xy
1
g. x ( 4 x2 + 2 y ) h. (0.1xy + x)0.05y i. (a – ab + b) × 2a
2
 7  7 
j. (2a + 3b) (2a – 3b) k.  5 p − 11 q   5 p + 11 q  l. (–m – 2n – 2mn)(m – n)
  
m. (3x – 2)(2x2 + 3x – 5) n. (2x – 3y –2)(2x + y – 5) o. (3m2 – mn – 4)(m + 2n2 + mn)

5. Simplify:
a. 5(a – b) + 2(b – a) b. x(x2 – y2) – y(x2 – y2)
c. (x2 – 4) (x2 – 9) – 35 d. (x + y) (x – y) + (2x + y)(2x – y)
a b
e. (m + 2n)(1 + 3m + 4n) – 6n (m + n) f. ( )
3a 2 − 3ab + 3b 2  − 
3 3

97
 6. Evaluate the expressions for the values given below.
a. (2mn + m2 + n2)(m2 –2mn + n2) given m = 2 and n = 1
b. mn(mn2 – 2mn2) given m = 2 and n = –2
7. Using appropriate identities find the following products.
a. (2x – 3y)2 b. 113 × 87 c. 104 × 96 d. 116 × 84
2
e. 7.9 × 8.1 f. (x2 – 4) (x2 + 2) g. (16m2 – 25n2)(16m2 + 25n2) h.  m + n 
 
 5 3
8. Divide the following expressions.
a. 24x3y by 6x2y b. 1096x4 by 137x3 c. 63m2p by 56mp2
d. –55a3b by 11ab e. 39x2y4 by –13xy4 f. 12x3 + 8x2 – 6x by 2x
g. m2 – 8m + 15 by m – 5 h. x2 + 9x + 20 by x + 4 i. z2 – 6z + 9 by z – 3

9. Find the area of the rectangle with length 4a3b3c2 and 3a2b2c2.
10. Find the perimeter of a square if its side is x2 – 8x + 16.
11. Show that (3x – 4)2 + 48x = (3x + 4)2.
12. Find the value of 992 – 2 × 99 × 98 + 982.

Weblinks
http://mathematics.laerd.com/maths/algebraic-division-intro.php
http://www.mesacc.edu/~scotz47781/mat120/notes/

As on 09.05.2019

98
 7. Factorisation

You know
ŠŠ to write the factors of an algebraic expression
ŠŠ to identify like terms
ŠŠ to add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic expressions
ŠŠ the difference between an identity and an equation
ŠŠ algebraic identities and its applications

You will learn

ŠŠ factorisation of algebraic expressions by taking out common factors, grouping,
and using algebraic identities
ŠŠ factorisation of algebraic expressions by splitting the middle term
ŠŠ division of polynomial by polynomial

Any number can be written as a product of its factors.

For example, 42 = 2 × 3 × 7. Here, 2, 3 and 7 are said to be the prime factors of 42.
Similarly, in algebra, an algebraic expression can be written as a product of their factors.

Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions

The process of finding two or more expressions whose product is the given expression is called
factorisation.
Factorising an algebraic expression means expressing it as a product of irreducible factors.
For example,
(i) A monomial like 3abc can be written as 3 × a × b × c. Here, 3, a, b and c are the factors of 3abc.
(ii) In case of a binomial 2xz + 5xy, we can write it as x (2z + 5y). Here, x and (2z + 5y) are the factors
of the binomial 2xz + 5xy.
There are three basic methods for factorising an algebraic expression.
1. By taking a common factor
2. By regrouping the terms
3. By using identities
Factorisation by taking a Common Factor
To understand the meaning of common factors, consider two monomials, 9a2b2 and 12ab.
They can be written as a product of their factors as:
9a2b2 = 3 × 3 × a × a × b × b
12ab = 2 × 2 × 3 × a × b
The common factors are 3, a and b.
Thus, 3ab is the common factor of the monomials 9a2b2 and 12ab.

99
 Let us consider an algebraic expression 3x + 5xy.
To factorise this expression we will write the factors of the two terms.
3x = 3 × x, 5xy = 5 × x × y
The common factor of the two terms is x. Taking out the common factors we have
3x + 5xy = x(3 + 5y)
Thus, the factors of 3x + 5xy are x and (3 + 5y).
Factorise the following algebraic expressions.
Example 1
a. 12a3b + 9a2b b. a2b2c – ab2c2 c. 16pq + 12pq2 – 20p2q2
Solution:
a. 12a3b + 9a2b b. a2b2c – ab2c2
=2×2×3×a×a×a×b+3×3×a×a×b =a×a×b×b×c–a×b×b×c×c
= 3 × a × a × b(2 × 2 × a + 3) = a × b × b × c(a – c)
= 3a2b(4a + 3) = ab2c(a – c)
∴The factors of 12a3b + 9a2b are 3a2b and (4a + 3). ∴The factors of a2b2c – ab2c2 are ab2c and
(a – c).
c. 16pq + 12pq2 – 20p2q2
=2×2×2×2×p×q+2×2×3×p×q×q–2×2×5×p×p×q×q
= 2 × 2 × p × q(2 × 2 + 3 × q – 5 × p × q)
= 4pq(4 + 3q – 5pq)
∴The factors of 16pq + 12pq2 – 20p2q2 are 4pq and (4 + 3q – 5pq).

Factorisation by Regrouping Terms

Some algebraic expressions have no common factor for all the terms.
For example, 2p + 6q + 4pq + 3 has no common factor in all the four terms. To factorise such expressions
we use the method of regrouping. So we rearrange the terms of the expression as 2p + 4pq + 3 + 6q.
Taking 2p common from the first two terms (2p and 4pq) and 3 common from the next two terms (3 and
6q).
We get, 2p + 4pq + 3 + 6q = 2p(1 + 2q) + 3(1 + 2q)
(1 + 2q) is a common factor in the two terms.
∴ 2p(1 + 2q) + 3(1 + 2q) = (1 + 2q)(2p + 3)
⇒ 2p + 4pq + 3 + 6q = (1 + 2q)(2p + 3)

Example 2 Factorise: ab – x + ax – b

Solution:
Regrouping the expression, we get
ab – b + ax – x = b(a – 1) + x(a – 1) = (a – 1)(b + x)
∴ ab – x + ax – b = (a – 1)(b + x)

100
Let's Exercise
Exercise 7.1
1. Find the common factors of the following terms.
a. xy and x2y b. 5x3y2 and –4x2y2 c. 36x4y2 and 6x3y
d. 8xy3 and 12x2y2 e. 15xyz and 5x2yz2 f. 6p2qr, 9p3q2r2 and 12p2q3r3
g. 2m2n4, (–4m2n4) and 8m2n3 h. 27m3n3, – 18m2n3 and 75m3n2 i. ax2y, bxy2 and cx2y

2. Factorise the following by taking out common factors.

a. 22x2 + 33y2 b. –81x2y – 9x c. x2 + x2y4
d. 12p3q2 + 15q4p2 e. a2bc3 + c3ba2 – a3b2c2 f. 48lm3n2 + 64l3mn2 – 32l2m2n2
g. 2x3(a + b) – 2y2(a + b) h. 18a2b2 – 24a2b + 30ab2 i. 14(x – 4y)3 – 21(x – 4y)

3. Factorise the following expressions by regrouping the terms.

a. lm + an + mn + al b. ax – by + ay – bx c. x2y + 2xy2 – x – 2y
d. 2xy + 3 + 6x + y e. m2 + ln + lm + mn f. x4 + 8y – xy – 8x3
g. c – 8 + 8ab – abc h. 4u2 – 10uv – 6uw + 15vw i. b2 – ab (1 – a) – a3

Factorisation Using Identities

The four identities studied earlier are also used for factorising algebraic expressions. These identities
are:
ŠŠ (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ŠŠ (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
ŠŠ (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 ŠŠ (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

Example 1 Factorise the following using suitable algebraic identities.

a. p2 + 8pq + 16q2 b. 4x2 – 12xy + 9y2 c. 81x2 – 49y2 d. 32a2 – 50

Solution:
a. p2 + 8pq + 16q2 = p2 + 2 × p × 4q + (4q)2 = (p + 4q)2 = (p + 4q)(p + 4q)
[using identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2]
b. 4x2 – 12xy + 9y2 = (2x)2 – 2 × 2x × 3y + (3y)2 = (2x – 3y)2 = (2x – 3y)(2x – 3y)
[using identity (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2]
c. 81x2 – 49y2 = (9x)2 – (7y)2 = (9x + 7y)(9x – 7y)
[using identity a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)]
d. 32a2 – 50
Common factor of 32 and 50 is 2.
∴ 32a2 – 50 = 2(16a2 – 25) = 2[(4a)2 – 52] = 2(4a + 5)(4a – 5)
[using identity a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)]

101
 Factorisation by Splitting the Middle Term
Some trinomials which are not perfect squares cannot be factorised using identities. In such
cases, factorisation of the expression is done by splitting the middle term and using the identity
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

Example 2 Factorise: y2 + 5y + 6
Solution:
Comparing the expression y2 + 5y + 6 with identity (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
We have ab = 6 and a + b = 5
Thus, we need to find two numbers (a and b) such that their product is 6 and sum or difference is 5.
The factors of 6 are 2 × 3 and 1 × 6. Since 2 + 3 = 5
hence, choose factors a = 2 and b = 3 and write the expression as y2 + 5y + 6 = y2 + (2 + 3)y + 6
= y2 + 2y + 3y + 6
Group the first and the second term, third and the fourth term and then take the common terms.
y2 + 2y + 3y + 6 = y(y + 2) + 3(y + 2) = (y + 2) (y + 3)

Thus, the factors of the expression y2 + 5y + 6 are (y + 2)(y + 3).

Example 3 Find the factors of 3x2 + 8x + 5.

Solution:
Comparing the expression 3x2 + 8x + 5 with ax2 + bx + c, ac = 5 × 3 and b = 8
We need to find two numbers such that their product is 15 and sum is 8.
The factors of 15 are 3 × 5, 1 × 15. Since 3 + 5 = 8, hence, we will choose these factors and write the
expression as:
3x2 + 8x + 5 = 3x2 + (3 + 5)x + 5 = 3x2 + 3x + 5x + 5
Grouping the first and the second term and third and the fourth term and taking the common terms.
3x2 + 3x + 5x + 5 = 3x(x + 1) + 5(x + 1) = (x + 1)(3x + 5)

Thus, the factors of the expression 3x2 + 8x + 5 are (x + 1)(3x + 5).

Example 4 Find the factors of 2x2 – 5x + 3.

Solution:
Comparing the expression 2x2 – 5x + 3 with ax2 – bx + c, ac = 2 × 3 = 6 and b = –5
We need to find two numbers such that their product is 6 and difference is –5.
The factors of 6 are 3 × 2, 6 × 1. Here, –3 – 2 = –5 and –6 + 1 = –5.
Taking –3 – 2 = –5 we have, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 2x2 – 3x – 2x + 3 = x(2x – 3) – 1(2x – 3) = (2x – 3) (x – 1)
(2x – 3) is the common factor and (2x – 3) (x – 1) are the factors for the expression 2x2 – 5x + 3
Taking –6 + 1 = –5 we have, 2x2 – 6x + x + 3 = 2x(x – 3) + 1(x + 3)
Note that you do not get common factors.
Thus, the factors of the expression 2x2 – 5x + 3 are (2x – 3) (x – 1).

102
 Incorrect method Correct method
a. 2(x – 4) = 2x – 4 2(x – 4) = 2x – 8
b. (5x)2 = 5x2 (5x)2 = 25x2
c. (a – 6) (4a + 1) = 4a2 – 6 (a – 6) (4a + 1) = 4a2 – 23a – 6
d. (m – 7)2 = m2 – 49 (m – 7)2 = m2 – 14m + 49

Exercise 7.2
1. Factorise the following by using suitable identities.
a. 64a2 – 25b2 b. x2 + 12x + 36 c. 4x2 – 32xy + 64y2
y2
d. x2 – e. a2 – 3a – 40 f. (a – b)2 – (b – c)2
121
g. 8a2 – 32 h. 25m2n2 – 49 i. (l2 – 2lm + m2) – n2
j. (x + y)2 – (x – y)2 k. 81x3 – 225x5 l. 48x – 3x5
2. Factorise the following expressions by splitting the middle term.
a. x2 + 7x + 12 b. a2 – a – 72 c. a2 + 10a + 21
d. m2 – 3m – 10 e. z2 + 9z + 20 f. x2 – 24x + 144
g. 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2 h. 3a2 + 35a – 12 i. 3x2 – 13x + 12

Division of a Polynomial by a Polynomial

So far we have learnt to divide algebraic expressions using laws of exponents and long division method.
Let us learn how to divide a polynomial by a polynomial using factorisation method.
Consider the following example.
(8x2 + 16x) ÷ (x + 2)
We shall factorise (8x2 + 16x) first to check and match factors with the denominator.
(8x2 + 16x) = (2 × 2 × 2 × x × x) + (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × x)
= (2 × 2 × 2 × x) + (x + 2)
= 8x(x + 2)
8x2 + 16x 8x(x + 2)
Now, (8x2 + 16x) ÷ (x + 2) = = = 8x [Cancelling the common factor (x + 2) both
x+2 x+2
from numerator and denominator]
Example 1 Divide x2 + 6x + 9 by x + 3.

Solution:
Factorising x2 + 6x + 9 we get,
x2 + 6x + 9 = x2 + 3x + 3x + 9
= x(x + 3) + 3(x + 3)
= (x + 3) (x + 3)
x2 + 6x + 9 (x + 3) (x + 3)
∴ (x2 + 6x + 9) ÷ (x + 3) = = [Cancelling the common factor (x + 3) both
x+3 x+3
from numerator and denominator]
=x+3

103
 Example 2 Divide a(3a2 – 75) by 3a(a + 5).

Solution:
Factorising a(3a2 – 75) we get,
a(3a2 – 75) = a�(3 × a2) – (3 × 25)�
= 3a(a2 – 25) = 3a(a + 5) (a – 5) [using the identity a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)]
a(3a2 – 75) 3a(a + 5) (a – 5)
∴ = =a–5
3a(a + 5) 3a(a + 5)

Exercise 7.3
Divide the following by the method of factorisation.
a. p2 – q2 by p – q b. x2 + 4xy + 4y2 by x + 2y
c. 25a2 – 30ab + 9b2 by 5a – 3b d. 121m2 – 64n2 by 11m – 8n
e. 35xy(x + 5)(y – 2) ÷ 7x(y – 2) f. x2 + 2x –35 by x + 7
g. 15pq(49p2 – 36q2) ÷ 3pq(7p – 6q) h. 18ab(4a2 – b2) ÷ 9a(2a + b)
i. 121x2y2(6z – 42) ÷ 11xy(z – 7) j. 54lmn(l + m)(m + n)(n + l) ÷ 81mn(m + n)(n + l)

Factorise the following expressions.

a. 3 – 12(a – b)2
b. x4 + x2 + 1

Recollections
ŠŠ The four basic algebraic identities are
ŠŠ (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ŠŠ (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
ŠŠ (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 ŠŠ (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

ŠŠ Factorising an algebraic expression means expressing it as a product of irreducible factors. There

are three basic methods for factorising an algebraic expression.
• By taking a common factor
• By regrouping terms
• By using identities
ŠŠ Division of a polynomial by a polynomial can be done by factorising the polynomial and then
dividing.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. The common factors of 3a2b3 and 12a4b2c is
i. 3a2b ii. 4a2b2 iii. 3ab iv. 3a2b2

b. The factorised form of 4a2 – 9b2 is

i. (2a – 3b) (2a + 3b) ii. (2a + 3b)2 iii. (2a – 3b)2 iv. 2a2 + 3b2

104
 c. 25a + 10 = ?
i. 2(a + 5) ii. (a + 5)(a + 2) iii. 5(5a + 2) iv. 2a(a + 5)

d. (12x2 + 36x) ÷ (x + 3) = ?
i. 12x(x + 3) ii. 12x2 + 36 iii. 12(x2 + 3) iv. 12x

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. (a + b)2 =

b. (a – b)2 =

c. (a2 – b2) =

d. x2 + (a + b)x + ab =

3. Find the common factors of the following terms.

a. 8ab2, 16a2b, 24ab b. 42x2y2z, 63x3y, 56x2z
c. 11a2b2, 22a2b2, 33a3b d. 10m2n3, –5mn2, 20mn2

Review Exercise
1. Factorise the following by taking common factors.
a. 3x2y – 6xy2 b. 15a4b3 + 20a3b2
c. 5a(2x – 3y) + 2b(2x – 3y) d. 3a2 – 18ab + 12ab2

2. Factorise the following by grouping the terms.

a. x2 – ax + bx – ab b. 12a2 + 3ab – ab2 – 4ab c. 2a(x – y) + 3b(x – y)
d. p + pq + pr + qr
2
e. a + bc + ab + ac
2
f. ax2+ ay2 + bx2 + by2
g. a4 + 3a3 + 5a + 15 h. 15ab – 6a + 5b – 2 i. a2b + ab2 – abc – b2c

3. Factorise the following by splitting the middle terms or by using identities.

a. 16 – 81x2 b. 12x2 + 4x + 3x + 1 c. 2z2 – 8
d. 16a2 + 8a + 1 e. 3x2 – 27 f. (x + 4y)2 – 16y2
g. x2 – 8x + 16 h. 4x2 – 11x – 3 i. m3 – 7m2 + 12m

4. Divide the following by the method of factorisation.

a. (p2 + 7p + 10) ÷ (p + 5) b. 66(y4 – 5y3 – 24y2) ÷ 6y(y – 8)
c. 8xy(x2 + 6x – 16) ÷ 4y(x + 8) d. 36mn(25m2 – 49n2) ÷ 4mn(5m + 7n)
e. 45 (p + 4) (p2 + 5p + 3) ÷ 5(p + 4) f. x(x + 2)(x + 4)(x + 6) ÷ x(x + 2)

Weblinks
https://revisionmaths.com/gcse-maths-revision/algebra/factorising
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/factorization/factorization-using-division/

As on 09.05.2019

105
 8. Linear Equations in One Variable

You know
ŠŠ the terms, algebraic expressions and equations
ŠŠ to form an equation
ŠŠ to solve an equation using transposition method

You will learn

ŠŠ to solve linear equations with one variable on one side and constant on the other
ŠŠ to solve linear equations with variables on both the sides
ŠŠ to solve equations reducible to linear form

In the previous classes, you have studied the terms such as expressions and equations.
An algebraic expression contains variables and constants associated with mathematical operations
such as +, –, ×, ÷. For example, 2x + 3, 3x2 + 4, x2 – y2 and 3x + 2y.
An equation involves '=' sign in addition to variables, constants and mathematical operations. The
expression on the left of the '=' sign is called the left hand side (LHS) and that on the right of the '=' sign
is called the right hand side (RHS).
For example, 2x + 3 = 7, 3x2 + 4 = 2, x2 – y2 = 5 and 3x + 2y = 8.
Let us study these examples,
1. 2x + 3 = 7 → An equation having only one variable with the highest degree of the variable as 1.
2. 3x2 + 4 = 2 → An equation having only one variable with the highest degree of the variable as 2.
3. x2 – y2 = 5 → An equation having two variables with the highest degree of the variables as 2.
4. 3x + 2y = 8 → An equation having two variables with the highest degree of the variables as 1.
The equations (1.) and (4.) are equations having variables with the highest degree as 1. Such equations
are called linear equations.
The equations (2.) and (3.) have variables with the highest degree as 2. These equations are not linear
equations.
the variable equality
Linear Equations in One Variable
A linear equation in one variable is an equation having only one 2x + 3 = 7 equation
variable with the highest power as 1. The equation (1) above is 2x + 3 = LHS
an example of a linear equation in one variable. 7 = RHS
A few more examples are:
1 2 2 1 1 2
5x + 3 = 8, x + = , x – 4 = 2x – 3, 7x – 1 = 4x + 2, x + = x – , ..., etc.
3 5 5 7 5 5
Solution of an Equation
Consider the linear equation 2x + 3 = 7, if we substitute x = 2, we get LHS = 2x + 3 = 2(2) + 3 = 4 + 3
= 7 which is equal to the RHS of the equation.

106
We say, 2 is the root or the solution of the equation.
If we substitute x = 1, we get LHS = 2x + 3 = 2(1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5 which is not equal to the RHS of the
equation. So, 1 is not the solution of the equation.
The value of the variable, for which the LHS and RHS of an equation are equal, is called the solution
or the root of the equation.

Any linear equation has only one solution. The solution of any linear equation is a natural number,
an integer or a rational number.

Solving Linear Equations with Variables on one Side

To find the solution of an equation, we perform mathematical operations on both the sides of the
equations such that the equality remains unchanged. That is, adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing
both sides of the equation by the same number does not change the balance of the equation.
Using these operations, we isolate the variable on one side of the equation then the other side is the
solution of the equation.

Equations can also be solved using transposition method as shown in example 2.

1 2
Example 1 Find the solution of 2y + 9 = 13 Example 2 Solve: x + =
3 5
Solution: Solution:
Step 1: Subtract 9 from both the sides 1 2
x+ =
3 5
2y + 9 – 9 = 13 – 9 2 1
⇒x= – (Transposing to RHS)
⇒ 2y = 4 5 3
6–5 1
⇒x= =
Step 2: Divide both the sides by 2 15 15
2y 4 1 2 1
⇒ = ∴ The solution of the equation x + = is .
2 2 3 5 15
1
Verification: Substitute x = in the LHS,
⇒y=2 15
1 1 1 1 1×5 1+5
∴ The solution of the equation 2y + 9 = 13 is 2. LHS = x + = + = + =
3 15 3 15 3 × 5 15
Verification: Substitute y = 2 in the LHS, 6 2
= = , is equal to the RHS of the equation.
15 5
LHS = 2y + 9 = 2(2) + 9 = 13 is equal to the 1
This verifies that the value x = is the solution of
RHS of the equation. 15
the given equation.
This verifies that the value y = 2 is the solution
of the given equation.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 8.1
Solve the following equations.
5 14
a. x – 7 = 15 b. y + 6 = 24 c. +x= d. 7x – 1 = 13 e. 2x + 3 = 6
9 9
1 1 1 1 3x 17 15 x 5 –3
f. x– = g. 3x + = h. +1= i. 7x + =9 j. + =
2 5 5 2 8 8 4 3 2 2

107
 Applications of Linear Equation
Word problems also can be solved by forming linear equations. These equations are then solved to get
the desired answer.

Example 1 The sum of two numbers is 105. If one exceeds the other by 15, find the numbers.

Solution:
Let the bigger number be x.
As the sum of two numbers is 105, the smaller number will be 105 – x.
According to the condition,
x – (105 – x) = 15
⇒ x – 105 + x = 15
⇒ 2x = 15 + 105 (transposing 105 to RHS)
⇒ 2x = 120
2x 120
⇒ = (dividing both the sides by 2)
2 2
⇒ x = 60
∴ One number is 60, the other number is 105 – 60 = 45
Thus, the desired numbers are 45 and 60.
1
Example 2 The breadth of a rectangle is of its length. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 32 cm,
3
find its dimensions.
Solution:
Let the length of the rectangle be x cm.
1
Then, the breadth of the rectangle is x cm.
3
Given the perimeter of the rectangle is 32 cm.
2(length + breadth) = Perimeter
According to the condition,
 1 
∴ 2  x + x  = 32
 3 
2 1  32
⇒  x+ x= (Divide both sides by 2)
2 3  2
1 3x + x 4x
⇒ x + x =16 ⇒ =16 ⇒ =16
3 3 3
4x
⇒ ×3 =16×3 (Multiply both sides by 3)
3
⇒ 4 x = 48

4 x 48
⇒ = (Divide both sides by 4)
4 4
⇒ x =12

108
 1 1
and x = ×12 = 4
3 3
Thus, the length of the rectangle is 12 cm and the breadth is 4 cm.

Example 3 The sum of three consecutive even natural numbers is 24. Find the numbers.

Solution:
Let the first even number be x.
Then the second even number is x + 2 and the third is x + 4.
According to the condition,
x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 24
⇒ x + x + 2 + x + 4 = 24
⇒ 3x + 6 = 24
⇒ 3x + 6 = 24 ⇒ 3x = 24 – 6
⇒ 3x = 18
3x 18
⇒ = (Divide both sides by 3)
3 3
⇒x=6
x = 6, x + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8 and x + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10
Thus, the required consecutive even natural numbers are 6, 8 and 10.

Example 4 Two numbers are in the ratio 7 : 4. If they differ by 18, what are the numbers?

Solution:
Let the numbers be 7x and 4x.
Their difference = 18
According to the condition,
7x – 4x = 18
⇒ 3x = 18
3x 18
⇒ = (dividing both the sides by 3)
3 3
⇒x=6
⇒ The numbers are 7x = 7 × 6 = 42 and 4x = 4 × 6 = 24
Thus, the required numbers are 24 and 42.
The present age of Ashish’s mother is three times the present age of Ashish. After five
Example 5
years their ages will add to 70 years. Find their present ages.
Solution:
Let Ashish’s present age be x years.
∴ The present age of Ashish’s mother = 3x years

109
 Age of Ashish after five years = (x + 5) years
Age of Ashish’s mother after five years = (3x + 5) years
According to the condition,
(x + 5) + (3x + 5) = 70
⇒ x + 5 + 3x + 5 = 70
⇒ 4x + 10 = 70
⇒ 4x = 70 – 10 (transposing 10 to RHS)
⇒ 4x = 60
4x 60
⇒ = (dividing both the sides by 4)
4 4
⇒ x = 15
∴ Ashish’s present age = 15 years and his mother’s age = 3 × 15 = 45 years.
Ravi has 20 currency notes of denominations ` 10 and ` 5. The total cash with Ravi is
Example 6
` 120. Find the number of notes of each denomination Ravi has.
Solution:
Let the number of currency notes of denominations ` 10 be x.
Then the number of currency notes of denominations ` 5 is (20 – x).
Given the total cash with Ravi is ` 120.
According to the condition,
10x + 5(20 – x) = 120
⇒ 10 x +100 − 5 x =120
⇒ 5 x +100 =120
⇒ 5 x =120 − 100 (Transposing 100 to RHS)
⇒ 5 x = 20
5 x 20
⇒ = (Divide both the sides by 5)
5 5
⇒ x=4
∴ 20 – x = 20 – 4 = 16
Thus, the number of currency notes of denominations ` 10 and ` 5 are 4 and 16 respectively.

Exercise 8.2
1. Three less than twice a number is equal to 2 more than the number. Find the number.
2. 6 times of a number increased by 10 is equal to 8 times the number. Find the number.
1 2
3. The sum of and of a rational number is 3. Find the rational number.
8 5
4. If the perimeter of a rectangle with dimensions (2x + 10) and (x + 20) is 240 cm, find its dimensions.
5. The sum of three consecutive multiples of 3 is 63. Find the numbers.
6. The difference between two whole numbers is 48. The ratio of the two numbers is 5: 3. What are
the two numbers?

110
7. Three consecutive integers are such that when they are taken in increasing order and multiplied by
3, 4 and 5 respectively, they add up to 86. Find these numbers.
8. Swena is 29 years younger than her father and 26 years older than her son. The sum of the ages
of all three is 135 years. What is the age of each one of them?
9. The number of boys and girls are in the ratio 8:5. The number of boys is 9 more than the number
of girls. What is the total strength of the class?
10. Rita has 15 notes in denomination of ` 10 and ` 20. If the amount with her is ` 200, find the number
of notes in each denomination with her.
11. Supriya has a total of ` 300 in coins of denomination ` 1, ` 2 and ` 5. The number of ` 2 coins
is 3 times the number of ` 5 coins. The total number of coins is 160. How many coins of each
denomination are with her?
12. The organisers of a dance competition decide that a winner in the competition gets a prize of ` 100
and a participant who does not win gets a prize of ` 25. The total prize money distributed is ` 3300.
Find the number of winners, if the total number of participants is 69.

Solving Linear Equations with Variables on both Sides

Here, first we use transposition to write the variable on one side and constants on the other side. Then
we perform mathematical operations on both sides of the equation to isolate the variable and get the
solution.
For example, consider the linear equation 2x – 8 = x – 3. This equation has the variable on both the
sides.
2x – 8 = x – 3 ⇒ 2x – x = – 3 + 8 (transposing like terms)
⇒x=5
∴ The solution of the equation 2x – 8 = x – 3 is 5.
Verification: Substitute x = 5 in the LHS and RHS
LHS = 2x – 8 = 2(5) – 8 = 10 – 8 = 2
RHS = x – 3 = 5 – 3 = 2
Thus LHS and RHS of the equation are equal.
This verifies that the value x = 5 is the solution of the given equation.
2 1 1 2
Example 1 Solve: x+ = x–
5 7 5 5
Solution:
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1
x+ = x− ⇒ x− x=− − ( transposing like terms )
5 7 5 5 5 5 5 7
 2 1 14 5
⇒ − x=− −
5 5 35 35
1 −19
⇒ x=
5 35

111
 Now multiply both sides by 5.
−19
⇒ x= ×5
35
−19 5
⇒ x= = −2
7 7
2 1 1 2 5
∴ The solution of the equation x + = x – is x = –2 .
5 7 5 5 7
5
Verification: Substitute x = –2
in the LHS and RHS,
7
2 1 2  5  1 2  −19  1 −38 1 −38 1×5 −38 + 5 −33
LHS = x + =  −2  + =  + = + = + = =
5 7 5  7  7 5  7  7 35 7 35 7×5 35 35

1 2 1  5  2 1  −19  2 −19 2 −19 2×7 −19 − 14 −33

RHS = x − =  −2  − =  − = − = − = =
5 5 5  7  5 5  7  5 35 5 35 5×7 35 35
Thus, LHS and RHS of the equation are equal.
5
This verifies that the value x = –2 is the solution of the given equation.
7

Exercise 8.3
1. Solve the following linear equations and verify the solution.
3 1 1 5 3 1
a. 2x + 5 = 7x – 2 b. x + = 2x – c. 2x + (3x – 4) = x d. x– = x–
4 7 2 6 7 3
6y + 1 y–3 2(x – 4) 1
e. 4(7 – 3z) + 1 = 5 – 3(5z + 2) f. +1= g. 4 – = (2x + 5)
3 6 3 2
3x – 2 2 2x + 3 5y – 4 3y + 10 3(x – 5) (x – 3)
h. – = –x i. + = 4y + 1 j. – 3 = 4x –
4 3 3 6 2 4 2

More Applications of Linear Equation

The sum of the digits of a two digit number is 10. The number obtained by interchanging
Example 1
its digits is 1 less than twice the original number. Find the number.
Solution:
Let the digit in the units place of the two digit number be x.
Given that the sum of the digits is 10. So, the digit in the tens place is (10 – x).
∴ The number is 10(10 – x) + x = 100 – 10x + x = 100 – 9x.
The number obtained by interchanging its digits is 10x + (10 – x) = 10 + 9x.
As the number obtained by interchanging its digits is 1 less than twice the original number,
According to the condition,
(10 + 9x) = 2(100 – 9x) – 1 ⇒ 10 + 9x = 200 – 18x – 1
⇒ 10 + 9x = 199 – 18x
⇒ 9x + 18x = 199 – 10 (Transposing like terms)
⇒ 27x = 189
27x 189
⇒ = (Dividing both sides by 27)
27 27
⇒x=7

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x = 7 and 10 – x = 10 – 7 = 3
Thus, the digits in the tens place and units place of the two digit number are 3 and 7, respectively.
∴ The required two digit number is 37.
The present age of Sulbha’s mother is six times the present age of Sulbha. Sulbha’s
Example 2
age five years from now will be one-third of her mother’s present age. What are their
present ages?
Solution:
Let Sulbha’s present age be x years.
∴ Present age of Sulbha’s mother is 6x years.
Five years from now, Sulbha’s age = x + 5
According to the condition,
1
x + 5 = × 6x
3
⇒ x + 5 = 2x
⇒ 5 = 2x – x (transposing x to the RHS)
⇒x=5
Therefore, Sulbha’s present age is 5 years and her mother’s present age = 6 × 5 = 30 years.
Mary distributed the chocolates she had amongst Julie, Sam and Tom and was left with
Example 3 1 1
30 chocolates. If Julie gets of the chocolates, Sam gets of the chocolates and Tom
1 6 4
gets of the chocolates, find the number of chocolates Mary originally had.
3
Solution
Let the number of chocolates Mary had originally be x.
1 1 1
Thus the shares of Julie, Sam and Tom are x, x and x respectively.
6 4 3
Mary was left with 30 chocolates after the distribution,
According to the condition,
1 1 1
x + x + x + 30 = x
6 4 3
 1 1 1
⇒  + +  x + 30 = x
6 4 3
 2+3+ 4 
⇒  x + 30 = x (LCM of 6, 4 and 3 is 12.)
 12 
9
⇒ x + 30 = x
12
3
⇒ x + 30 = x
4
3 3
⇒ 30 = x – x (transposing x to RHS)
4 4
4x – 3x x
⇒ 30 = ⇒ 30 =
4 4
⇒ x = 120 (multiplying both the sides by 4)
∴ Mary has 120 chocolates originally with her.

113
 The speed of a river current is 3 km/h. A boat travels for three hours downstream and
Example 4
then returns the same distance upstream in four hours. Find the speed of the boat in still
water. How far did the boat travel one way?
Solution:
Let the speed of the boat in still water be x km/h.
The speed of the river current is 3 km/h.
So, the speed of the boat downstream is (x + 3) km/h and the speed of the boat upstream is
(x – 3) km/h.
As the distance travelled = speed × time, the distance travelled by the boat in 3 h downstream is
3(x + 3) m and the distance travelled by the boat in 4 h upstream is 4(x – 3) m.
The boat travels the same distance downstream and upstream,
According to the condition,
3(x + 3) = 4(x – 3)
⇒ 3 x + 9 = 4 x − 12
⇒ 3 x − 4 x = −12 − 9 (Transposing like terms)
⇒ – x = −21
− x −21
⇒ = (Dividing both sides by − 1)
−1 −1
⇒ x = 21

∴ The speed of the boat in still water is 21 km/h.

Thus, the distance travelled by the boat one way is 3 (x + 3) = 3 (21 + 3) = 3 × 24 = 72 km.

Exercise 8.4
1. The sum of the digits of a two digit number is 8. The digit in the units place is 1 more than six times
the digit in the tens place. Find the number.
2. The number obtained by reversing a two digit number is 18 more than the original number. If the
sum of its digits is 8, find the number.
3. The speed of a river current is 5 km/h. A boat travels 3 hours downstream and covers 5 km more
than the distance covered in four hours upstream. Find the speed of the boat in still water.
4. Kate has some notes of denominations ` 20 and ` 50. The number of ` 20 notes is twice the
number of ` 50 notes. If the amount with her is ` 300 more than five times the number of notes, find
the number of notes of each denomination with her.
5. The sum of the ages of A and B is 46. Five years ago, the age of B was twice that of A. Find A’s age.
1 1 1
6. Ramesh bought a box of coloured chalks. of the chalks were yellow, were red, were blue
3 4 4
and remaining 16 were green, find the total number of chalks in the box.
7. Nitesh is four times as old as Vishal at present. After four years Nitesh’s age will be twice as Vishal’s
age. What are their present ages?
8. Shalini was three times as old as her son two years ago. Two years hence, twice of her age will be
equal to five times that of her son’s age. Find their present ages.

114
9. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 17. If the number formed by reversing the digits is less
than the original number by 9, find the original number.
10. Half of the herd of sheep are grazing in the field and three-fourths of the remaining are playing
nearby. The rest 9 are drinking water from the pond. Find the number of sheep in the herd.
11. The length and breadth of a rectangular plot are in the ratio 11:4. The cost of fencing the plot with
the barbed wire is ` 18000 at the rate of ` 100 per metre. What are dimensions of the plot?
Netra bought a satin ribbon of some length. She wants to cut the ribbon in equal pieces
of same length. If she cuts the ribbon of a particular length, she gets 7 equal pieces and
a small piece 1 cm long is left. If she increases the length of each piece by 1 cm, she gets
6 equal pieces and a small piece of 2 cm is left. What is the original length of the satin ribbon
she bought?

Solving Equations Reducible to Linear Form

x–1 1
Observe the equation = . This equation is not a linear equation as the variable x appears in the
2x + 3 7
denominator.
x–1 1
Using cross-multiplication, = ⇒ 7 (x – 1) = 2x + 3, we get a linear equation. Such an equation
2x + 3 7
is said to be an equation reducible to linear form.
The solution of these equations can be obtained by first writing the equation in its linear form and then
solving the linear equation thus obtained.
x–1 1
Example 1 Solve: = .
2x + 3 7
Solution:
x–1 1
The equation = is not a linear equation.
2x + 3 7
x–1 1
Using cross-multiplication we get, = ⇒ 7(x – 1) = 2x + 3 ⇒ 7x – 7 = 2x + 3
2x + 3 7
Now solve the linear equation, 7x – 7 = 2x + 3
7x – 7 = 2x + 3 ⇒ 7x – 2x = 3 + 7 (transposing the like terms)
⇒ 5x = 10
Now divide both sides by 5.
5x 10
⇒ =
5 5
⇒∴x=2
Thus, the solution of the equation is x = 2.
Verification: Substitute x = 2 in the LHS,

LHS =
x −1
=
( 2) − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1
, is equal to the RHS of the equation.
2x + 3 2 ( 2) + 3 4 + 3 7
This verifies that the value x = 2 is the solution of the given equation.
2x – 1 x–4
Example 2 Solve: =
6x + 3 3x + 1
Solution
2x −1 x − 4
The equation = is not a linear equation.
6 x + 3 3 x +1

115
 Using cross-multiplication we get,
2x −1 x − 4
= ⇒ ( 2 x − 1)( 3 x +1) = ( 6 x + 3 )( x − 4 )
6 x + 3 3 x +1
⇒ 2 x ( 3 x +1) − 1( 3 x +1) = 6 x ( x − 4 ) + 3 ( x − 4 )
⇒ 6 x 2 + 2 x − 3 x − 1= 6 x 2 − 24 x + 3 x − 12
⇒ − x − 1= −21x − 12 (Subtracting 6 x 2 from both sides)
Now solve the linear equation, –x – 1 = –21x – 12.
− x − 1= −21x − 12 ⇒ − x + 21x = −12 +1 (transposing the like terms)
⇒ 20 x = −11
Now divide both sides by 20.
20 x −11
20 x = −11 ⇒ =
20 20
−11
⇒ x=
20
2x – 1 x–4 –11
Thus, the solution for the equation = is
6x + 3 3x + 1 20

Some More Applications of Linear Equation

The denominator of a fraction is 1 more than thrice its numerator. If the numerator is
Example 3 1
increased by 1 and denominator is decreased by 1, then the fraction obtained is . Find
2
the fraction.
Solution:
Let the numerator of the fraction be x.
The denominator of the fraction is 1 more than thrice the numerator. So, the denominator is 3x + 1.
x
Thus, the fraction is
3x + 1
As the fraction obtained when the numerator is increased by 1 and denominator is decreased by 1 is
1 (x)+ 1 1 x+1 1
, we have = ⇒ =
2 (3x + 1) – 1 2 3x 2
x+1 1
Solve the equation =
3x 2
Using cross-multiplication we get,
x+1 1
= ⇒ 2(x + 1) = 1(3x) ⇒ 2x + 2 = 3x
3x 2
Now solve the linear equation, 2x + 2 = 3x
⇒ 2 x − 3 x = −2 (Transposing like terms)
⇒ − x = −2
− x −2
⇒ = (Dividing both sides by − 1)
−1 −1
⇒ x=2
x = 2 and 3x + 1 = 3 (2) + 1 = 7
Numerator = x = 2 and denominator = 3x + 1= 3(2) + 1 = 7
2
Thus, the required fraction is .
7

116
 The speed of a river current is 3 km/h. A boat takes the same time to travel 10 km
Example 4
upstream as it does to travel 15 km downstream. Find the boat's speed in still water.
Solution:
Let the speed of the boat in still water be x km/h. The speed of the river current is 3 km/h.
So, the speed of the boat downstream is (x + 3) km/h and the speed of the boat upstream is (x – 3) km/h.

Since distance travelled = speed of the boat × time of travel, the time taken to travel 10 km by the boat
10 15
upstream is h and the time taken to travel 15 km by the boat downstream is h.
(x – 3) (x + 3)
10 15
As the boat takes the same time to travel downstream and upstream, we get = .
(x – 3) (x + 3)
10 15
Solve the equation = .
(x – 3) (x + 3)
Using cross-multiplication we get,
10 15
= ⇒ 10 ( x + 3 ) =15 ( x − 3 )
( x − 3) ( x + 3)
⇒ 10 x + 30 =15 x − 45
Now solve the linear equation, 10x + 30 = 15x – 45.
10 x + 30 =15 x − 45 ⇒ 10 x − 15 x = −45 − 30 (Transposing like terms)
⇒ −5 x = −75
−5 x −75
−5 x = −75 ⇒ = (Dividing both sides by - 5)
−5 −5
⇒ x =15
Thus, the speed of the boat in still water is 15 km/h.

Exercise 8.5
1. Solve the following linear equations and verify the solution.
2x + 5 1 x x+5 1 1 1 1 3
a. = b. = c. + = d. =
7x −1 3 2x − 2 2x + 6 x+2 4 2 x +1 4( x − 1)
2. The denominator of a fraction is 1 more than twice its numerator. If the numerator and the
1
denominator are both decreased by 1 then the fraction obtained is . Find the fraction.
3
3. The ratio of the ages of Raj and Sameer is 3:4. After 4 years the ratio of their ages will be 4:5. Find
their ages.

4. The present age of David’s mother is 1 more than four times his present age. After 15 years, the
ratio of David’ age to this mother’s age is 1:2. Find the present age of David.

5. The length and the breadth of a rectangle are in the ratio 2:1. If the length is increased by 2 cm and
breadth by 3 cm then the ratio of the perimeter of the new rectangle to the perimeter of the original
4
rectangle is . Find the dimensions of the original rectangle.
3
6. The ratio of a two digit number to the number obtained by reversing its digits is 4:7. If the sum of
its digits is 9, find the number.

7. The speed of a river current is 5 km/h. A boat takes the same time to travel 8 km upstream as it
does to travel 12 km downstream. Find the speed of the boat in still water.

117
 8. The speed of the boat in calm water is 30 km/h. A boat takes the same time to travel 10 km
upstream as it does to travel 15 km downstream. Find the speed of the river current.

9. The digit in the tens place of a two-digit number is 3 less than the digit in its units place. Find the
number if the quotient obtained when the number is divided by the sum of its digits is 4.

Recollections
ŠŠ An equation involves “=” sign in addition to variables, constants and mathematical operations. The
expression on the left of the “=” sign is called the left hand side (LHS) and the expression on the
right of the “=” sign is called the right hand side (RHS).

ŠŠ A linear equation in one variable is an equation having only one variable with the highest degree of
the variable as 1.

ŠŠ The value of the variable, for which the LHS and RHS of an equation are equal, is called the
solution or the root of the equation. A linear equation has only one solution. The solution of a
linear equation can be a natural number, an integer or a rational number.

ŠŠ To find the solution of an equation with variable on one side of the equation, we perform mathematical
operations on both sides of the equation so that the equality remains unchanged.

ŠŠ If a linear equation has variable on both the sides, we use transposition to write the variable on one
side and then solve the equation.

ŠŠ The solution of equations reducible to linear form can be obtained by first writing the equation in its
linear form and then solving the linear equation.

Check your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. The linear equation in one variable among the following is
i. 2x + 3y = 42 ii. 5x + 4 = 29 iii. 6x2 + 2x + 3 = 19 iv. y2 + 5 = z + 9

b. The root of the equation 6y – 15 = 9 is

i. 2 ii. 3 iii. 4 iv. 5

c. If 5x – 3 = 3x – 5, then x =
i. 1 ii. 2 iii. –1 iv. –2
4y + 8 5
d. If = then y =
5y + 8 6
i. 4 ii. 6 iii. 12 iv. 8

e. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 72. The numbers are

i. 6, 7, 8 ii. 23, 24, 25 iii. 12,13, 14 iv. 27, 28, 29

2. State true or false.

a. The equation 2x + y = 20 is a linear equation.

118
 b. The equation 2xy = 20 is a linear equation.
c. A linear equation can have more than one solution.
d. The degree of a linear equation is 1.
3. Match the following equations in the first column to the corresponding solutions in the second
column.

Equations Solutions

a. 3x + (2x – 3) = 2 i. 3

x x+3
b. = ii. 1
12 21
1 2 3
c. x+ = x iii. 6
3 7 7
x+1 7
d. = iv. 4
x–1 5

4. The difference of two natural numbers is 10 and their sum is 20. Find the numbers.
5. The difference of two natural numbers is 14. The quotient when one number is divided by the other
is 3. Find the numbers.
6. The measures of the angles of a triangle are (3x + 20)°, (3x – 20)° and (2x + 20)°. Find the measures.

Review exercise
1. Solve the following linear equations and verify the solution.
1 2x – 2 2x – 5
a. 4x + 1 = 9 b. x + �3x – �=2 c. 7x – 1 = 4x + 2 d. =
2 x–2 x–3
5
2. Suhana thinks of a number and subtracts from it. She multiplies the result by 9. The result now
3
obtained is 6 times the same number she thought of. What is the number?

3. A positive number is 7 times another number. If 25 is added to both the numbers, then one of the
new number becomes twice the other new number. What are the numbers?

4. The sum of three consecutive odd natural numbers is 69. Find the numbers.

5. The length of a rectangle is 1 more than twice its breadth. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 44 cm,
find its dimensions.

6. The sum of the digits of a two digit number is 9. The number obtained by interchanging its digits is
9 less than thrice the original number. Find the number.

7. The speed of the boat in still water is 30 km/h. A boat travels for three hours downstream and then
returns the same distance upstream in five hours. Find the speed of the stream.

8. The denominator of a fraction is 2 more than its numerator. If the numerator is increased by 1 and
2
denominator is increased by 3 then the fraction obtained is . Find the fraction.
3

119
 9. A two digit number is 2 more than 5 times the sum of its digits. If the digit in the tens place is 1 less
than the digit in the units place, find the number.

10. The speed of a river current is 3 km/h. A boat takes the same time to travel 15 km upstream as it
does to travel 18 km downstream. Find the speed of the boat in still water.

11. The speed of the boat in calm water is 22 km/h. A boat takes the same time to travel 30 km
upstream as it does to travel 50 km downstream. Find the speed of the river current.

12. The ratio of a two digit number to the number obtained by reversing its digits is 5:17. If the sum of
its digits is 6, find the number.

13. The digit in the units place of a two-digit number is twice the digit in its tens place. The quotient
obtained when the number is divided by the sum of its digits is 4. Find the number.

14. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm more than its breadth. If the length is decreased by 3 cm and
breadth is decreased by 2 cm, then area of the new rectangle is same as the area of the original
rectangle. Find the dimensions of the original rectangle.

15. In an isosceles triangle, the length of each of the equal sides is 2 more than the length of the base.
If the ratio of the base to the perimeter of the triangle is 2:7, find the dimensions of the isosceles
triangle.

Weblinks
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/in-in-class-8th-math-cbse/in-in-8th-linear-eqn
https://www.vedantu.com/cbse/important-questions-class-8-maths-chapter-2
https://schools.aglasem.com/60137

As on 09.05.2019

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 9. Percentage and its Applications

You know
ŠŠ expressing fractions, decimals and ratios as percentage
ŠŠ converting percent to fraction, ratio and decimal
ŠŠ to calculate profit and loss using cost price and selling price

You will learn

ŠŠ to calculate increase and decrease in percentage
ŠŠ to solve word problems on increase and decrease percent
ŠŠ to calculate profit % and loss %
ŠŠ to understand the meaning of discount and tax
ŠŠ to calculate discount on a given price
ŠŠ to calculate GST levied on a commodity

In our daily life we need to compare various quantities. For example, if Amit scored 35 marks out of
a total of 50 and Seema scored 15 marks out of 25, then to find out who performed better we will
compare their performance.
35 15
Amit’s score = and Seema’s score =
50 25
Looking at the above scores, we cannot say who performed better as the maximum marks of both are
different. To compare the two, we need to express them as a per cent.
Per cent is derived from the Latin phrase ‘per centum’ meaning ‘out of hundred’.
Expressing the marks of Amit and Seema as percentage we have:
35
Amit’s marks = × 100 = 70%
50
15
Seema’s marks = × 100 = 60%
25
We can now easily compare the two performances and conclude that Amit has scored better.
Percentage is a way of comparing quantities.

Fraction, Ratio, Decimal and Percentage

Ratio is also a comparison of two quantities. You have already learnt in your previous class how to
convert fractions, ratio and decimals to per cent and vice versa.
ŠŠ To convert a fraction to a percentage, multiply the fraction by 100%.
5
12 12 12
For example, as a percentage = = × 100% = 60%
20 20 20
1
1
ŠŠ To convert a percentage to a fraction, replace the % sign by multiplying the given number by .
100
9
1 9
For example, 45% can be expressed as a fraction as 45% = 45 × =
100 20
20

121
 ŠŠ To convert a ratio to a percentage, changing the ratio to a fraction and then the fraction to a
percentage.
50
5 250 1
For example, 5 : 6 = × 100% = % = 83 %
6 3 3
3

ŠŠ To convert a percentage to a ratio, convert the percentage to a fraction, express the fraction in its
simplest form and write the fraction as a ratio.
3 1 3
For example, 75% = 75 × = =3:4
100 4
4
ŠŠ To convert a decimal as a percentage express it as a fraction and then the fraction to a percentage.
2572 2572
For example, 25.72 = = × 100% = 2572%
100 100
1
ŠŠ To convert a percentage to a decimal, replace the % sign by multiplying the given number by
100
and express the fraction thus obtained as a decimal number.
1
1 1 5
For example, 5% = 5 × = = 0.05 or 5% = = 0.05
100 20 100
20

Example 1 Convert the following to percentages.

8
a. b. 4 : 5 c. 7.25
25
Solution:
4 20 1
8 8 4 4 725 725
a. = × 100% = 32% b. 4 : 5 = = × 100 % = 80% c. 7.25 = = × 100 % = 725%
25 25 5 5 100 100
1 1 1

Example 2 Convert 55% to fraction, ratio and decimal.

Solution:
11
1 11
Converting to a fraction, 55% = 55 × =
100 20
20
11
Converting to a ratio, 55% = = 11 : 20
20
55
Converting to a decimal, 55% = = 0.55
100

Percentage of a Quantity
To find the percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply it by the given
quantity.
x xy
x% of y= × y=
100 100

Example 3 Find the following percentages.

1
a. 12% of 50 b. 18 % of 240
3
Solution:
12 1 55 55
a. 12% of 50 = × 50 =
6 b. 18 %of 240 = % of 240
= × 240
= 44
100 3 3 3 × 100

122
 Example 4 In a day Palak reads 125 pages of a book out of 500 pages.

a. What is the ratio of the number of pages read to the total number of pages in the book?

b. What percentage of total pages has she read?

Solution:

a. Number of pages read by Palak = 125

Total number of pages in the book = 500

∴ Ratio of pages read to the total pages = 125 : 500 = 1 : 4

1
125 20
b. Percentage of pages read = 125 : 500 = × 100 % = 25%
500
4
1

75 kg of fertiliser contain 16% of chemical A, 40% of chemical B and the rest is chemical
Example 5
C. Find the quantity of chemicals A ,B and C in the fertiliser.
Solution:

The total quantity of the fertiliser = 75 kg

16
Quantity of chemical A = × 75 = 12 kg
100
40
Quantity of chemical B = × 75 = 30 kg
100
Quantity of chemical C = 75 – (12 + 30) = 75 – 42 = 33 kg

One Quantity as a Percentage of the Other

To express part of a quantity as a percentage of the whole.

Step 1: Convert the two quantities to the same unit.

Step 2: Divide the part quantity by the whole and multiply the quotient by 100.
one quantity
P% = � × 100�%
other quantity

Example 6 Express:

a. 260 m as a percentage of 1 km b. 150 g as a percentage of 2 kg

Solution:

a. 1 km = 1000 m,
one quantity 260
P% = � × 100�% = � × 100�% = 26%
other quantity 1000

b. 2 kg = 2000 g,
one quantity 150
P% = � × 100�% = � × 100�% = 7.5%
other quantity 2000

123
 Let's Exercise
Exercise 9.1
1. Express the following fractions as a percentage.
3 9 3 31
a. b. c. d.
4 200 5 40
2. Express the following percentages as fractions and decimals.
1 3
a. 88% b. 52% c. 65 % d. 72 %
5 4
3. Express the following ratios as percentages.
a. 5 : 8 b. 7 : 8 c. 21 : 25 d. 5 : 16

4. Express the following percentages as ratios.

1 2
a. 150% b. 25.5% c. 33 % d. 11 %
3 3
5. Express:
a. 960 g as a per cent of 5 kg 400 g b. 148 cm as a per cent of 6 m

6. There are 1200 students in a school. If 780 of them are girls, what is the percentage of boys in the
school?
7. 72% of 50 students like to study science. How many students do not like to study science?
8. In a month a man spends 20% of his income on rent, 40% on food, 15% on education, 5% on
charity and 8% on entertainment. The rest of the money he saves. If his saving in a month is ` 3600,
what is his total income?
9. Gun powder contains 75% nitre, 15% charcoal and the rest sulphur. Find the amount of sulphur in
9 kg of gun powder.
10. Mr. Hari spends 66% of his salary on his family and is left with ` 12,240. What is the total salary of
Mr. Hari?
11. A man invested a sum of money in three companies A, B and C. He invested 32% of his money
in company A, 12% in company B and the rest in company C. If his investment in company C was
` 2,10,000, then find:
a. the total money invested by the man
b. investment in company A
c. investment in company B
12. In an election 55,000 votes are cast. The winning candidate scored 56% of the total votes. How
many votes did the winning candidate get?

Increase or Decrease Per cent

If a quantity increases or decreases, then the increase/ decrease percentage is calculated as
Increase in amount
Percentage increase = � × 100�%
Original amount
Decrease in amount
Percentage decrease = � × 100�%
original amount

124
In general, we can say,
Change in amount
Percentage increase/decrease = � × 100�%
Original amount
The price of an article was ` 920. After four months, the price increased to ` 943. Find
Example 1
the percentage increase in the price.
Solution:
Original price of the article = ` 920
New price = ` 943
Increase in price = ` 943 – ` 920 = ` 23
Increase in amount
Percentage increase = � × 100�%
Original amount
23 5
Percentage increase = × 100 = = 2.5%
920 2
Increase in price = 2.5%
The price of rice is reduced by 6.5%. After reduction, the new price per kg is ` 37.50.
Example 2
What was the original price of rice per kilogram?
Solution:
Let the original price of rice is ` x
Decreased price = ` 37.50
∴ Decrease in price = ` (x – 37.50)
Percentage decrease = 6.5%
Decrease in amount
Percentage decrease = � Original amount × 100�%

(x – 37.40)
∴ 6.5 = × 100
x
⇒ 6.5x = 100x – 3740
⇒ 100x – 6.5x = 3740
⇒ 93.5x = 3740
3740
⇒x= = ` 40
93.5
Thus, the original price of rice per kilogram was ` 40.

Exercise 13.2
1. The current price of petrol is ` 77.50. If the price is decreased by 4.8%, what is the reduced price
of petrol?
2. A company has 450 employees. It needs to hire 18% more employees, how many more employees
will it hire?
3. The price of a notebook is ` 15. A shopkeeper is selling the notebook for ` 12. What is the decrease
in percentage on the price of the notebook?
4. Mr. Mehra pays a rent of ` 25,000 per month for an apartment. The landlord increased the rent by
9.5%. By how much has the rent increased?

125
 5. The daily wages of a labourer increased from ` 240 to ` 288. What was the percentage increase
in the salary?
6. By installing a solar energy device, Rahul’s electricity bill reduced from ` 9,000 every month to
` 7,800 a month. What was the percentage decrease in the bill amount?
7. The price of petrol increased from ` 75 per litre to ` 81 per litre. Find the percentage increase in
the price of petrol.
8. The number of voters in a village increased by 12.5% in a year. If the number of voters last
year was 4600, how many voters will be there next year?
9. Akansha scored 280 marks in her first term examination and 350 marks in the second term.
What is the percentage increase in the marks?
10. A number is increased by 40% and then decreased by 40%. Find the net increase or decrease
per cent.

Profit and Loss

ŠŠ The price at which an article is purchased is the cost price of the article (C.P.).
ŠŠ The price at which an article is sold is the selling price of the article (S.P.).
ŠŠ When the selling price of an article is greater than the cost price then there is profit in the transaction.
ŠŠ When the selling price of an article is lesser than the cost price then there is loss in the transaction.
Profit = S.P. – C.P. when S.P. > C.P.
Loss = C.P. – S.P. when C.P. > S.P.
S.P. – C.P. Profit
Profit% = � × 100�% = � × 100�%
C.P. C.P.
C.P. – C.P. Loss
Loss% = � × 100�% = � × 100�%
C.P. C.P.
Selling price or cost price can be calculated using the following formulas.
100 + Profit% 100 – Loss%
S.P. = × C.P. S.P. = × C.P.
100 100
100 100
C.P. = × S.P. C.P. = × S.P.
100 + Profit% 100 – Loss%
Overhead expenses: Additional expenses borne by the buyer on things such as rent, repair, transport,
tax, labour charges are termed as overhead charges. These charges are added to the cost price to get
the final cost price.
Final C.P. = C.P. + overhead charges
Ravi bought an old almirah for ` 7500. He spent ` 1000 on it for repairs and ` 300 on it
Example 1
for polishing. Later he sold the almirah for ` 10,000. Find his gain or loss percentage.
Solution:
C.P. of the almirah = ` 7500
Overhead expenses = ` 1000 + ` 300 = ` 1300
Final C.P. = ` 7500 + ` 1300 = ` 8800
S.P. = ` 10,000

126
Since S.P. > C.P. hence there is profit in the transaction.
S.P. – C.P. 10000 – 8800 1200 7
Profit% = � × 100�% = � × 100�% = × 100% = 13 %
C.P. 8800 8800 11
A man sells two articles for ` 3696 each. On one article, he makes gain of 12% and on
Example 2
the other he had a loss of 12%. Find his gain or loss percentage on the entire transaction.
Solution:
S.P. of the first article = ` 3696
Gain% = 12%
100 100 100
∴ C.P. = × S.P = × 3696 = × 3696 = ` 3300
(100 + Profit%) (100 +12 ) 112

S.P. of the second article = ` 3696

Loss = 12%
100 100 100
∴ C.P. = × S.P = × 3696 = × 3696 = ` 4200
(100 − Loss%) (100 − 12 ) 88

Total cost price of two articles = ` 3300 + ` 4200 = ` 7500

Total S.P. of the two articles = 2 × ` 3696 = ` 7392
Since C.P. > S.P., there is a loss in the transaction
Loss = C.P. – S.P. = ` 7500 – ` 7392 = ` 108
 loss  108 11
Loss% =  ×100  % = ×100% = 1 %
 C.P.  7500 25
A shopkeeper sold a dress for ` 1152, and had a loss of 4%. What should be the selling
Example 3
price, if he wants to make a profit of 9%?
Solution:
S.P. of the dress = ` 1152
Loss = 4%
100 100 100
∴ C.P. = × S.P = × ` 1152 = × ` 1152 = ` 1200
(100 − Loss%) (100 − 4 ) 96
Now, C.P.= ` 1200, Profit % = 9%

S.P. =
(100 + Profit%)
× C.P =
(100 + 9 ) × ` 1200 = 109 × ` 1200 = ` 1308
100 100 100
Thus, to gain 9% the shopkeeper should sell the dress for ` 1308.
The selling price of 25 lemons is the same as the cost price of 30 lemons. Find the
Example 4
profit % or loss %.
Solution:
Let the C.P. of one lemon be ` x.
C.P. of 30 lemons = ` 30 x
S.P. of 25 lemons = C.P. of 30 lemons = ` 30 x
C.P. of 25 lemons = ` 25 x

127
 Since S.P. > C.P. hence there will be profit
S.P. – C.P. ( 30 x − 25 x ) 5x
Profit%=
Profit %= ×100 = ×100 = ×100 =
20%
C.P. 25 x 25 x
Profit % = 20%

Alternate method
Let the C.P. of 30 lemons and S.P. of 25 lemons be ` x.
x x
∴ C.P. of each lemon = ` and S.P. of each lemon = `
30 25
x x 6x – 5x x
Profit = S.P. – C.P. = ` � – �=`� �=`
25 30 150 150
 x 
 Profit   150 × 100  % = x 30 
Profit%=
Profit % = × 100  % =   × × 100  % =20 %
 C.P.   x   150 x 
 30 

Exercise 9.3
1. A man purchased a television set for ` 25,000 and sold it for ` 22,000. Find his loss and loss %.
2. Shilpa buys some pencils at the rate of 15 for ` 24 and sells them at the rate of 10 for ` 18. Find
his loss or gain %.
3. The selling price of 12 oranges is the same as the cost price of 15 oranges. Find the profit or loss
per cent.
4. Shravan purchased a scooter for ` 12,500 and sold it for ` 16,550. Find the profit and the profit %
in the whole transaction.
5. A shopkeeper buys a packet of wafers at ` 120 per packet. At what price should he sell the packet
to gain 15%?
6. Mahesh sold two cell phones at ` 9900 each. On one he gained 10% and on the other he lost 10%.
Find:
a. the cost price of each cell phone.
b. the total profit or loss in the whole transaction.
c. his total profit or loss %.
7. Sandesh sold 15 kg apples for ` 2100 and made a profit of 12%. At what price per kg should he
sell to gain 20%?
8. A dealer sold a watch at a profit of 12%. If he had sold it for ` 288 more, he would have made a
profit of 18%. Find the cost price of the watch.
9. A shopkeeper purchased 360 cups for ` 25 each. However 60 cups broke and had to be thrown
away. The remaining cups were sold at ` 33 each. Find the gain or loss %.
10. By selling a table for ` 3360 a shopkeeper would gain 12%. If he sold it for ` 2700 what would be
his gain or loss per cent?

128
Discount
Very often we hear about shops offering things at a reduced price to attract customers. The reduction
in the price of an object to promote sale is called discount.
Marked Price
The list price or the marked price of an article is the price written on its tag.
Discount
When a dealer sells an article at a price lower than the marked price, then the reduction in price is the
discount. Thus, discount is the difference between the marked price and the actual selling price of the
article.
Discount = Marked price (M.P.) – Selling price (S.P.)
Discount can be offered as a sum of money or as a percentage of the marked price.
Discount %  Discount 
∴ Discount = × M.P. ⇒ Discount % =  ×100  %
100  M.P. 
Discount × M.P.
Selling price = Marked price − Discount = M.P. − d % of M.P. = M.P. −
100
 d%   100 − d % 
∴ Selling price =  1 −  × M.P. =   × M.P.
 100   100 
S.P.×100
M.P. =
(100 − discount%)
Discount is always calculated on the marked price of an article.

Example 1 Find the rate of discount, when marked price is ` 900 and selling price is ` 810.

Solution:
M.P. = ` 900, S.P. = ` 810
Discount = M.P. – S.P. = ` 900 – ` 810 = ` 90
discount 90
Rate of discount = discount% = ×100% = ×100% = 10%
M.P. 900

Example 2 Find the selling price, when the marked price is ` 550 and discount is 15%.

Solution:
Discount = 15%, M.P. = ` 550
 100 − d%   100 − 15  85
Selling price =   × M.P. =   × 550 = × 550 = ` 467.50
 100   100  100
A dealer sold an article for ` 2225 after allowing a discount of 11% on its marked price. Find
Example 3
the marked price of the article.
Solution:
S.P. = ` 2225, discount % = 11%
S.P.×100 2225 ×100 2225 ×100
M.P. = = = = ` 2500
(100 − discount%) (100 − 11) 89

129
 Alternate method (Using unitary method)
Let the M.P. = ` 100, Discount = 11 %, ∴ S.P. = ` 89
When S.P. = ` 89 then the M.P. = ` 100
100
When S.P. = ` 1 then the M.P. = `
89
100
When S.P. = ` 2225, M.P. = × ` 2225 = ` 2500
89
A shopkeeper marks his goods at 18% above the cost price and offers a discount of 12%.
Example 4
Find his percentage profit.
Solution:
Let the cost price of the goods be ` 100.
18 ×100
Then, M.P = C.P. + 18% of C.P. = 100 + = ` 118
100
Discount offered = 12% of M.P.
 100 − d%   100 − 12  88
Selling price =   × M.P. =   ×118 = ×118 = `103.84
 100   100  100
Profit = S.P. – C.P. = 103.84 – 100 = ` 3.84
Profit 3.84
Profit % = ×100% = ×100% = 3.84%
C.P. 100

TAX
The government of any country needs money for the development of the country. Governments collect
money from the people of the country by levying taxes. Thus, tax is a contribution by the citizens to the
government to create income for the development and welfare of the country.
In India there are two types of taxes: a. Direct taxes b. Indirect taxes
Direct taxes: These are levied on the income of individuals or organisations. Income tax and corporate
tax are a form of direct tax.
Indirect taxes: These are paid by the consumers or the organisations when they buy goods, services
or both. This tax is added to the cost of the goods and services. Tax is always calculated on the selling
price of the goods and services.

A GOOD is an object people want that they can touch or hold. Goods are items you buy, such
as food, clothing, toys, furniture, and toothpaste etc. Goods mean all kinds of movable things or
properties. Good do not include securities like shares, stocks etc
A SERVICE is an action that a person does for someone else. Services are actions such as
medical check-ups, courier service, car repair, teaching etc. It includes activities where money is
used.

Goods and Services Tax (GST)

In India, there were a number of indirect taxes like Value Added Tax (VAT), sales tax, excise duty, service
tax etc. However, on 1st July 2017, the government abolished all the indirect taxes and introduced only
one indirect tax called the goods and services tax (GST).

130
GST is an all-inclusive indirect tax levied on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods as well as
services at the national level. This tax is paid by the consumers but is remitted to the government by
the business selling goods and service.
Thus, the customer pays the sale price of the goods or services + GST.

There are around 160 countries in the world that have GST.

ŠŠ GST is levied when one buys goods, services or both.

ŠŠ It is levied at all points of sale or transfer of goods or services or both.
ŠŠ It is applicable all over India.
India has a dual GST model in which both States and Central levies tax on Goods or Services or both.
ŠŠ State GST (SGST) collected by the State Govt.
ŠŠ Central GST(CGST) collected by the Central Govt.
CGST is collected by the central government for Intra State transactions (within the state) of both
goods and services.
SGST is collected by the state government for Intra State Transactions of both goods and services.
For example, if a shopkeeper in Maharashtra sells goods worth ` 5000 to a consumer in Maharashtra,
and the rate of GST is 12% on these goods, then the GST will comprise of CGST at the rate of 6% and
SGST at the rate of 6% .The total tax collected from the consumer will be distributed equally between
the state and the centre.
Thus, for ` 5000, share of tax for state will be 6% of ` 5000 = ` 300 and share of tax for centre will also
be 6% of ` 5000 = ` 300
Integrated GST (IGST) is levied by the central government for Inter State Transactions (outside the
state) of both goods and services.
For example, if a manufacturer in Maharashtra sells goods worth ` 5000 to a shopkeeper in Punjab and
the rate of GST is 18% on these goods, then the manufacturer will collect 18% of ` 5000 as IGST and
the entire tax collected will go to the central government.
18% of ` 5000 = ` 900
Thus, ` 900 will be given to the centre.
Integrated GST is also levied on import of goods and services to India and export of goods and services
outside India. However, this tax is later distributed between the respective states as per law.
Goods and services are divided into five different tax slabs for collection of tax - 0%, 5%, 12%, 18% and
28%. Rates of GST for some common items are given below.

Articles Rates of GST

Essential Items including unpacked food
ŠŠ milk, eggs, curd, buttermilk, fresh vegetables and fruits,
0% or no tax
ŠŠ food items like un-branded wheat and rice, un-branded flour, bread, vegetable
oil, religious sweets (prasad), common salt, etc.

131
 Articles Rates of GST
Common use items
ŠŠ skimmed milk powder, milk food for babies, condensed milk, packaged paneer,
cream, frozen vegetables, sugar, spices, edible oil, pizza bread, rusk, sweets,
5%
fish fillets, coffee, tea, juices
ŠŠ medical goods - medicines, stents
ŠŠ newsprint
ŠŠ butter, cheese, ghee, packaged dry fruits, jams, sauces, fruit juices, packed
coconut water, tooth powder, exercise books, notebooks,
12%
ŠŠ ayurveda medicines
ŠŠ mobile phones
ŠŠ ice cream, preserved vegetables, flavoured refined sugar, pasta, corn flakes,
pastries, cakes, soups, instant food mixes, processed food, mineral water,
tissues, toilet paper, hair oil, soap bars, toothpaste, etc 18%
ŠŠ envelopes, fountain pens
ŠŠ printed circuits, monitors
ŠŠ chocolates, chewing gum, custard powder, aerated water,
ŠŠ deodorants, shaving cream, after shave, hair shampoo, dye, sunscreen,
perfume, face creams, detergents 28%
ŠŠ vacuum cleaner, shavers, hair clippers, washing machines, dish washers, water
heaters & other home appliances

A dealer in Maharashtra buys goods worth ` 8200. If the rate of GST is 18%, find the total
Example 1
amount to be paid by the dealer.
Solution:
Since the goods are bought and sold in the same state, hence it is an intra-state transaction.
Cost of goods = ` 8200, GST = 18%
9
CGST = 9% of ` 8200 = × ` 8200 = ` 738
100
9
SGST = 9% of ` 8200 = × ` 8200 = ` 738
100
Total amount to be paid by the dealer = ` 8200 + ` 738 + ` 738 = ` 9676
A dealer in Delhi buys goods worth ` 20,000 from a manufacturer in Mumbai. If the rate of
Example 2
GST is 28%, find the tax to be paid on the sale.
Solution:
As the dealer in Delhi buys goods from a manufacturer in Mumbai, hence this is an inter-state transaction.
Rate of GST is 28%. On this sale IGST is levied.
Cost of goods = ` 20,000, GST = 28%
28
IGST = 28% of ` 20,000 = × ` 20000 = ` 5600
100
∴ Total tax to be paid = ` 5600

132
Exercise 9.4
1. Complete the table given below.

Marked price Selling price Discount Discount %

a. ` 600 ` 510

b. ` 18000 10%

c. ` 1500 12%

d. ` 2100 ` 700

2. A toy was sold at ` 546 after giving a discount of ` 104.

a. What was the marked price of the toy? b. What was the discount per cent?
3. The marked price of a ceiling fan was ` 7200. In the winter season a dealer offers a discount of 12%
on the fan. What is the selling price of the fan?
4. Anila bought a mixer at ` 5640 after getting a discount of 6% on the marked price. What was the
marked price of the mixer?
5. A dealer purchased a refrigerator from a wholesaler at ` 25,500. After offering a discount of 20% on
its marked price, the dealer gains 20%. Find:
a. the selling price of the refrigerator b. the marked price of the refrigerator
6. A vendor marks his goods 24% above the cost price and allows a discount of 25%. What is his gain
or loss per cent?
7. A shopkeeper bought an almirah and a sofa set for ` 10,000 each. He sold the almirah at a loss of
5% and sofa set for a profit of 8%. Find the gain or loss per cent on the whole transaction.
8. During Diwali, a shopkeeper offered a discount of 15% on the marked prices of all the items.
A customer buys a saree marked at ` 3500 and three shirts marked at ` 560 each. Find the total
amount that the customer will pay for the shopping.
9. A shopkeeper gets a mixer for ` 3000. What should be its marked price, if the shopkeeper wants to
gain 20% after giving a discount of 10% on it?
10. At what per cent above the cost price should a dealer mark a computer so that after allowing
a discount of 5%, he still is able to make a profit of 23.5%?
11. Ganesh sold two cupboards for ` 9240 each. On one cupboard he gained 20% and on the other
he lost 20%. Find:
a. the cost price of both the cupboards.
b. the profit % or the loss % in the whole transaction.
12. A dealer in Kerala buys goods worth ` 8200. If the rate of GST is 18%, find the total amount to be
paid by the dealer.
13. A dealer in Kolkata buys goods worth ` 2000 from a manufacturer in Delhi. If the rate of GST is
12%, find the tax to be paid on the sale.
14. A shopkeeper in Bihar buys goods worth ` 50,000 from a manufacturer in Mumbai. If the rate of
GST is 18%, which tax will be levied? Also, find the amount of tax to be paid on the sale.

133
 15. A shopkeeper in Lucknow buys goods worth ` 25,000 from a manufacturer in Lucknow. If the rate
of GST is 5%, find the total amount to be paid by the shopkeeper.

Recollections
ŠŠ The word per cent means ‘per hundred’ or ‘out of hundred’.
ŠŠ A fraction, ratio or a decimal can be expressed as a fraction by multiplying by 100 and writing the
symbol % after the product.
ŠŠ To express a given percentage into a fraction or a decimal divide by 100 and remove the % symbol.
ŠŠ A ratio can be converted into a percentage by changing it to a fraction and then changing the
fraction to a percentage.
ŠŠ To find the percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply it by the
given quantity.
x xy
x% of y= × y=
100 100
ŠŠ To express part of a quantity as a percentage of the whole use the formula:
one quantity
P% = � × 100�%
other quantity

ŠŠ If a quantity increases or decreases, then the increase/ decrease percentage is calculated as

increase in amount
Percentage increase = × 100%
original amount
decrease in amount
Percentage decrease = × 100%
original amount
Profit
ŠŠ If S. P. > C.P then Profit = S.P. – C.P., Profit% = � × 100�%
C.P.
100 (100 + Profit%)
ŠŠ C.P. = × S.P., S.P. = × C.P.
(100 + Profit%) 100
Loss
ŠŠ If C.P. > S.P. then Loss = C.P. – S.P. Loss% = � × 100�%
C.P.
100 (100 – Loss%)
ŠŠ C.P. = × S.P., S.P. = × C.P.
(100 – Loss%) 100

ŠŠ Total C.P. = C.P. + overhead expenses

ŠŠ Selling price(S.P.) = Marked price (M.P.) – Discount.
discount% discount
ŠŠ Discount = × marked price, or Discount% = × 100
100 M.P.
d% 100 – d%
ŠŠ Selling price = �1 – � × M.P. = � � × M.P.
100 100
S.P. × 100
ŠŠ M.P. =
(100 – discount%)

ŠŠ GST is an all-inclusive indirect tax levied on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods as well
as services at the national level.
ŠŠ CGST is collected by the central government for Intra State Transactions (within the state) of both
goods and services.

134
ŠŠ SGST is collected by the state government for Intra State Transactions of both goods and services.
ŠŠ Integrated GST (IGST) is levied by the central government for Inter State Transactions (outside
the state) of both goods and services.

Check your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. 0.16 is

i. 1.6 % ii. 0.16% iii. 0.016% iv. 16%

b. Find the number whose 35% is 217.

i. 642 ii. 600 iii. 620 iv. 293

c. What per cent of 1140 is 57?

i. 5% ii. 6% iii. 8% iv. 10%

d. An article is bought for ` 600 and sold at a profit of 12%. The selling price of the article will be

i. ` 612 ii. ` 624 iii. 672 iv. 582

e. If marked price = ` 450, discount = 5%, then selling price will be

i. ` 422 ii. ` 473 iii. ` 427.50 iv. ` 445

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. Discount is always calculated on .

b. Profit % or loss % is always calculated on .
c. The difference between the marked price and the selling price is called the .
d. If selling price is greater than the cost price, then there is in the transaction.
e. If selling price is lesser than the cost price, then there is in the transaction.
3. Express the following as percentage.
11 3
a. b. 14 : 70 c. 0.087 d. 2.45 e. 4
25 4
4. A retailer buys goods for ` 10,000. He offers a discount of 10% on the marked price of the goods
and still manages a profit of 8%. What was the marked price of the goods?

5. A dealer sells a washing machine for ` 20,570 and gains 10%. Find the cost price of the washing
machine.

Review Exercise
1. Express the following fractions as a percentage.
7 22 1 13
a. b. c. d.
8 16 5 32
2. Express the following percentages as fractions and decimals.
a. 45% b. 52% c. 84% d. 0.56%

135
 3. Express the following ratios as percentages.
a. 13 : 25 b. 12 : 64 c. 5:8 d. 8 : 125

4. Express the following percentages as ratios.

a. 65% b. 12% c. 15% d. 0.45%

5. Sangita bought a book for ` 680 and later sold it for ` 510. Find the loss and loss per cent.
6. There were 1550 boys in a school. 65% of students travel by bus to school and 11% come by their
private vehicle. The rest of the students walk to school. How many students walk to school?
7. A number 75 is misread as 57. Find the reading error per cent.
8. The number of participants in an athletic competition increased from 312 to 351 in a year. Find the
per cent of increase in the year.
9. A rice merchant purchased 50 bags of rice at ` 300 per bag. He spent ` 500 towards transportation.
Due to lack of demand for rice, he incurred a loss of 30%. At what price did he sell each bag of rice?
10. Leena sold 2 boxes of chocolates at ` 150 each making a profit of 25% on one and loss of 25% on
the other. Find:
a. cost price of each box of chocolate.
b. the overall profit or loss.
c. profit or loss %
11. An electronics dealer offers a discount of 10% on the marked price of electronics. He still makes
a profit of 20%. If his gain on the sale of one electronic item is ` 4500, find the marked price of the
electronic item.
12. A man loses 12% by selling an article for ` 528. At what price should he sell it to gain 20%?
13. A man sold two watches for ` 5568 each, one at a profit of 16% and other at a loss of 20% .
a. Find the cost price of the two watches.
b. Does the man gain or lose in the whole transaction?
c. How much is the gain or loss?
14. A dealer in Delhi buys goods worth ` 4500. If the rate of GST is 12%, find the total amount to be
paid by the dealer.
15. A shopkeeper in Kolkata buys an article for ` 80,000 from a dealer in Gujrat. If the rate of GST is
28%, find the tax to be paid on the deal.

Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/percentage.html
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/profit-and-loss
As on 09.05.2019

136
 10. Compound Interest

You know
ŠŠ simple interest and the terms associated with it- principal, rate of interest and time period
ŠŠ formula of simple interest
ŠŠ finding the unknown in the formula of simple interest

You will learn

ŠŠ to calculate compound interest using simple interest formula
ŠŠ to deduce the formula for finding compound interest
ŠŠ to calculate the unknown in the formula of compound interest
ŠŠ to apply of the compound interest formula to calculate appreciation and depreciation

In earlier classes you have studied simple interest and the terms related to it. Let us revise the terms.

Principal: Any money lent or borrowed is called the principal and is generally denoted by P.

Interest: The additional money paid to the lender by the borrower on the principal is called the interest.
It is generally denoted by I.

Time or period: The time period for which the money has been borrowed. It is generally denoted by T
or n.
1
If the time is given in months then, convert it into years by multiplying it by .
12
1 1
∴ 2 months = 2 × = year
12 6
1
If the time is given in days, then convert it into years by multiplying it by .
365
1 4
20 days = 20 × year = year
365 73
Rate of interest: The interest paid on ` 100 for a year is known as the rate of interest. It is denoted by
R or r.

Simple interest: The interest calculated on the same principal over a given time period is called simple
interest. It is generally denoted by S.I.
Principal × Rate × Time P × R × T
Simple interest = S.I.= =
100 100
S.I × 100 S.I × 100 S.I × 100
∴P= ,R= ,T=
R×T P×T P×R
Amount: The sum of the principal and the interest on it for any period of time is called the amount for
that period.

Amount = Principal + Interest

PRT RT
⇒A=P+ = P �1 + �
100 100

137
 Example 1 Calculate the simple interest on ` 1200 for 2 years at 7% per annum

Solution:
Here principal = ` 1200, time = 2 years, rate of interest = 7% p.a.
PRT 1200 × 7 × 2
S.I. = = = ` 168
100 100
Simple interest = ` 168
Compound Interest by Simple Interest Method
Simple interest calculation is based on the same principal for as much time as the interest has to be
calculated. However, there is another method of calculation of interest. In this method the interest
obtained in the first year is added to the principal and then for the second year interest is calculated
on the new principal which is original principal plus interest of first year. This is called compounding of
interest and the interest obtained is the compound interest.
Calculating compound interest when the interest is compounded annually
If the interest obtained in the first year is added to the principal and this new amount becomes the
principal for the second year then the interest is compounded annually. The amount of the second year
becomes the principal for the third year and so on.
Ajay deposits ` 1000 in a bank for 2 years at the rate of 10% per annum. Find the
Example 2
amount he receives after 2 years if interest is compounded annually.
Solution:
Here principal = ` 1000, time = 2 years, rate = 10%.
Since the interest is compound interest we will first calculate the interest for the first year.
Principal = ` 1000, time = 1 year, rate = 10% p.a.
PRT 1000 ×10 ×1
Interest in the
Interest for first year = = = ` 100
100 100
Amount at the end of second year = ` 1000 + ` 100 = ` 1100
For the second year, principal = ` 1100, time = 1 year, rate = 10% p.a.
PRT 1100 ×10 ×1
Interestfor
Interest in second
the first year
year = = = ` 110
100 100
The total interest in two years = ` 100 + ` 110 = ` 210
The amount that Ajay will receive at the end of second year can be calculated as
Amount = Original principal + total interest in two years = ` 1000 + ` 210 = ` 1210
Or as Amount = principal of second year + interest = ` 1100 + ` 110 = ` 1210
Thus, Ajay receives an amount of ` 1210 at the end of 2 years.

Example 3 Jia invests ` 4,500 for 2 years at the rate of 10% p.a. compound interest. Find

a. the sum due to Jia at the end of the first year.

b. the interest she earns for the second year.

138
Solution:
a. Principal for first year = ` 4,500, rate = 10%, time = 1 year
PRT 4500 × 10 × 1
Simple interest for first year = = = ` 450
100 100
Amount due after first year = P + S.I = ` 4500 + ` 450 = ` 4,950
Thus, the sum due to Jia at the end of the first year is ` 4950
PRT 4950 × 10 × 1
b. Simple interest for second year = = = ` 495
100 100
The interest Jia earns for the second year is ` 495.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 10.1
1. Calculate the compound interest on ` 10,000 for 2 years at 7% p.a.
2. Calculate the compound interest on ` 15,000 for 2 years at 6% p.a.
3. Calculate the amount and the compound interest on ` 8000 for 3 years at 15% p.a., interest
compounded annually.
4. Harish invests ` 12,500 for 2 years at 12% p.a., calculate the amount and the compound interest
that Harish will get after 2 years.
5. Mahesh invests ` 3000 for 3 years at the rate of 10% p.a. compound interest. Find the amount and
the compound interest that Ramesh will get after 3 years.
6. Sameer gave a loan of ` 55,000 to Deepak for a period of two years at 16% per annum compounded
yearly. How much interest will Sameer earn?
7. Ramesh invests ` 20,000 for 3 years at the rate of 10% p.a. compound interest. Find
a. the interest he earns for the first year.
b. the sum due to Ramesh at the end of the second year.
c. the total amount due to him at the end of the third year.
8. What will be the compound interest on ` 30,000 at 20% p.a compounded annually for 3 years?
9. Rehana borrows ` 2500 from Brinda at an interest rate of 8% for 2 years. How much money will
Rehana have to pay to Brinda after 2 years?
10. Calculate the compound interest for the second year on ` 5000 invested for 3 years at 20% p.a.
Also find the sum due at the end of third year.

Deduction of Formula of Compound Interest

The method of finding compound interest using the formula for simple interest is long and time
consuming. A formula for compound interest can also be deduced which makes calculations much
simpler and quicker. Let us deduce the formula for calculating compound interest.
The formula for calculating simple interest for a principal of ` P, rate R% p.a and Time T is given
PRT
as: S.I. =
100

139
 And the amount (A) is found by using the formula:
PRT  RT 
A= P + = P  1+ 
100  100 
Let us consider a sum of ` P invested at R% p.a. compounded annually for n years.
P × R ×1
Interest for first year =
100
PR  R 
⇒ Amount (A) after 1 year =+ P P  1+
= 
100  100 
 R 
Principal for second year = amount after first year = P  1 + 
 100 
 R  R PR  R 
∴ Interest for second year =
P  1+  =  1+ 
 100  100 100  100 
 R  PR  R 
⇒ Amount (A) after 2 years =
P  1+  +  1+ 
 100  100  100 
 PR   R 
= P + 1+
 100   100 
 
2
 R  R   R 
= P=
 1+ 100   1+ 100  P  1+ 100 
    
Similarly for the third year,
3
 R  R  R   R 
Amount (A) after 3 years P=
=  1+ 100   1+ 100   1+ 100  P  1+ 100 
     
n
 R 
In general, we can say, amount after n years, A = P  1+  and Compound interest (C.I.) = A – P
 100 
Calculate the amount and the compound interest on a sum of ` 1000 at 10% p.a.
Example 1
compounded annually for 3 years.
Solution:
Here Principal = ` 1000, R = 10% p.a, time n = 3 years
n 3 3
 R   10   11  11 11 11
A = P  1+  = 1000  1+  = 1000   = 1000 × × × = ` 1331
 100   100   10  10 10 10

Amount = ` 1331
C.I. = A – P = ` 1331 – ` 1000 = ` 331
In the above example, the interest has been compounded annually. This means that after one year, the
interest is added to the principal to form the new principal.
The time period after which the interest is added each time to form a new principal is called the
conversion period.
When the interest is compounded annually, there is one conversion period in a year.
When the interest is compounded half yearly, then there are two conversion periods in a year each after
6 months. In such cases, the half yearly rate will be half of the annual rate.

140
 If the interest is compounded quarterly, there are four conversion periods in a year each after 3 months.
In such cases, the quarterly rate will be one-fourth of the annual rate.

For interest compounded half yearly,

R R 2n
Rate = % per half year, time = 2n half years, ∴ A = P �1 + �
2 200
For interest compounded quarterly,
R R 4n
Rate = % per quarter, time = 4n quarters ∴ A = P �1 + �
4 400

Calculate the amount and the compound interest on a sum of ` 80,000 at 10% p.a.
Example 2
compounded half yearly for 1.5 years.
Solution:

P = ` 80,000, Since interest is compounded half yearly

10
∴ n = 1.5 years = 2 × 1.5 = 3 half years, R = 10% p.a.= = 5% half yearly
2
n
 R 
A P 1 +
= 
 100 
3 3 3 3
 5   100 + 5   105   21 
⇒ A 80000  1 + =
=  80000  100=  80000  100
=  ` 80000  20 
 100       
21 21 21
⇒=A ` 80000 × × × = ` 92610
20 20 20
Amount = ` 92610

C.I = A – P = ` 92,610 – ` 80,000 = ` 12,610

Calculate the amount and the compound interest on a sum of ` 15,000 at 8% p.a.
Example 3
compounded quarterly for 6 months.
Solution:

P = ` 15,000
6 6
Since the interest is compounded quarterly ∴n = 6 months = year = × 4 quarters = 2 quarters
12 12
8
R = 8 % p.a.= = 2% quarterly
4
n
 R 
A P 1 +
= 
 100 
2 2 2 2
 2   100 + 2   102   51 
⇒ A ` 15000  1 + =
=  ` 15000  100=  ` 15000  =  ` 15000  50 
 100     100   
51 51
⇒
= A ` 15000 × ×= ` 15606
50 50
Amount = ` 15606

C.I = A – P = ` 15,606 – ` 15,000 = ` 606

141
 Compound Interest When the Time is not An Exact Number of Years and the
Interest Is Compounded Yearly
Find the compound interest when a sum of ` 10,000 is invested for 2 years and
Example 4
3 months at 10% per annum compounded annually.
Solution:
3 1
Principal = ` 10,000, Rate = 10%, Time = 2 years and 3 months = 2 years = 2 years
12 4
Since the number of years is a fraction, so first find the compound interest for two years.
2 2
 10   110  11 11
Amount in two years = 10,000 ×  1 + = 10,000 ×  =  10,000 × × = ` 12,100
 100   100  10 10
Interest for 2 years = ` 12,100 – ` 10,000 = ` 2,100
1
Principal for the remaining year is = ` 12,100,
4
1
Now find the S.I. on ` 12,100 for year
4
1
1 12100 × 10 ×
Simple Interest for next year = ` 4 = ` 302.50
4 100
1
Total compound Interest for 2 years= ` 2,100 + ` 302.50 = ` 2,402.50
4
Alisha borrows ` 10,000 at 10% per annum for 2 years at simple interest and Dhruv
Example 5
borrows the same amount for the same time period at 8% per annum, compounded
annually. Who pays more interest and by how much?
Solution:
Simple Interest paid by Alisha
Principal = ` 10,000, Rate = 10%, Time = 2 years
P×R×T 10000 × 10 × 2
S.I. = =` = ` 2000
100 100
Compound Interest paid by Dhruv:
Principal = ` 10,000, Rate = 8 %, Time = 2 years
n 2 2
 R   8   108  27 27
=A P 1 + =  ` 10,000 ×  1 + =  ` 10,000 ×  =  ` 10,000 × × = ` 11,664
 100   100   100  25 25
C.I. = A – P = ` 11664 – ` 10,000 = ` 1664
Since, ` 2,000 > ` 1,664
Hence, difference in interest = ` 2,000 – ` 1,664 = `336
Thus, Alisha paid ` 336 more interest than Dhruv.

Exercise 10.2
1. Calculate the amount and compound interest on:
a. ` 3,000 for 2 years at 10% per annum compounded annually.
b. ` 6,400 for 2 years at 6 % per annum compounded annually.
c. ` 7,500 for 1 year at 16% per annum compounded half yearly.
d. ` 10,000 for 6 months at 2 % per annum compounded quarterly.

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2. Calculate the compound interest on a sum of ` 25,000 at 8% p.a. compounded annually for 2 years.
3. Calculate the amount on a sum of ` 15,000 at 12% p.a. compounded annually for 2 years.
4. Urav took a loan of ` 8,000 from a bank at 15% rate of interest per annum compounded annually
for 3 years. What will be the interest levied on the sum in three years?
5. What will be the interest on a sum of ` 48,000 invested for 1.5 years at 10% rate of interest p. a.
compounded half yearly?
6. What will be the interest on a sum of ` 72,000 invested for 9 months at 20% rate of interest p. a.
compounded quarterly?
7. David took a loan of ` 40,000 from a bank. If the rate of interest is 20% per annum, find the amounts
he will have to pay to the bank after 1 year, if the interest is
a. compounded annually
b. compounded half yearly
8. Asha lent out ` 24000 to Sabina as loan at the rate of 10% p.a. compounded annually. What
amount will she get back after 2 years 5 months?
9. Find the compound interest on ` 6,000 for year at the rate of 4% per annum, if the interest is:
a. compounded half yearly.
b. compounded quarterly.

Application of Compound Interest

The compound interest formula can be used for any situation where there is an increase or decrease
of a quantity at a constant rate R%.
For example, let us say that the population of a town is P in a certain year and it increases by R % each
year, then the population after 1 year will be

 R 
New population = P  1+ 
 100 
 R  R 
At the end of the second year the population will be P  1+   1+ 
 100   100 
n
 R 
∴ At the end of the n years the population will be P 1+ 
 100 

If there is a decrease in population of a town by R% every year, then, the population at the end of
n
 R 
n years will be P 1 – 
 100 

Such a kind of increase and decrease takes place in many other situations, say, if a person buys a car
and wants to sell it after 2 years, then the price of the car at which he sells will be less than the original
price. In such cases where there is a decrease in the value of the commodity over a period of time, it is
said that there is depreciation in the price of the commodity.
If there is an increase in price, we say there is an appreciation in the price of the commodity.

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 n
 R 
In the case of appreciation, use the formula=
A P 1 + 
 100 
n
 R 
In the case of depreciation, use the formula A = P  1– 
 100 

The present population of a city is 7,20,000. The rate of increase of population is 6%

Example 1
p.a. What will be the population of the city after 2 years?
Solution:
Present population = 7,20,000, R = 6% p.a., time = 2 years
n 2
 R   6  106 106
Population after 2 years == P 1+  = 720000 1+  = 720000 × × = 808992
 100   100  100 100
The population of the city after 2 years will be 8,08,992.
Ajay bought a new computer for ` 45,000. Its value depreciates by 14% every year.
Example 2
What will be its value after 2 years?
Solution:
Original price = ` 45,000, rate of depreciation = 14%, time = 2 years.
n 2
 R   14  86 86
Price of the computer after 2 years == P  1 −  = ` 45000  1 − 100  = ` 45000 × 100 × 100 = ` 33282
 100   
The price of the computer after 2 years is ` 33,282.
There are 50,000 bacteria in a test tube. The bacteria are reproducing at the rate of 30%
Example 3
per hour. Calculate the number of bacteria in the test tube after 4 hours.
Solution:
Number of bacteria in the test tube (principal) = 50,000
Rate of growth = 30% per hour
Time = 4 hours
The number of bacteria after 4 hours =
n 4 4
 R   30   130  13 13 13 13
= P  1+  = 50,000  1+  = 50,000   = 50,000 × × × × = 1, 42,805
 100   100   100  10 10 10 10
The number of bacteria after 4 hours is 1,42,805.

Exercise 10.3
1. The present population of a city is 2,50,000. The rate of increase of population is 6% p .a. What will
be the population of the city after 2 years?
2. A car purchased at a price of ` 7,50,000 depreciates at the rate of 22% each year. What will be the
value of the car at the end of 3 years? By how much will it depreciate in 3 years?
3. An antique coin in the museum valued at ` 32,000 appreciates at a rate of 10% every year. What
will be its value after 3 years?
4. In a certain year the value of a plot of land is ` 6,25,000. The rate of inflation is 4.8% per annum.
What will be the value of the plot after 2 years?

144
5. In a school, there were 2,400 students. If there is an increase of rate of 5% students each year, how
many students will be there in the school after 2 years?
6. The population of a village decreased due to lack of schools and job opportunities in the village.
Every year 10% people migrated to cities. If the population of the village was 75,000 two years ago,
what will be the population after one year? How many people would have migrated in the three
years?
7. Mr. Mehra bought a holiday home for ` 7,50,000. If its value appreciates by 8% every year, what
will be its value after 3 years?
8. The price of a machine depreciates by 10% every year. If the machine is bought for ` 18,000 and
sold after 3 years, what price will it fetch?
Karan deposits a sum of ` 1,00,000 in a bank in a savings account at a rate of 6% p.a.
simple interest. After 3 months, he withdraws ` 50,000 and lends it to his friend at an interest
rate of 10% p.a. compounded half yearly. Calculate:
a. the simple interest earned by Karan in the whole year
b. the interest paid by his friend after one year.
c. the total money earned by Karan.

Recollections
ŠŠ Any money lent or borrowed is called the Principal (P).
ŠŠ The additional money paid to the lender by the borrower over the principal is called the interest.
ŠŠ The time period for which the money has been borrowed is denoted by T or n.
1
ŠŠ If time is given in months then convert it into years by multiplying it by .
12
1 1
∴ 2 months = 2 × = year
12 6
1
ŠŠ If the time is given in days then convert it into years by multiplying it by .
365
ŠŠ The interest paid on ` 100 for a year is known as the rate of interest. It is denoted by R or r.
ŠŠ The interest calculated on the same principal over a given time period is called simple interest. (S.I.)

Principal × Rate × Time P × R × T

ŠŠ Simple interest = = ,
100 100
S.I × 100 S.I × 100 S.I × 100
∴P= ,R= ,T= .
R×T P×T P×R
• Amount = Principal + Interest
• The interest calculated on a new principal every year is the compound interest.
n
 R 
A P 1 +
• =  and C.I = A – P
 100 
• If the interest on the principal is added to the principal every half year, we say that interest is
R
compounded half yearly. If the rate is R% per annum, then for half a year the rate is % and time
2
(in years) is multiplied by 2.

145
 • If the interest on the principal is added to the principal every three months (every quarter) we
say that interest is compounded quarterly. If the rate is R% per annum, then per quarter the rate
R
is % and time (in years) is multiplied by 4.
2
• When there is a decrease in the value of the commodity over a period of time, it is said that
there is depreciation in the price of the commodity.
• When there is an increase in price we say there is an appreciation in the price of the commodity.
• Appreciation and depreciation can be calculated by using the compound interest formula

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. The correct relationship between Amount, C.I. and P is
i. A = C.I. – P ii. C.I. = A – P iii. A = P – C.I. iv. C.I = A + P

b. The compound interest on ` 1000 at 10% p.a. for 2 years.

i. ` 210 ii. ` 1100 iii. ` 1210 iv. ` 200

c. If the interest is compounded half-yearly, then to find the amount, the time period is
i. halved ii. tripled iii. remains same iv. doubled

d. If the interest is compounded quarterly, then to find the amount, the time is made
i. double ii. four times iii. remains same iv. halved

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. Amount = Simple Interest +
b. Decrease in the value of a commodity over a period of time is called .
c. The compound interest on ` 2000 for 2 years at 10% p.a. is .
d. The time after which the interest is added each time to form a new principal is called
.
1
3. Find the compound interest on ` 6400 at 6 % p.a. for 2 years.
4
4. A library had 2,000 registered members. Every year 10% more members join the library. How many
members will be there after 2 years?

Review Exercise
1. Find the compound interest on ` 2,000 at 5% per annum for 2 years.
2. Calculate the amount and the compound interest on ` 60,000 at 10% p.a compounded annually
for 3 years.
3. Find the compound interest on ` 1,55,000 invested at 4% per annum compounded annually for
2 years.
4. Calculate the amount and the compound interest on ` 7,936 at 25 % p.a compounded annually for
3 years.

146
5. A sum of ` 93,750 is deposited in a bank at 8% rate of interest p.a. compounded half yearly for
1.5 years. What will be the interest earned in a year?
6. A sum of ` 18800 is invested at 20% per annum compounded quarterly. What is the amount after
6 months?
7. Sandesh deposited ` 2,50,000 in a bank at 8% p.a. compounded quarterly. Calculate the amount
Sandesh will get after 9 months.
8. The population of a city increases from 40,960 at a rate of 25% per annum. What will be the
population of the village after 3 years?
9. The value of a car depreciates by 15% every year. If the current value of the car is ` 2,40,000, what
will be its value after 3 years?
10. The value of a television set depreciates by 12% every year. Sanjay bought a television for
` 25,000 and sold it after 2 years. At what price did Sanjay sell the television set?

Weblinks
https://www.ixl.com/math/grade-8/compound-interest
http://www.softschools.com/formulas/math/compound_interest_formula/138/
As on 09.05.2019

147
 11. Direct and Inverse Proportions

You know
ŠŠ ratio is used to compare quantities
ŠŠ unitary method and its applications

You will learn

ŠŠ meaning of direct and inverse proportion
ŠŠ to identify whether a situation is of direct or of inverse proportion
ŠŠ the application of direct and inverse proportion in real life problems

Direct Proportion
Let us consider the following.
When we travel in a vehicle, we know if the speed of the vehicle increases the distance covered also
increases.
If the price of 12 boxes of sweets is ` 200, then the price of 2 boxes will be less.
If the weight of 5 packets of cookies is 2 kilogram, then the weight of 6 packets of cookies will be more.
In all the above examples, if one quantity increases (or decreases) then the other also increases (or
decreases).
Thus, if one quantity increases (or decreases) and the other quantity also increases (or decreases),
then the quantities are said to be in direct proportion.
Let us consider the number of notebooks and their price.

Number of notebooks 1 2 3 4

Price (in `) 15 30 45 60

Number of notebooks 1 2 1 3 1 4 1
= = =
Price 15 30 15 45 15 60 15

Number of notebooks 1
Here, we find that is always a constant � �.
Price 15
If x is the number of notebooks and y is the price then,
x
= constant k(say), k is said to be the constant of proportionality.
y
In general terms, we can say if two quantities vary directly, then the ratio between them is always
a constant.

Let x1, x2 and y1, y2 be the values that the quantities take then we have,
x1 x x x x y
=k; 2 =k ⇒ 1 = 2 ⇒ 1 = 1 = k is called the constant of proportionality.
y1 y2 y1 y2 x2 y2

148
 When two quantities vary such that the ratio between them is constant, then the quantities are said
to be in direct variation (also known as direct proportion).
x
If = k, then x and y are in direct proportion.
y

Example 1 Observe the following tables and find if x and y are directly proportional.

a. b.
x 10 6 36 14 x 2 16 24 50
y 30 18 108 42 y 4 18 40 100

Solution:
a. 10 1 6 1 36 1 14 1 b. 2 1 16 8 24 3 50 1
= = , ,= = , = = , ,
= ,=
30 3 18 3 108 3 42 3 4 2 18 9 40 5 100 2
x 10 6 36 14 1 x 1 2 16 16 24 24 50
Here, = = = = = ⇒ = (constant) Here, ≠ , ≠ , ≠
y 30 18 108 42 3 y 3 4 18 18 40 40 100
x
∴ x and y are directly proportional. ⇒ is not a constant.
y
∴ x and y are not directly proportional.
If 6 litres of milk of a particular brand costs ` 240. Tabulate the cost of 2, 4, 8 and 10
Example 2
litres of milk of the same type.
Solution:
Let the amount of milk = x litres and cost = ` y

x 2 4 6 8 10
y (`) y1 y2 240 y3 y4

As the amount of milk increases (or decreases) the cost of milk also increases (or decreases) in the
same ratio. Hence, this is direct variation.
x
⇒ is a constant.
y
2 4 6 8 10
⇒ = = = =
y1 y2 240 y3 y4

2 6 2 × 240
Taking = ⇒ 6 y1 =2 × 240 ⇒ y1 = =` 80
y1 240 6

4 6 4 × 240
Taking = ⇒ 6 y2 =2 =4 × 240 ⇒ y2 = =` 160
y2 240 6

8 6 8 × 240
Taking = ⇒ 6 y3 =8 × 240 ⇒ y3 = =` 320
y3 240 6

10 6 10 × 240
Taking = ⇒ 6 y4 = 10 × 240 ⇒ y4 = = ` 400
y4 240 6

x 2 4 6 8 10
y 80 160 240 320 400

149
 Example 3 Find the value of a and b, if x and y vary directly.

x 4 8 11 b
y 20 40 a 260

Solution:
x
Since x and y vary directly, hence = constant
y
4 1
∴ = (reducing the ratio to the lowest form)
20 5
1
Thus, is the constant of variation.
5
11 1
∴ = or a = 11 × 5 = 55
a 5
b 1 260
= or b = = 52
260 5 5

Example 4 If the cost of 12 oranges is ` 144, what will be the cost of 15 oranges?

Solution:
Let the cost of oranges be ` x.

Number of oranges 12 15
Cost (in ` ) 144 x

More the number of oranges, more will be the cost. Hence, it is direct variation.
12 15 15 × 144
∴ = ⇒x= ⇒ x = 180
144 x 12
Thus, the price of 15 oranges is ` 180.
2 kg of cookies can be packed into 5 packets, how many packets will be needed to pack
Example 5
3 kg 200 g of cookies?
Solution:
Let the number of packets required to pack 3 kg 200 g of cookies be x.
More the weight of cookies more packets will be needed to pack them Hence, it is direct variation.

Weight of cookies in g 2000 3200

Number of packets 5 x

2000 3200 5 × 3200

∴ = ⇒x= =8
5 x 2000
Thus, 8 packets will be required to pack 3 kg 200 g of cookies.
A boy covers a distance of 2800 m in 35 minutes on a bicycle. How much distance will
Example 6
he be able to cover in 50 minutes?
Solution:
Let the distance covered be x m.
More the time more will be the distance that will be covered. Hence, it is direct variation.

150
 Distance covered in metres 2800 x
Time taken in minutes 35 50

2800 x 2800 × 50
∴ = ⇒x= = 4000 m
35 50 35
Thus, the distance covered by the boy in 50 minutes = 4000 m

A map is a small representation of a very large area. Thus, map is a scale drawing. The
measurements on a map are in proportion to the actual distances. If 1 cm on a map equals an
actual distance of 20 km, then the scale is 1 cm : 20 km or 1 : 2000000.

The scale of a map is given as 1 : 10000000. On a map, two cities are seen to be 5 cm
Example 7
apart. Find the actual distance between them.
Solution:
Let the map distance be x cm and actual distance by y km.
1: 10000000 = x : y
1 x
⇒ 7
=
1× 10 y
Since, x = 5 cm,
1 5
∴ 7
=
1× 10 y
⇒ y = 5 × 107 cm = 500 km

Let's Exercise
Exercise 11.1
1. In which of the following tables, x and y vary directly?
a. b.
x 10 24 50 42 x 12 18 33 36

y 15 36 75 56 y 16 24 44 48

2. Find the value of m and n in the given table if x and y vary directly.
a. b.
x 5 m 12 15 x m 20 10 5

y 65 91 156 n y 6 4 n 1

3. A labourer earns ` 250 per day, how much will he earn in 31 days?

4. A manufacturer produces 2080 toys in a day. Working at the same rate how many toys will it
1
produce in 4 days?
2
5. The cost of 6 kilograms of rice is ` 665.40. How much rice can be bought for ` 499.05?
6. 260 ml of milk can be filled in one bottle. How many such bottles are required to fill 41.6 litres of
milk?

151
 7. 2 boxes of cherries cost ` 350. What will be the cost of 5 such boxes?
8. Aditya can read 40 words in a minute. How many words will he read in 12 minutes, if he continues
to read at the same speed?
9. A car can cover a distance of 21 km with 1.5 litres of petrol. How much distance will the car cover with
20 litres of petrol?
1
10. The cost of 62 m of cloth is ` 1525. Find the cost of 280 m of cloth.
2
11. The cost of a pizza varies directly with its size. If a 6 inch pizza costs ` 120, what will be the cost
of 18 inch pizza?
12. A tap can fill two-fifth of a tank in 8 minutes,
a. How much of the tank will be filled in 20 minutes?
b. How much time will it take to fill the half the tank?
13. 15 people can complete 5 projects in a week, how many projects can be completed by 12 people
in week?
14. A 6 m high vertical flagpost casts a shadow 3 m 50 cm long. Find the length of the shadow cast
by another pole 9 m 60 cm high at the same time.
15. On a road map 1 cm represents 3 km. How much would 6 cm represent?

16. A train is moving at an average speed of 72 km/h. How much distance will it cover in 25 minutes?

Inverse Proportion
Let us consider the following.
ŠŠ If the speed of a vehicle increases, the time taken to cover a given distance decreases.
ŠŠ If 12 men can make some sweets in 2 hours then to make the same number of sweets in 1 h, more
men will be required.
ŠŠ If 100 kg of rice is sufficient for 25 people for 8 days, then the same quantity of rice will last for less
number of days for 50 people.
In all the above examples, if one quantity increases, then the other decreases. Such a variation is called
an inverse variation.
Let us consider an example.
The table given below shows the number of men and the number of days needed to complete a given
work.

Number of men (x) 20 10 8 5

Number of days (y) 4 8 10 16

20 men can complete a work in 4 days, if the number of men is reduced then the number of days
required to complete the work will increase.
So, 10 men will complete the work in 8 days,

152
8 men will complete the work in 10 days,

5 men will complete the work in 16 days,

This type of variation where one quantity decreases (or increases) then the other increases (or
decreases) is called an inverse variation.

20 × 4 = 80; 10 × 8 = 80; 8 × 10 = 80; 5 × 16 = 80

Here the product of x and y remains constant.

Thus, xy = constant k, k is said to be the constant of variation.

If x1 and x2 are two distinct values of x and the corresponding two distinct values of y are y1 and y2, then
x y
x1 y1 = x2 y2. We can also say that 1 = 2.
x2 y1

When two quantities vary such that their product remains constant, then the quantities are said to
be in inverse proportion (also known as inverse variation).

Example 1 Observe the following tables and find if x and y are inversely proportional.

a. b.
x 12 30 60 300 x 14 70 35 10
y 50 20 10 2 y 50 200 15 70

Solution:
a. 12 × 50 = 600, 30 × 20 = 600, 60 × 10 = 600, 300 × 2 = 600,
Since, 12 × 50 = 30 × 20 = 60 × 10 = 300 × 2 = 600, ∴ xy is a constant.
∴ x and y are inversely proportional.
b. 14 × 50 = 700, 70 × 200 = 1400, 35 × 15 = 525, 10 × 70 = 700
Since,14 × 50 ≠ 70 × 200, 35 × 15 ≠ 10 × 70, ∴ xy is not a constant
∴ x and y are not inversely proportional

Example 2 Find the value of a and b, if x and y vary inversely.

x 60 a 10 5
y 2 4 12 b

Solution:
Since, x and y vary inversely.
∴ xy = k
60 × 2 = 120 ⇒ k = 120
120
∴ a × 4 = 120 ⇒ a = = 30
4
120
5 × b = 120 ⇒ b = = 24
5
Thus, a = 30 and b = 24

153
 21 men can complete a work in 10 hours, how many men are required to complete the
Example 3
same work in 6 hours?
Solution:
Let the number of men required to complete the work in 6 hours = x

Number of men 21 x
Number of hours 10 6

In fewer hours, more men will be required to complete the work.

Hence, this is an example of inverse variation.
21 × 10 = x × 6
21 × 10
⇒x= = 35
6
Thus, 35 men are required to complete the work in 6 hours.
If 100 kg of rice is sufficient for 25 people for 8 days, then for how many days will the
Example 4
same quantity of rice last for 40 people?
Solution:
Let the required number of days be x.

Number of people 25 40
Number of days 8 x

Here, as the number of people increases, the number of days decreases. Hence, this is an example of
inverse variation.
∴ 25 × 8 = 40 × x
25 × 8
⇒x= =5
40
Thus, for 40 people, the rice will last for 5 days.
8 pipes running together can fill a tank in 15 minutes. Considering that water flows
Example 5
through all the pipes at a constant rate, how much time will 6 pipes take to fill the same
tank?
Solution:
Let the time taken by 6 pipes is x minutes.

Number of pipes 8 6
Time taken (in minutes) 15 x

Here, as the number of pipes decrease, the time taken to fill the tank will increase. Hence, this is an
example of inverse variation.
∴ 8 × 15 = 6 × x
8 × 15
⇒x= = 20
6
Thus, 6 pipes will take 20 minutes to fill the tank.

154
 Exercise 11.2
1. In which of the following tables, x and y vary inversely?
a. b.
x 12 42 28 84 x 20 30 60 90

y 14 4 6 2 y 45 30 15 20

2. Find the value of m and n in the given table if x and y vary inversely.
a. b.
x 30 4 n 6 x 2 4 5 n

y 60 m 36 30 y m 65 52 20

3. 8 men can complete a work in 12 days. In how many days can 6 men complete the same work?

4. 16 men can build a wall in 25 days. How many days will 20 men take to build the same wall?

5. In a boys’ hostel, there is enough ration for 125 students to last for 21 days. How long will the food
last if 50 more students join them?

6. 22 men can reap a field in 15 days, how many days will 55 men take to do the same work?
7. 4 painters can paint a house in 6 days, how many days would 3 painters take to paint the same
house?
8. 3 tractors can plough a field in 6.5 hours, how much time will 5 tractors take to plough the same
field?
9. 6 pipes running together can fill a tank in 36 minutes. Considering that water flows through all the
pipes at a constant rate, how much time will 9 pipes take to fill the same tank?
10. The length of a rectangle is inversely proportional to its breadth. When the length is 5 m the breadth
is 2 m, what will be the length if the breadth is 2.5 m?

Recollections
ŠŠ When two quantities vary such that the ratio between them is constant, then the quantities are said
to be in direct variation (also known as direct proportion).
x
ŠŠ = k, is said to be the constant of variation.
y
ŠŠ When two quantities vary such that their product remains constant, then the quantities are said to
be in inverse variation (also known as inverse proportion).
ŠŠ xy = constant k, k is said to be the constant of variation.
x2 x x x1 y1
=k; =k ⇒ 1 = 2Š⇒
Š =
y2 y1 y2 x2 y2

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. Two quantities x and y are said to be in inverse proportion when
x
i. x = y ii. xy is a constant iii. is a constant iv. x – y is a constant
y

155
 b. If 7 kg sugar costs ` 140, then the cost of 12 kg of sugar is
i. ` 100 ii. ` 340 iii. ` 240 iv. ` 40

c. A car can travel a distance of 750 km in 50 litres of petrol. The distance it will travel in
35 litres of petrol is
i. 500 km ii. 650 km iii. 580 km iv. 525 km

d. If 5 pipes can fill a tank in 1 hours, then 4 pipes can fill the tank in
i. 75 minutes ii. 65 minutes iii. 60 minutes iv. 125 minutes

2. State true or false.

a. To build a wall, more the number of men, more will be the time taken.

b. In direct proportion if the value of a quantity is doubled, then the other quantity becomes half.

c. Two quantities are in inverse proportion if x × y is a constant.

3. 14 men working 9 hours a day can earn ` 54880 in a week. How much will 18 men working 9 hours
a day earn in a week?

4. 6 pumps can empty a tank in 12 hours, how many pumps will empty the tank in 18 hours?

5. The price of 80 m of cable wire is ` 560. What will be the price of 125 m of cable wire?

Review Exercise
1. Which of the following show direct variation?
a. The number of men to complete a job to the number of hours to do the job
b. The time taken for a journey and the distance travelled with uniform speed
c. The speed of a vehicle and the distance travelled by it.
2. Which of the following show inverse variation?
a. Pressure of a gas to the volume of the gas.
b. Speed of a vehicle to the time taken.
c. Number of workers in a company to the number of objects manufactured
3. Find the value of m and n in the given tables, if x and y vary directly.
a. b.
x 16 m 560 x 1 6 15
y 2 30 n y 12 m n

4. Find the value of m and n in the given table, if x and y vary inversely.
a. b.
x 5 m n x 7 m 14
y 12 15 10 y 22 14 n

5. A pump can empty a tank of capacity 300 litres in 40 minutes. How long will the pump take to empty
240 litres of water from the tank?

156
6. A baker uses 300 g of sugar to bake a cake of half a kg. How much sugar will he need to bake
12 such cakes?

7. 18 toys cost ` 990. How many toys can be bought for ` 3465?

8. The distance travelled by a car in 3.5 hours is 217 km. What is the speed of the car?

9. A worker gets a salary of ` 12,000 for working for 30 days. If he works only for 22 days in a month,
what will be his salary?

10. In a fort there is enough food for 250 soldiers for 37 days. However, 65 soldiers leave the fort. For
how many days will the food last for the remaining soldiers?

11. A train 315 m long crosses a pole in 12 seconds. Find the speed of the train in m/s.

12. 35 men can complete the tiling of a hall in 8 days. How many men can do the same work in 7 days?

13. A car travels at a speed of 64 km/h. How much distance will it cover in 2 hours 30 minutes?

14. The weight of 12 watermelons is 40.8 kg. What will be the weight of 18 such watermelons?

15. 7 taps running together at a constant rate can fill a tank in 80 minutes. 3 taps stop working, how
long will the remaining taps take to fill the tank?

16. Siddhartha can type 275 words in 5 minutes. How many words will he type in 16 minutes, if he
continues to type at the same speed?

17. A building can be completed in 5 months with 400 workers. However the contractor employed only
250 workers, how many months will he take to complete the building?

18. A sum of ` 20,000 yielded an interest of ` 1200 in a year. How much interest will a sum of ` 35,000
yield in one year at the same rate of interest?

19. A pit is dug by 14 people in 15 days. How many days will 10 people take to do the same work?

20. The length of a rectangle is 40 cm and its breadth is 24 cm. If the length and the breadth vary
inversely, what will be the breadth of the rectangle if the length is 60 cm?

Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/directly-inversely-proportional.html
https://www.onlinemath4all.com/direct-proportion-and-inverse-proportion.html
As on 09.05.2019

157
 12. Understanding Quadrilaterals

You know
ŠŠ the properties of lines and angles
ŠŠ classification of triangles based on angles and based on sides
ŠŠ angle sum property of triangles
ŠŠ different types of quadrilaterals-trapezium, parallelogram, rhombus rectangle, square

You will learn

ŠŠ types of polygons
ŠŠ angle sum property of polygons
ŠŠ exterior angle property of polygons
ŠŠ properties of various types of quadrilaterals like trapezium, parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle,
square and kite

In the earlier classes we have learnt about planes. Pages of your textbook, top of a table, floor of
a room, etc. are all examples of plane.
When a pencil tip is moved from one point to the other without lifting on a sheet of paper, we get a plane
curve.
Consider the plane curves given below.

(i) (ii) (iii)

(iv) (v) (vi)

Figures (i), (v) and (vi) have different beginning and ending points. Such curves are called open curves.
Figures (ii), (iii) and (iv) have same beginning and ending points. Such curves are called closed curves.
Figures (ii) and (iv) does not cross itself at any point and hence are called simple closed curves.

Polygons
A simple closed curve made up of three or more straight line segments is called a polygon. The line
segments forming the polygon are called sides of the polygon and the point of intersection of the
adjacent line segments are the vertices (plural for vertex) of the polygon.

158
Look at the following examples.

Side
B A
B E
A C
C D
D Angle Vertex

Curves that are polygons Curves that are not polygons

An angle formed by two adjacent sides of a polygon is called an angle or an interior angle of the
polygon. The number of angles in a polygon is equal to the number of sides in the polygon. Polygons
are named by the letters representing the vertices.
Classification of Polygons
Polygons are classified according to their number of sides.

Number of Number of
Name Figures Name Figures
Sides Sides

3 Triangle 7 Heptagon

4 Quadrilateral 8 Octagon

5 Pentagon 9 Nonagon

6 Hexagon 10 Decagon

A
Diagonals of a Polygon
The line joining any two non-consecutive vertices of a polygon is called its F B
diagonal.
In the figure given alongside, ABCDEF is a 6 sided polygon, hexagon. The line E C
segments AC, AD, AE, BE, BF, BD, CE, CF and DF are the diagonals of the D
polygon.

159
 Types of Polygons

Convex polygons

A polygon is convex, if each interior angle of a polygon

measures less than 180°. In such a polygon, all the
diagonals lie inside the polygon.

For example, a quadrilateral and a heptagon shown above are convex polygons, as all angles are
less than 180° and all the diagonals lie inside the polygon.

Concave polygons P

If at least one of the angles of a polygon measures more than 180°, then the
Q
polygon is called a concave polygon. T
R
The polygon shown alongside is a concave polygon as one of the angles is a reflex
angle, that is, more than 180°. Also one of the diagonals of the concave polygon S
lies outside the polygon.

Regular polygons

A polygon in which all the sides are of equal length and all the 108°
angles are of the same measure is called a regular polygon. 108° 108°

For example, a regular pentagon (polygon with 5 sides) has five 108° 108°
Equilateral triangle
sides of equal length and each angle measures 108°.

An equilateral triangle is a regular polygon.

All regular polygons are convex.

Irregular polygons
A polygon is said to be irregular, if the lengths of all or some of the sides of the polygon are unequal.

Scalene triangle Isosceles triangle Irregular Hexagon

Angle Sum Property of a Polygon

We know that the sum of all the angles of a triangle is 180°. To find the sum of angles of a polygon, we
will draw all the diagonals of the polygon from one vertex and count the number of triangles formed. The
sum of all angles of the polygon will be the number of triangles formed × 180°.

160
 2
2 1 3
1
1
2
3 4

4 sided polygon; 2 triangles 5 sided polygon; 3 triangles 6 sided polygon; 4 triangles

For a quadrilateral, sum of interior angles = 2 × 180° = 360°

For a pentagon, sum of interior angles = 3 × 180° = 540°
For a hexagon, the sum of interior angles = 4 × 180° = 720°

The number of triangles formed will be two less than the number of sides of a polygon.

Hence, for 'n' sided polygon, the number of triangles formed = (n – 2)

∴ Sum of measures of all the interior angles of a polygon= (n – 2) × 180°
(n – 2) × 180°
Each interior angle of a n-side regular polygon = .
n
We can also find the sum of the angles of a polygon without using the formula.
Let us consider a hexagon ABCDEF as shown. There are 4 triangles formed
when diagonals are drawn from one vertex. Hence the sum of interior angles of the hexagon can also
be found by adding the angles of each triangle. A B
6
From the vertex A draw diagonals to divide the polygon into 4 triangles. 3 5
8
∴ ∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3 = 180°..........................(1)
∴ ∠4 + ∠5 + ∠6 = 180°..........................(2) F 2 9 C

∴ ∠7 + ∠8 + ∠9 = 180°..........................(3) 12
1 4
∴ ∠10 + ∠11 + ∠12 = 180°.....................(4) 7
11
10
Adding the equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) we get, E D
∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3 + ∠4 + ∠5 + ∠6 + ∠7 + ∠8 + ∠9 + ∠10 + ∠11 + ∠12 = 180° + 180° + 180° + 180°
⇒ (∠3 + ∠5) + (∠6 + ∠8) + (∠9 + ∠12) + ∠11 + (∠1 + ∠4 + ∠7 + ∠10) + ∠2 = 180° + 180° + 180° + 180°
⇒ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E + ∠F = 720°
Thus, the sum of all angles of a hexagon is 720°.
In short, we can say the sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to 180° × number of triangles
formed inside the polygon.
This method can be used to find the angle sum property of any polygon.

Example 1 Find the unknown angle ‘x’ in the given figure.

Solution:
ABCDE is a polygon (a 5 sided figure)

161
 A
Sum of the interior angles of a five sided polygon is 540°.
110°
∴∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 540°
⇒ 110° + 90° + 120° + 115° + x° = 540° B 90° x° E
⇒ 435° + x = 540°
⇒ x = 540° – 435° = 105° 120° 115°
C D
Example 2 Find the sum of measures of all the interior angles of a polygon with 7 sides.

Solution:
Sum of measures of all interior angles of a polygon = (n – 2) × 180°
Since the given polygon has 7 sides.
∴ Sum of measures of all the interior angles of a 7-sided polygon = (7 – 2) × 180°
= 5 × 180°
= 900°
Thus, the measure of all the interior angles of a polygon is 900°.

Example 3 Find the number of sides of a polygon, if each of its interior angle is 135°.

Solution:
Let the number of sides of the polygon = n
Given each interior angle = 135°
(n – 2) × 180°
∴ = 135°
n
⇒ (n – 2) × 180° = n × 135°
⇒ (n – 2) × 4 = n × 3
⇒ 4n – 8 = 3n
⇒ 4n – 3n = 8
⇒n=8
Thus, the polygon has 8 sides.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 12.1
1. Classify each of the given figures on the basis of the following.
a. Simple curve b. Simple closed curve c. Polygon
d. Convex polygon e. Concave polygon

i. ii. iii. iv.

v. vi. vii. viii.

162
2. Find the number of diagonals for each of the following figures.
a. Square b. A regular octagon c. A regular nonagon

3. Find the sum of the interior angles of a polygon with the following sides.
a. 5 sides b. 8 sides c. 10 sides

4. Is it possible to have a polygon in which the sum of interior angles is 3780°?

5. Given the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon, find the number of sides of the
polygon.
a. 140° b. 168° c. 108° d. 162°

6. Five angles of a hexagon have measures 100°, 110°, 120°, 130° and 140°. What is the measure
of the sixth angle?
7. Find the value of x in the figures given below.
a. A b. Q c. B d. A
A
75°
x + 75° x B
P 5x + 3°
B E x E 33° 2x
127° 140°
D C
x 10x + 7° 63°
88° C
C D S D
R

Sum of the Measures of the Exterior Angles of a Polygon

D
An exterior angle for a polygon is formed by producing one side of the
polygon from one of its endpoints.
E C
An exterior angle and interior angle form a linear pair of angles.
Interior
angle Exterior angle
A B F

If each side of the polygon is extended to form one exterior angle at each B
vertex, in order, we get a set of exterior angles. According to the exterior
C
angle property, the sum of a set of exterior angles so formed is 360 degrees.
In the figure given alongside ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 360°. A
360
Thus, the measure of each exterior angle of a polygon of n sides = � �°
n
If the measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon is x, then the D
360 E
number of sides of the polygon = � �°
x

Math Lab Activity

Objective: To verify that the sum of exterior angle of a polygon is 360°.
Materials required: Squared papers, ruler, pens, pencil and a pair of scissors
Procedure:
1. Draw a triangle ABC.

163
 2. Draw exterior angles by producing the sides in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction, as
shown. Label the exterior angles so formed as angle 1, angle 2 and angle 3.
3. Cut the exterior angles and place the exterior angle cut outs as shown.

A
1

3
1
2
2
C
B
3

4. Write down your observations.

5. Repeat the above steps for quadrilaterals, pentagon and hexagon.
6. Write your observations.

1 B
A
2
1
4
2
3
4
D C
3

You will observe that the exterior angles of polygons together form a complete angle that is the sum of
all exterior angles of a polygon = 360°
Thus, we can conclude that the sum of all exterior angles of a polygon = 360°.

Example 1 Find the value of x in the given figure.

Solution: F
We know the sum of exterior angle of a polygon and the interior angle is 180°. C
∠z + 102=
° 180° (linear pair of angles )
°
90
2°

E
10

⇒ ∠z= 180° − 102°= 78° z

B
°

y D
56

x
We know sum of angles of a quadrilateral is 360°. A
G
∴∠y + ∠z + 90° + 56° = 360°

or ∠y + 78° + 90° + 56° = 360°

y 360° − 224=
∠= ° 136°

∠BAD + ∠BAG
= 180° (linear pair of angles )
⇒ ∠x + ∠y =180°

x 180° − 136=
∴∠= ° 44°

164
 Find the number of sides of the polygon, if the measure of one exterior angle of a regular
Example 2
polygon is 72°.
Solution:
360°
We know that, exterior angle =
Number of sides
360° 360°
∴Number of sides = = 5
=
Exterior angle 72°
Thus, the polygon will have 5 sides.

Example 3 Is it possible to have a regular polygon with measure of each exterior angle as 21°?

Solution:
The sum of measures of all exterior angles of a polygon is 360°.
Given each exterior angle = 21°
360° 3
∴ Number of sides = = 17 , which is not a natural number.
21° 21
Hence, it is not possible to have a regular polygon with measure of each exterior angle as 21°.

Example 4 What is the minimum interior angle possible for a regular polygon? Why?

Solution:
As the number of sides of a regular polygon increases, each interior angle also increases.
So, the minimum interior angle is possible in a polygon of least number of sides. i.e. in an equilateral
triangle.
180°
Each angle of an equilateral triangle = = 60°
3
So, the minimum interior angle = 60°

Example 5 From the adjoining diagram, find w + y + z.

Solution:
By angle sum property of a triangle, z
59°
x + 59° + 72° = 180°
⇒ x + 131° = 180° x y
72°
⇒ x = 180° – 131° = 49° (i) w

Exterior angle of a triangle = sum of two opposite interior angles

∴ w = 59° + 49° = 108° (ii)
∴ y = 59° + 72° = 131° (iii)
∴ z = 49° + 72° = 121° (iv)
From (ii), (iii) and (iv) we get, w + y + z = 108° + 131° + 121° = 360°

165
 Exercise 12.2
1. Given the measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon, find the number of sides of the
polygon.
a. 22.5° b. 90° c. 120° d. 18°

2. What is the maximum exterior angle possible for a regular polygon?

3. Is it possible to have a regular polygon with measure of each exterior angle as 24°?
4. Find the value of x in the figures given below.
a. b.
x°
x 62°
100°
100°

80° 88° 2x
50°

c. d. A
90°
65° B
120°
108° E

80° 100°
x x
C D

z
55°

5. In the adjoining figure, find the value of w + x + y + z.

w 78° y
110°
x

Quadrilaterals A
A four sided polygon is called a quadrilateral (quadri means four and lateral
B
means side). A quadrilateral is a closed four sided plane figure.
The quadrilateral ABCD shown alongside has 4 sides, 4 vertices and 4 angles
and 2 diagonals. D
The sides are AB, BC, CD and DA. C

The vertices are A, B, C and D.

The angles are ∠A, ∠B, ∠C and ∠D.
Angles can also be written using 3 vertices as ∠BAD, ∠ABC, ∠BCD and ∠CDA.
The two diagonals are AC and BD.

166
Elements of a Quadrilateral
The given quadrilateral ABCD has the following elements.

Element Definition In Quadrilateral ABCD

Adjacent sides Two sides of a quadrilateral having Sides AB and BC are the adjacent sides
with the common vertex B.
a common end point.
Sides BC and CD are the adjacent sides
with the common vertex C.
Sides CD and DA are the adjacent sides
with the common vertex D.
Sides DA and AB are the adjacent sides
with the common vertex A.

Opposite sides Sides of a quadrilateral that do not Side AB is opposite to side DC.
share a common vertex.
Side AD is opposite to side BC.

Adjacent angles Two angles of a quadrilateral having ∠A and ∠B; ∠B and ∠C; ∠C and ∠D; ∠D
a common arm. and ∠A are all adjacent angles.

Opposite angles Angles of a quadrilateral that do not ∠A and ∠C are opposite angles.
share a common arm.
∠B and ∠D are opposite angles.

Diagonals of The line segments joining the AC and BD are the two diagonals.
a quadrilateral opposite vertices of a quadrilateral.

Types of Quadrilaterals
Depending on the properties, the quadrilaterals are classified into different types, namely parallelogram,
rectangle, square, rhombus, trapezium and kite. Let us learn about these quadrilaterals.
Parallelogram D C
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel lines.
In the adjoining quadrilateral ABCD, AB ∥ CD and AD ∥ BC, so ABCD is
a parallelogram.
A B
A parallelogram has the following properties.
ŠŠ The opposite sides are equal.
ŠŠ The opposite angles are equal.
ŠŠ The adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.
ŠŠ The diagonals of a parallelogram are unequal and they bisect each other.
Let us prove the above properties.
D C
In parallelogram ABCD, we have AB  DC, AD  BC.
Join the vertices B and D to form the diagonal of the parallelogram. This
divides the parallelogram into two triangles ∆BDA and ∆DBC.
A B

167
 In ∆BDA and ∆BDC we have BD = BD (common side)
∠ADB = ∠DBC (alternate angles since AD  BC and DB is the transversal)
∠ABD = ∠CDB (alternate angles since AB  DC and DB is the transversal))
∴ ∆BDA ≅ ∆BDC by ASA congruence.
∴ AB = DC, AD = BC and ∠A = ∠C (Corresponding parts of congruent triangles)---------(1)
Similarly, joining the vertices A and C, we can prove that
AB = DC, AD = BC and ∠B = ∠D -------(2)
From equations (1) and (2) we get
In a parallelogram ABCD
AB = DC, AD = BC and ∠A = ∠C and ∠B = ∠D
Thus, the opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
To prove the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Let the two diagonals intersect at the point O. D C
In ∆AOB and ∆COD,
AB = DC (opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal) O
∠OBA = ∠ODC (alternate angles are equal since AB  DC and DB is the
A B
transversal)
∠OAB = ∠OCD (alternate angles are equal since AD  BC and AC is the transversal)
∴ ∆AOB ≅ ∆COD by ASA congruence.
∴ AO = OC and BO = OD
∴ AO = OC, BO = OD (corresponding parts of congruent triangles)
Hence, diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Rectangle
D C
A rectangle is a special type of a parallelogram in which each angle
is a right angle.
Thus, a rectangle has the following properties.
O
ŠŠ Opposite sides are parallel and equal.
ŠŠ All angles of a rectangle are right angles.
A B
ŠŠ The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and they bisect each other.
In the rectangle ABCD,
AB  CD, AD  BC
=AB CD = , AD BC
∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90°
AC = BD
Since diagonals bisect each other hence, AO
= OC
= BO
= OD.

168
Square
D C
A rectangle with all sides equal is called a square. Thus, a square is a
quadrilateral with the following properties:
ŠŠ Opposite sides are parallel.
O
ŠŠ All sides are equal.
ŠŠ All angles of a square are right angles.
A B
ŠŠ The diagonals of a square bisect each other.
ŠŠ The diagonals of a square are equal and are perpendicular to each other.
In the square ABCD,
AB
= BC
= CD
= AD

AB  CD, AD  BC

∠A =∠B =∠C =∠D =90°

AC = BD

Since diagonals bisect each other at right angles i.e. AC ⊥ BD

∴ AO = OC = BO = OD

∠AOD =
∠AOB =
∠BOC =
∠COD =
90°

Rhombus
D
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all its sides equal. Thus, a rhombus is
a quadrilateral with the following properties.
ŠŠ All sides are equal.
ŠŠ The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
A C
ŠŠ The diagonals of a rhombus are unequal and are perpendicular to each O
other.
In the rhombus ABCD,
AB
= BC
= CD
= AD
B
Diagonals bisect each other. Hence,

AO = OC; BO = OD

Since the diagonals are perpendicular to each other i.e. AC ⊥ BD

∴∠AOD = ∠AOB = ∠BOC =∠COD = 90°

Trapezium
D base C
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.
The parallel sides of a trapezium are called bases and the non parallel sides leg leg
are called legs.
ŠŠ A scalene trapezium is a trapezium with no equal sides. A base B

169
 ŠŠ An isosceles trapezium is a trapezium where the legs of the trapezium are congruent, that is, if the
non parallel sides of a trapezium are equal then it is called an isosceles trapezium.
Properties of an isosceles trapezium
D C
ŠŠ The bases are parallel.
ŠŠ A pair of non parallel sides are congruent.
O
ŠŠ The angles on either side of the bases are equal.
ŠŠ The diagonals are congruent. A B

In the isosceles trapezium ABCD,

AB  CD

and AD = BC

∴∠A =∠B, ∠D =∠C

and diagonal AC = diagonal BD

Kite
D
A quadrilateral with two pairs of equal adjacent sides is called a kite.
Properties of a kite
ŠŠ Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
ŠŠ Diagonals are perpendicular to each other. O
A C
Thus, in the kite ABCD,
ŠŠ AB = BC
B
ŠŠ AD = DC
AC ⊥ BD hence, ∠AOD = ∠AOB = ∠BOC = ∠COD = 90°

Relation between different Quadrilaterals

We have learnt the different types of quadrilaterals. Based on the properties we can group all the
different quadrilaterals as:

QUADRILATERAL

TRAPEZIUM KITE PARALLELOGRAM

ISOSCELES TRAPEZIUM
RECTANGLE RHOMBUS

SQUARE

170
 The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 3 : 5 : 7 : 9. Find the measure of each of
Example 1
the angles.
Solution:
We know the sum of angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
Let the angles of the quadrilateral measure 3x, 5x, 7x and 9x.
Then ,
3 x + 5 x + 7 x + 9 x = 360°

⇒ 24 x =360°

360°
⇒x= = 15°
24
∴ The angles of the quadrilateral are 3 x = 3 × 15° = 45°;

5 x = 5 × 15° = 75°; 7 x = 7 × 15° = 105°; 9 x = 9 × 15° = 135°

The diagonals of a rhombus ABCD intersect at O. Given that measure of angle BAC is
Example 2
65°, find the measure of angle ABO.
D
Solution:
We know in a rhombus the diagonals bisect each other and the diagonals
are perpendicular.
∴DO = OB

AO = OC A C
65° O
and ∠AOB = ∠BOC = ∠COD = ∠DOA = 90°

In ∆AOB,

∠BAO + ∠ABO + ∠AOB =180°

B
⇒ 65° + ∠ABO + 90° =180°

⇒ ∠ABO =180° − 155°

⇒ ∠ABO = 25°

Example 3 TRUE is a rectangle. Its diagonals meet at O. Find x, if OR = 2x + 3 and OT = 4x + 1

Solution: T E

OT is half of the diagonal TU.

4x
+1

and OR is half of the diagonal RE.

O
In a rectangle, the diagonals are equal.
∴ 4x + 1 = 2x + 3
+3
2x

⇒ 4x – 2x = 3 – 1
R U
⇒ 2x = 2
⇒x=1

171
 Find the unknown angle ‘x’ in the given figure. Also find the measure of each angle of
Example 4
the given quadrilateral.
Solution:
Q
PQRS is a quadrilateral (a 4 sided figure)
x
Sum of angles of a quadrilateral is 360°. P

∴ ∠P + ∠Q + ∠R + ∠S = 360° 2x

⇒ 2x + x + 2x +11° + x + 25° = 360°

⇒ 6x + 36° = 360°
2x + 11°
⇒ 6x = 360° – 36° x + 25°
S R
⇒ 6x = 324°
324°
⇒x= = 54°
6
:. ∠P = 2x = 2 × 54° = 108°

∠Q = x = 54°

∠R = 2x + 11° = 2 × 54° + 11° = 108° + 11° = 119°

∠S = x + 25° = 54° + 25° = 79°

Exercise 12.3
1. In the figure given alongside, write D C

a. all pairs of adjacent sides

b. all pairs of adjacent angles

A B
c. all pairs of opposite sides

d. all pairs of opposite angles

2. The following quadrilateral is a parallelogram. Complete each statement along with the definition
or property used.
P Q
a. PQ =

b. ∠PQR = O
c. OP = S R

d. m∠PSR + m∠QPS =

3. Name the quadrilaterals whose:

a. diagonals bisect each other b. all sides are equal

c. four angles are right angles d. opposite side are equal and parallel

e. one pair of opposite sides are parallel

172
4. Explain how a square is
a. a rhombus b. a parallelogram
D C
5. In a parallelogram ABCD, ∠A = 100°. Find the measure of each
of the angles ∠B, ∠C and ∠D.
100°
A B
6. Two adjacent angles of a parallelogram are in the ratio 4 : 5. Find the measure of each of its angles.
(Hint: adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary)
7. Two adjacent angles of a parallelogram are (3x – 4)° and (3x + 16)°. Find the value of x and hence
find the measure of the two angles.
8. In a quadrilateral, the measure of three angles is 76°, 64° and 108°. Find the measure of the
remaining angle.
9. Use the properties of quadrilaterals to find the values of unknown variables.
T J A B
a. S 80° b. M 85°
c.
100° x
90° y
40°

100° 16x 92° 40°

R U L K x
D 70°

C
L M A E F B W
d. e. f.
110° x

4
75°
D G H C X Z
52° y O 3
x 100°
x z
O N 5

Y
10. The sum of two opposite angles of a parallelogram is 130°. Find the measure of each of its angles.
P

11. PQRS is a rhombus with RQ = 10 cm and the diagonal PR = 12 cm. Find

the length of QS. S Q
O
(Hint: Use Pythagoras theorem to solve OQ + OR = QR ) 2 2 2
10 cm
R
12. The following figures are parallelograms. Find the measure of x and y (lengths are in cm).
L 31 M P Q
a. b.
22 2
4x x+
16 y+
5
18
O 4y – 1 N
S R

173
 D C
58°
In the given figure, ABCD and AEFG are two parallelograms. G F
If the measure of angle C = 58°, find the measure of all
other angles of the parallelogram ABCD.
A E B

Recollections
ŠŠ A simple closed curve made up of only straight line segments is called a polygon.
ŠŠ The line segments forming the polygon are called sides of the polygon and the point of intersection
of the consecutive line segments are the vertices (plural for vertex) of the polygon.
ŠŠ A polygon has the same number of interior angles as the number of its sides.
ŠŠ In a convex polygon all the interior angles are less than 180°.
ŠŠ In a concave polygon, one or more interior angles is greater than 180°.
ŠŠ All regular polygons are convex.
ŠŠ A polygon is irregular, if the length of all or some of the lengths of the sides of the polygon are
unequal.
ŠŠ The sum of interior angles of a polygon of n sides = (n – 2) × 180°
ŠŠ The sum of exterior angles of a polygon is 360°.
(n – 2) × 180°
ŠŠ Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides =
n
360°
ŠŠ Each exterior angle of a regular polygon of n sides =
n
ŠŠ A four sided polygon is called a quadrilateral.
ŠŠ A quadrilateral has 4 sides, 4 vertices, 4 angles and 2 diagonals.
ŠŠ The sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
ŠŠ Depending on the properties, the quadrilaterals are classified into different types.

Type Property
Parallelogram The opposite sides are equal and parallel.
The opposite angles are equal.
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Rectangle The opposite sides are equal and parallel.
All angles of a rectangle are right angles.
The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and they bisect each other.
Square Opposite sides are parallel.
All sides are equal.
All angles of a square are right angles.
The diagonals of a square are equal and are perpendicular to each other.

174
 Type Property
Rhombus All sides are equal.
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
Trapezium One pair of opposite sides are parallel.
Isosceles The bases are parallel.
trapezium
Non-parallel sides are congruent.
The angles on either side of the bases are equal.
The diagonals are congruent.
Kite Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
Diagonals are perpendicular to each other.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. If an angle of a rhombus measures 90°, then the rhombus is a
i. parallelogram ii. rectangle
iii. square iv. trapezium

b. A trapezium is called an isosceles trapezium, if

i. all sides are equal ii. non- parallel sides are equal
iii. parallel sides are equal iv. opposite sides are parallel

c. In a quadrilateral, three angles measure 120°, 45°, 85°, then the measure of the remaining
angle will be
i. 180° ii. 75°
iii. 110° iv. 100°

d. The number of interior angles in a polygon is equal to

i. number of sides ii. number of diagonals

iii. two less than the number of sides iv. two more than the number of sides

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. In a parallelogram there are pairs of parallel lines.

b. In a rhombus the diagonals are bisector of each other.

c. The diagonals of a are equal and are perpendicular to each other.

d. The sum of the angles of a trapezium is

e. A rectangle has pair of equal sides.

175
 3. State whether true or false.
a. A rectangle is a parallelogram.
b. A parallelogram is a rhombus.
c. A kite is a rhombus.
d. Opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.
e. A parallelogram with one right angle is a rectangle.
f. A rectangle with two adjacent sides equal is a square.

Review Exercise
1. Find the number of sides of a polygon, if each interior angle is 150°.
2. What is the sum of all angles of a polygon of 10 sides?
3. Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon of 9 sides.
4. Find the value of x in each of the following figures.
a. B b. K N
A 4x (3x + 11)°
(3x+20)°

(2x+18)° (5x – 9)°

D 5x L M
C

c. D C d. L
80° (11x–10)°
(3x+10)°
Q
175°

M 115°
3x
P
A B 4x 5x
N O

5. The angles of a pentagon are in the ratio 4 : 5 : 11 : 13 : 12. Find the measures of each angle.
6. The measure of an exterior angle of a regular polygon is 2x, and the measure of an interior angle
is 4x. Use the relationship between interior and exterior angles to find the measure of one interior
and exterior angle.
7. Two angles of a quadrilateral measure 85° and 75° respectively. The other two angles are equal.
Find the measure of each of these equal angles.
8. Prove that the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
9. The three angles of a quadrilateral are 70°, 60° and 108°. Find the measure of the remaining angle.
10. Two angles of a quadrilateral measure 65° and 105° respectively. The other two angles equal. Find
the measure of each of these equal angles.

176
11. How many diagonals can be drawn in a polygon with 9 sides?
12. Two sides of a kite are 6 cm and 9 cm; find the perimeter of the kite.
13. Find the number of sides of the polygon, if the measure of one exterior angle of a regular polygon
is 60°.
14. ABCD is an isosceles trapezium with AB parallel to DC. If the measure of angle B = (3x – 7)° and
the measure of angle C = (x + 3)°, find the measure of x.
15. In the adjoining figure, RATE is a rectangle. Its diagonals meet at O. Find x if OR = 3x + 2 and
OE = 2x + 5.
R A
3x
+2

O
+5
2x

E T

16. In the following figure, find the value of x + y + z + w.

z y
110°
120°

50° x

Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/quadrilaterals.html
https://www.mbacrystalball.com/blog/2015/11/13/quadrilaterals-properties-parallelograms-trapezium-rhombus/

As on 09.05.2019

177
 13. Practical Geometry

You know
ŠŠ to construct lines and angles
ŠŠ to construct triangles when 3 sides are given
ŠŠ to construct triangles when two sides and an included angle are given
ŠŠ to construct triangles when two angles and the included sides are given
ŠŠ to construct right triangles when the hypotenuse and one side are given

You will learn

ŠŠ to construct quadrilaterals
ŠŠ to construct parallelograms
ŠŠ to construct rhombus
ŠŠ to construct square
ŠŠ to construct rectangle
ŠŠ to construct a kite

We have learnt that we require minimum three elements of triangles that is sides and angles to draw
a unique triangle. Let us see if we require four measurements to construct a quadrilateral.
A quadrilateral is a four sided closed polygon. It has ten elements – four sides, four angles and two
diagonals. To construct a unique quadrilateral we do not need to know all ten elements of a quadrilateral.
To find out the minimum number of measures of elements required to construct a unique quadrilateral,
let us see if we can construct a quadrilateral using measurement of four elements.
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD with sides measuring AB = 3 cm, BC = 4 cm, CD = 3 cm and DA = 4 cm.
We find that we can construct three different types of quadrilaterals with given measurements as
shown below.
D C D C D C

A B A B A B

Thus, a unique quadrilateral cannot be constructed using only 4 elements. D 4 cm C

However, if we add one more element to the already given four elements,
5.6 cm
say, a diagonal AC = 5.6 cm, then one and only one quadrilateral can be 3 cm 3 cm
constructed as shown in the adjecent figure.

Thus, we require at least five elements to construct a unique quadrilateral. A 4 cm B

178
Constructing a Quadrilateral
We will learn to draw quadrilaterals with the following elements,

1. Length of four sides and a diagonal

2. Length of three sides and two diagonals

3. Length of four sides and an angle

4. Length of three sides and two included angles

5. Length of two adjacent sides and three angles

To construct a quadrilateral when the length of four sides and a diagonal are given

The diagonal of a quadrilateral divides it into two triangles. Thus, to construct a quadrilateral when the
length of four sides and a diagonal is given, we can construct two triangles one above and one below
the diagonal.

Remember construction of a triangle is possible only when

ŠŠ The sum of any two sides of the triangle is greater than the third side.

ŠŠ The sum of angles of the triangle is 180°.

Before constructing the quadrilateral check whether the construction is possible with the given
measurements using the above properties and then construct the quadrilateral.

Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.6 cm, BC = 5.5 cm, CD = 4.9 cm,
Example 1
DA = 5.3 cm and AC = 7.2 cm.
Solution:

Rough diagram B

3.6 cm 5.5 cm
Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD
and write the given measurements. A C
7.2 cm
5.3 cm 4.9 cm
D

Step 1: Draw AC = 7.2 cm. A C

7.2 cm

Step 2: With A as the centre and radius AB = 3.6 B

cm draw an arc on any one side of AC.
With C as the centre and radius CB = 5.5 cm,
draw an arc to intersect the previous arc at
point B.
A C
7.2 cm

179
 B

Step 3: Join AB and CB. 3.6 cm

5.5 cm

A C
7.2 cm

3.6 cm
5.5 cm
Step 4: With A as the centre and radius AD = 5.3
cm, draw an arc on the other side of AC.
With C as the centre and radius CD = 4.9 cm, A C
7.2 cm
draw an arc to intersect the previous arc at D.

3.6 cm
5.5 cm

Step 5: Join AD and CD.

Thus, ABCD is the required quadrilateral. A C
7.2 cm

5.3 cm 4.9 cm

To construct a quadrilateral when the length of three sides and two diagonals are given
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 6.8 cm. AD = 5.8 cm, AC = 6.9 cm,
Example 2
BD = 7.3 cm and BC = 4.1 cm.
Solution:

Rough diagram D
C
Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral 5.8 cm 7.
3 4.1 cm
ABCD and write the given measurements. cm
cm
6.9

A 6.8 cm B

180
Step 1: Draw AB = 6.8 cm. A 6.8 cm B

Step 2: With A as the centre and radius

AD = 5.8 cm draw an arc. With B as the
centre and radius BD = 7.3 cm, draw an
arc to intersect the previous arc at D.

A 6.8 cm B

5.8 cm 7.
Step 3: Join AD and BD. 3
cm

A 6.8 cm B

C
Step 4: With A as the centre and radius
AC = 6.9 cm, draw an arc.
5.8 cm 7.
3
With B as the centre and radius cm
BC = 4.1 cm draw an arc to intersect the
previous arc at C.

A 6.8 cm B

5.8 cm 7.
Step 5: Join AC and BC. Join DC. 3
cm 4.1 cm
cm
6.9

A 6.8 cm B

181
 D

5.8 cm 7.
Thus, ABCD is the required quadrilateral. 3
cm 4.1 cm
c m
6.9

A 6.8 cm B

To construct a quadrilateral when the length of four sides and one angle is given
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 6 cm. BC = 4 cm, CD = 6.2 cm,
Example 3
AD = 5.5 cm and ∠DAB = 80°.
Solution:

Rough diagram D
6.2 cm
C
Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD
5.5 cm
and write the given measurements. 4 cm
80°
A 6 cm B

Step 1: Draw AB = 6 cm. A B

6 cm
E

Step 2: At A, draw ∠BAE = 80°

80°
A 6 cm B
E

Step 3: With A as the centre and radius

AD = 5.5 cm, draw an arc to intersect AE at D. 5.5 cm

80°
A 6 cm B

182
 E

D
Step 4: With D as the centre and radius
DC = 6.2 cm, draw an arc. C

With B as the centre and radius BC = 4 cm, 5.5 cm

draw an arc to intersect the previous arc at
point C.

80°
A 6 cm B
E

D
6.2 cm
C
Step 5: Join BC and DC.
Thus, ABCD is the required quadrilateral. 5.5 cm

4 cm

80°
A 6 cm B

To construct a quadrilateral when the length of three sides and two included angles is given.
For such constructions, it is convenient to take the base as the side included between the two angles.
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 5 cm. AD = 3.5 cm, DC = 6 cm, ∠B = 120°,
Example 4
∠A = 75°.
Solution:

Rough diagram 6 cm C
D

Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral

3.5 cm
ABCD and write the given measurements.
120°
75°
A 5 cm B

Step 1: Draw AB = 5 cm. A 5 cm B

E

Step 2: At A, draw ∠BAE = 75°.

75°

A 5 cm B

183
 E

Step 3: With A as the centre and radius D

AD = 3.5 cm, draw an arc to intersect

m
AE at D.

3.5 c
75°

A 5 cm B

F
D
Step 4: At B, draw angle ABF = 120°.

m
3.5 c

75°
120°
A 5 cm B

F
Step 5: With D as the centre and radius D
C
DC = 6 cm, draw an arc to intersect BF
m

at C.
3.5 c

75°
120°
A 5 cm B

F
Step 6: Join DC. D 6 cm
C
Thus, ABCD is the required
m
3.5 c

quadrilateral.

75°
120°
A 5 cm B

184
To construct a quadrilateral when two adjacent sides and three angles are given
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which ∠A = 100°, ∠B = 80°, ∠C = 80°, AB = 6 cm
Example 5
and BC = 5 cm.
Solution:

Rough diagram
D C
80°
Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD
and write the given measurements. 5 cm

100° 80°
A 6 cm B

Step 1: Draw AB = 6 cm. A 6 cm B

Step 2: At A, draw ∠BAE = 100°.

100°
A 6 cm B
E F

Step 3: At B, draw ∠ABF = 80°.

100° 80°
A 6 cm B
E F
C

Step 4: With B as the centre and radius

BC = 5 cm, draw an arc to intersect BF at C. 5 cm

100° 80°
A 6 cm B
E F
C
Step 5: At C, draw ∠BCD = 80° intersecting D 80°
AE at D.
5 cm
Thus, ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
100° 80°
A 6 cm B

185
 Let's Exercise
Exercise 13.1
1. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = AD = 3.1 cm, BC = 2.6 cm, AC = 4 cm and BD = 5 cm.
2. Construct a quadrilateral LMNO in which LM = 4 cm, MN = 5.8 cm, NO = 5 cm, OL = 4.8 cm and
LN = 7.8 cm.
3. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.7 cm, BC = 3.4 cm, AD = 2.8 cm, diagonal
AC = 4.7 cm and diagonal BD = 4.2 cm.
4. Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PR = PS = 6 cm, QR = 7.5 cm, RS = 5 cm and
QS = 10 cm.
5. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = BC = 3.7 cm, AD = CD = 5.2 cm and ∠ABC = 120°.
6. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3 cm, BC = 3.4 cm, CD = 2.9 cm, DA = 3.6 cm and
∠A = 75°.
7. Construct a quadrilateral CDEF in which CD = 3.5 cm, DE = 5 cm, EF = 4.6 cm, ∠C = 125° and
∠D = 60°.
8. Construct a quadrilateral LMNO in which LM = 6.2 cm, MN = 5.8 cm, NO = 2.9 cm, ∠M = 45° and
∠N = 90°.
9. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.5 cm, BC = 6.5 cm, and its 3 angles ∠A =75°,
∠B = 105° and ∠C = 110°.
10. Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PQ = 3.8 cm, QR = 6.8 cm, and 3 angles ∠P = 100 °,
∠ R = 110° and ∠S = 75°

Construction of Special Type of Quadrilaterals

We can construct some special types of quadrilaterals like parallelograms, rhombuses, rectangles,
squares, kites and trapeziums with less than five measurements with the help of its properties.
Constructing a Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a special type of a quadrilateral which has
ŠŠ opposite sides parallel and equal
ŠŠ opposite angles equal
ŠŠ diagonals that bisect each other
To construct a parallelogram when the lengths of its adjacent sides and a diagonal are given
Construct a parallelogram ABCD such that AB = 4.8 cm, BC = 4 cm and diagonal
Example 1
BD = 5.4 cm
Solution:
Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram ABCD and write the given measurements.

186
Since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal Rough diagram
D 4.8 cm C
AB = DC = 4.8 cm

BC = AD = 4 cm cm
4 4 cm
4 cm 5.
Steps of construction:

Step 1: Draw AB of length 4.8 cm. A 4.8 cm B

Step 2: With centre A and radius 5.4 cm, draw an arc.

Step 3: With centre B and radius 4 cm draw another arc to cut D 4.8 cm C

the previous arc.

Step 4: Name the point of intersection as C.

cm
4 cm 4 cm

4
Step 5: Join AC and BC.

5.
Step 6: With centre A and radius 4 cm draw an arc.

Step 7: With centre C and radius 4.8 cm draw another arc to

A 4.8 cm B
cut the previous arc.

Step 8: Name the point of intersection as D.

Step 9: Join AD and CD.

Thus, ABCD is the required parallelogram.

To construct a parallelogram when the lengths of two adjacent sides and one angle are given

Example 2 Construct a parallelogram PQRS, PQ = 7 cm, QR = 5 cm and ∠SPQ = 75°

Solution:

In this parallelogram we are given the measures of only 3 elements. Let us find the measure of two
more elements.

We know in a parallelogram, the opposite sides are equal and parallel.

Hence, PS = QR ∴ PS = 5 cm.

∠P + ∠Q = 180° (when PQ  SR interior angles so formed are S R

supplementary)
5 cm 5 cm
∴ 75°+ ∠Q = 180° or ∠Q = 180° – 75° = 105°
75° 105°
Now we know 3 sides and two angles of the parallelogram PQRS, hence
P 7 cm Q
we can construct a parallelogram.

Steps of construction:

Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram PQRS and write the given measurements.

Step 1: Draw PQ = 7 cm.

187
 Step 2: At P, draw ∠QPX = 75°. X
Y
S 7 cm
R
Step 3: With P as the centre and radius
PS = 5 cm draw an arc to intersect PX at S.

Step 4: At Q draw ∠PQY = 105°. With Q as

5 cm 5 cm
the centre and radius QR = 5 cm, draw an arc
to intersect QY at R.
105°
Step 5: Join RS.
75°
PQRS is the required parallelogram. P 7 cm Q

To construct a parallelogram given the lengths of two diagonals and one side
Construct a parallelogram PQRS with diagonal PR = 6.8 cm, diagonal QS = 8 cm and
Example 3
the angle between the two diagonals is 65°.
Solution:

Steps of construction:

Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram PQRS and write the given measurements.
Step 1: Draw PR of length 6.8 cm. Rough diagram
X
Step 2: Bisect PR. Let O be the point of S R S
intersection. 8
cm O
65° 4 cm
Step 3: Construct ∠XOR = 65° at vertex O. m
8c
6.
Step 4: Extend ray OX to line XY. 65°
P Q
P R
Step 5: With centre O and radius 4 cm, draw an 3.4 cm O 3.4 cm

arc to cut the ray OX at point S. 4 cm

Step 6: With centre O and radius 4 cm, draw an

arc to cut the ray OY at point Q.
Q
Step 7: Join PQ, QR, PS and SR.
Y
Thus, PQRS is the required parallelogram.

Construct a parallelogram ABCD with AB = 6 cm, diagonal BD = 6 cm and diagonal

Example 4
AC = 9.2 cm.
Solution:
Rough diagram
Steps of construction: D C
3
cm
Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram PQRS and write the given measurements. cm
4.6
Step 1: Draw AB of length 6 cm. cm 3
4.6 cm
Step 2: With centre A and radius 4.6 cm, draw an arc.
A 6 cm B

188
Step 3: With centre B and radius 3 cm, draw another arc to Q P
D C
cut the previous arc.
Step 4: Name the point of intersection as O. cm

3
4.6

cm
Step 5: Join AO and BO.
O
Step 6: Extend ray AO to point P and ray BO to point Q. cm 3
cm
4.6
Step 7: With centre O and radius 4.6 cm, draw an arc to cut
A 6 cm B
the ray AP at point C.
Step 8: With centre O and radius 3 cm, draw an arc to cut the ray BQ at point D.
Step 9: Join AD, BC and CD.
Thus, ABCD is the required parallelogram.
Constructing a Rhombus
A rhombus is a special type of a quadrilateral which has:
ŠŠ all sides equal
ŠŠ opposite angles equal
ŠŠ diagonals that bisect each other at right angles
To construct a rhombus given the length of one side and one angle

Example 5 Construct a rhombus ABCD with AB = 5 cm and ∠ABC = 60° Rough diagram
D C
Solution:
Draw a rough sketch of rhombus ABCD and write the given measurements
In the rhombus ABCD,
Since all sides of rhombus are equal. 60°

AB = BC = CD = DA = 5 cm A 5 cm B

Steps of construction:
Draw AB of length 5 cm.
Step 1: Construct ∠ABM = 60° from vertex B. M
D 5 cm C
Step 2: With centre B and radius 5 cm, draw an arc to cut the ray
BM at point C.
5 cm
Step 3: With centre A and radius 5 cm, draw an arc. 5 cm

Step 4: With centre C and radius 5 cm, draw another arc to cut
60°
previous arc. A 5 cm B
Step 5: Name the point of intersection as D.

Step 6: Join AD and CD

Thus ABCD is the required Rhombus.

189
 To construct a rhombus given the lengths of its one side and one diagonal

Example 6 Construct a rhombus ABCD with AB = 4.5 cm and diagonal BD = 5 cm.

Solution:
Rough diagram
Draw a rough sketch of rhombus ABCD and write the given D C
measurements.
Steps of Construction:

5
cm
Step 1: Draw AB of length 4.5 cm.
Step 2: With A as centre and radius 4.5 cm, draw an arc.
A 4.5 cm B
Step 3: With B as a centre and radius 5 cm, draw another arc to
cut the previous arc.
Step 4: Name the intersection as D. D 4.5 cm C

Step 5: Join AD and BD

Step 6: With B as centre and radius 4.5 cm, draw an arc.

5
4.5 cm

cm
Step 7: With D as a centre and radius 4.5 cm, draw another arc to 4.5 cm
cut the previous arc.
Step 8: Name the intersection as C. A 4.5 cm B

Step 9: Join BC and DC.

Thus, ABCD is the required rhombus.

To construct a rhombus given the lengths of its two diagonals

Example 7 Construct a rhombus in which the lengths of the diagonals are 9 cm and 16 cm

Solution: Rough diagram

Draw a rough sketch of the rhombus ABCD and write the D
given measurements.
16 cm

9 cm
A C E
Steps of construction: O

Step 1: Draw a line segment AC = 9 cm. B

B
Step 2: Draw a perpendicular bisector EF of AC bisecting AC
at O.
8 cm
Step 3: With O as the centre and radius half the diagonal BD
A
(8 cm), draw two arcs to intersect EF at B and D. 4.5 cm O 4.5 cm C

Step 4: Join AB, BC, CD and DA. 8 cm

Thus, ABCD is the required rhombus.

D

190
Constructing a Rectangle
A rectangle is a special type of a quadrilateral which has
ŠŠ opposite sides parallel and equal
ŠŠ all angles equal
ŠŠ equal diagonals that bisect each other

To construct a rectangle given the lengths of its adjacent sides

Example 8 Construct a rectangle ABCD with AB = 5 cm and BC = 4 cm. Rough diagram

D 5 cm C
Solution:
Draw a rough sketch of rectangle ABCD and write the given measurements.
4 cm 4 cm
In the rectangle ABCD,
AB = CD = 5 cm, BC = AD = 4 cm and ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90° A 5 cm B
E
Steps of construction:
D 5 cm C
Step 1: Draw AB = 5 cm.
Step 2: At A draw angle BAE = 90°.
Step 3: With A as the centre and radius AD = 4 cm, draw an
4 cm 4 cm
arc to intersect AE at D.
Step 4: With B as the centre and radius 4 cm draw an arc.
Step 5: With D as the centre and radius DC = 5 cm, draw an
A 5 cm B
arc to intersect the previous arc at C.
Thus, ABCD is the required rectangle.

To construct a rectangle given the lengths of its one side and one diagonal Rough diagram
D C
Example 8 Construct a rectangle ABCD with AB = 6 cm and AC = 7.4 cm
7.4 cm
Solution:
Draw a rough sketch of rectangle ABCD and write the given measurements.
A 6 cm B
In rectangle ABCD, E F
D 6 cm
AB = CD = 6 cm and ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90° C

Steps of construction:
Step 1: Draw a line segment AB = 6 cm.
7.4 cm
Step 2: At A construct an ∠BAE = 90°.
Step 3: At B construct an ∠ABF = 90°.
Step 4: With A as the centre and radius AC = 7.4 cm,
draw an arc to intersect BF at C.
A 6 cm B

191
 Step 5: With C as the centre and radius 6 cm, draw an arc to intersect AE at D.
Step 6: Join CD.
Thus, ABCD is the required rectangle.
To construct a rectangle when the length of its one side and the angle between the side and
the diagonal is given

Example 9 Construct a rectangle PQRS with PQ = 5 cm and ∠QPR = 30°

Solution: Rough diagram

Draw a rough sketch of rectangle PQRS and write the given measurements. S R

In rectangle PQRS,
PQ = RS = 5 cm, ∠P = ∠Q = ∠R = ∠S = 90°
30°
Steps of construction:
P 5 cm Q
Step 1: Draw PQ of length 5 cm.
Step 2: Construct ∠PQM = 90° at vertex Q.
Step 3: Construct ∠NPQ = 30° at vertex P. M
S 5 cm N
Step 4: Name the point of intersection of ray PN and ray QM as R.
R
Step 5: With centre R and radius 5 cm draw an arc.
Step 6: With centre P and radius equal to QR, draw another arc to cut
the previous arc. 30°
P 5 cm Q
Step 7: Name the point of intersection as S.
Step 8: Join PS and RS.
Thus, PQRS is the required rectangle.

To construct a rectangle given the length of its diagonal and the angle between the two diagonals
Construct a rectangle PQRS with diagonal = 6.8 cm and the angle between the two
Example 10
diagonals = 60°. Rough diagram
Solution: X
S R
S
Draw a rough sketch of rectangle PQRS and write
O
the given measurements. 60°
m
8c
Steps of construction: 6.
P Q 60°
Step 1: Draw PR of length 6.8 cm. P R
3.4 cm O 3.4 cm
Step 2: Bisect PR. let O be the point of intersection.

Step 3: Construct ∠XOR = 60° at vertex O.

Step 4: Extend line OX to line XY

Q
Y

192
Step 5: With centre O and radius equal to OR, draw an arc to cut the ray OX at point S.

Step 6: With centre O and radius equal to OR, draw an arc to cut the ray OY at point Q.

Step 7: Join PQ, QR, PS, SR.

Thus, PQRS, is the required rectangle.

Constructing a Square

A square is a special type of a quadrilateral which has

ŠŠ all sides equal

ŠŠ opposite sides parallel

ŠŠ all angles equal to 90°

ŠŠ equal diagonals that bisect each other at right angles

To construct a square given the length of its one side

Example 11 Construct a square PQRS with side PQ = 5 cm

Solution:

Draw a rough sketch of square PQRS and write the given measurements. Rough diagram

In square PQRS, S R

PQ = QR = RS = SP = 5 cm and ∠P = ∠Q = ∠R = ∠S = 90°
5 cm
Steps of construction

Step 1: Draw PQ of length 5 cm.

P 5 cm Q
Step 2: Construct ∠PQM = 90° at vertex Q.

Step 3: With centre Q and radius 5 cm, draw an arc to cut the ray
QM at R. M
S R
Step 4: With centre P and radius 5 cm, draw an arc.

Step 5: With centre R and radius 5 cm, draw another arc to cut the
previous arc.
5 cm
Step 6: Name the point of intersection as S.

Step 7: Join PS and RS.

Thus, PQRS, is the required square.

P 5 cm Q

To construct a square given the length of its one diagonal

Example 12 Construct a square ABCD with AC = 6 cm.

193
 Solution: Rough diagram
D C
Draw a rough sketch of the square ABCD and write
cm
the given measurements.

3
3

cm
E
Steps of construction: B
cm O

3
cm
3
Step 1: Draw a line segment AC = 6 cm.
A B
Step 2: Draw a perpendicular bisector EF of AC
3 cm
bisecting AC at O.
Step 3: With O as the centre and radius half the diagonal 3 cm 3 cm
A O C
(3 cm), draw two arcs to intersect EF at B and D.
Step 4: Join AB, BC, CD and DA.
3 cm
Thus, ABCD is the required square.

D
F

Constructing a Kite

Example 13 Construct a kite PQRS with QS = 8 cm, PS = 6 cm and RS = 8 cm

Solution:

Draw a rough sketch of kite PQRS and write the given measurement.
In kite PQRS, Rough diagram
S X
PQ = PS = 6 cm, QR = RS = 8 cm, 8 cm
c m
6
QS ⊥ PR and OQ = OS P
O
P R
PR is right bisector of QS 6c 6
cm
m 8 cm cm
6
Steps of construction Q
Step 1: Draw QS of length 8 cm. Q S
4 cm O 4 cm
Step 2: Draw perpendicular bisector
XZ of QS to meet at O.
m
8c

Step 3: With Q as a centre and radius

8c
m

6 cm, draw an arc to cut XZ at P.

Step 4: Join PQ and PS.

Step 5: With Q as centre and radius

R
8 cm, draw an arc to cut XZ at R.
Y
Step 6: Join QR and SR.

Thus, PQRS is the required kite.

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Exercise 13.2
1. Construct a parallelogram ABCD with AB = 6 cm, BC = 5 cm and diagonal AC = 8 cm.
2. Construct a parallelogram PQRS with PQ = 4 cm, QR = 5.5 cm and ∠P = 70°
3. Construct a parallelogram ABCD with AC = 5.4 cm, BD = 6.2 cm and the angle between two
diagonals is 40°.
4. Construct a parallelogram ABCD with one side of length 5 cm and two diagonals of lengths 6.1 cm
and 3.8 cm.
5. Construct a rhombus PQRS with PQ = 4.5 cm and ∠P = 60°.
6. Construct a rhombus PQRS with PQ = 4.2 cm and diagonal QS = 4.6 cm.
7. Construct a rhombus when the lengths of the diagonals are 4.8 cm and 6.4 cm.
8. Construct a rectangle ABCD with AB = 6.3 cm and BC = 4.4 cm
9. Construct a rectangle ABCD with AC = 8.4 cm and AB = 4.2 cm.
10. Construct a rectangle with the length of its diagonal 5.7 and the angle between the two diagonals
is 30°.
11. Construct a rectangle with length of one side is 4.6 and the angle between the side and the diagonal
is 50°.
12. Construct a square ABCD with AB = 4.5 cm.
13. Construct a square ABCD with AC = 5.8 cm.
14. Construct a kite PQRS with PQ = 4 cm and QR = 6 cm and Longest diagonal PR = 8 cm.
1. Construct a trapezium PQRS in which PQ ∥ SR and PQ = 8 cm, PS = 3 cm, ∠P = 50°
and ∠Q = 60°
2. Construct a parallelogram with the diagonals 5 cm and 6 cm and the angle between
them is 60°.

Recollection
ŠŠ Five measurements can determine a unique quadrilateral.
ŠŠ A unique quadrilateral can be constructed if:
• length of four sides and a diagonal are given.
• length of three sides and two diagonals are given.
• length of four sides and an angle are given.
• length of three sides and two included angles are given.
• length of two adjacent sides and three angles are given.
ŠŠ A parallelogram can be constructed if:
• the lengths of its two adjacent sides and one angle are given.
• the lengths of its two adjacent sides and one diagonal are given.

195
 • The lengths of its two diagonals and the angle between the two diagonals are given
• The lengths of its two diagonals and one side are given
ŠŠ A rhombus can be constructed if
• the length of its one side and one angle are given.
• the lengths of its one side and diagonal are given.
• The lengths of its two diagonals are given
ŠŠ A rectangle can be constructed if:
• the lengths of its two adjacent sides are given.
• the lengths of its one side and one diagonal are given.
• the length of its diagonal and the angle between the two diagonals are given..
• the length of its one side and the angle between the side and the diagonal are given.
ŠŠ A square can be constructed if:
• the length of its one side is given.
• the length of its one diagonal is given.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct options:
a. To construct a unique quadrilateral, it is necessary to know at least elements.
i. three ii. four iii. five iv. six
b. To construct a unique quadrilateral, we must know the lengths of at least sides
and one angle.
i. two ii. three iii. four iv. five
c. To construct a rectangle, we must know the length of its and the angle between
the two diagonals.
i. side ii. diagonal iii. angle iv. none of these
d. To construct a parallelogram, we must know the lengths of two sides and one
angle.
i. adjacent ii. parallel iii. diagonal iv. angle
e. To construct a rhombus, we must know length of two
i. sides ii. angles iii. diagonals iv. angles between diagonals

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. A unique quadrilateral can be constructed, if elements are given.

b. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is .

c. In a parallelogram, the consecutive angles are .

d. All sides of a rhombus are .

196
3. State true or false.
a. Given the length of diagonals we can construct a rhombus.
b. It is possible to construct a quadrilateral with the length of a sides as 7 cm and 6 cm and its
angles measuring 120°, 145° and 150°.
c. Given three angles and one side we can construct a rhombus.
d. Every parallelogram is a rhombus.
e. All squares are parallelograms.
4. Construct a rectangle with sides 4 cm and 2 cm.
5. Construct a parallelogram with one side 6 cm and diagonals as 6 cm and 8 cm. (hint: diagonals of
a parallelogram bisect each other).
6. Construct a parallelogram ABCD, AB = 8 cm, BC = 5 cm, ∠A = 70°, ∠B = 110°.

Review Exercise
1. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 4 cm, BC = 6 cm, CD = 5 cm, DA = 3.5 cm and diagonal
AC = 7 cm.
2. Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PQ = 5 cm, QR = 6.5 cm, ∠P =75°, ∠Q = 105° and ∠S = 60°.
3. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD with BC = 5.5 cm, CD = 4 cm, DA = 4 cm ∠C = 90° and ∠D = 85°.
4. Construct a quadrilateral LMNO with MN = 3 cm, NO = 5 cm, OL = 4 cm LN = 5 cm and MO = 7 cm.
5. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 6.4 cm, BC = 5.8 cm, AD = CD = 3.6 cm and ∠B = 45°.
6. Construct a rectangle PQRS with PQ = 8 cm and QR = 8.7 cm.
7. Construct a square with side 5.5 cm.
8. Construct a rhombus given the length of diagonals 6.5 cm and 6 cm.
9. Construct a parallelogram ABCD with AB = 5.1 cm , BC = 6 cm and ∠D = 85°.
10. Construct a rhombus PQRS with PR = 5.6 cm and QS = 6.5 cm.
11. Construct a rectangle ABCD with AB = 7 cm and BC = 5 cm.
12. Construct a trapezium EFGH so that EF  GH, ∠FGH = 70°, GH = 6.2 cm, FG = 3.1 cm and
EF = 4.2 cm
13. Draw a trapezium ABCD in which AB  DC, AB = 7 cm, BC = 5 cm, AD = 6.5 cm and ∠B = 60°.
14. Construct a rhombus with side 6.4 cm and each angle is 70°.
15. Construct a parallelogram with diagonals 5.6 cm and 7 cm and one of the sides is 4.4 cm.
(Hint: Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other)

Weblinks
https://www.geogebra.org/m/uegN2fXQ#material/BJESS9GF
https://www.geogebra.org/m/uegN2fXQ#material/rDy8raDc
As on 09.05.2019

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 14. Visualising Solid Shapes

You know
ŠŠ to identify 2-D and 3-D objects.
ŠŠ to identify the vertices, edges and faces of 3-D objects.
ŠŠ to draw nets and sketch 3-D objects on a 2-D plane.
ŠŠ to visualise 3-D objects using shadows and different views.

You will learn

ŠŠ to visualise combination of 2-D and 3-D shapes
ŠŠ to visualise 3-D objects from top, front and side views
ŠŠ to classify polyhedrons as convex, concave, regular or irregular
ŠŠ to verify Euler’s formula for polyhedrons
ŠŠ to draw nets of pyramids and prisms

You are familiar with a one-dimensional object, a two-dimensional object and a three-dimensional
object which you studied in the earlier classes. Let us distinguish them.

One-dimensional object Two-dimensional object Three-dimensional object

It has only length. It has length and breadth. It has length, breadth and depth.
Does not occupy any area. Occupies a measurable area. Occupies space and have definite
shape.
For example, line, arc, etc For example, square, rectangle,
etc For example, cube, cuboid,
cylinder, etc

Some real life examples of 3-D solids with their mathematical names are as follows:

Dice-Cube Eraser-Cuboid Football-Sphere Pipe-Cylinder Birthday Cap-Cone

198
Combination of 2-D and 3-D Shapes
Most of the things that we come across in our daily life are made up of one or more than one 2-D and
3-D shapes. Such solids are called nested solids. Given below are some examples of nested solids.

A pencil has a body in the shape of a cylinder and the tip is conical in shape.
In a softy, a cone is surmounted by a hemisphere.
In the house shown above the base is in the shape of a cuboid and roof is in the shape of a triangular
prism.
The tent shown above has a cuboid base and the roof is in the shape of a triangular pyramid.
Views of 3-D shapes
An object when viewed from different directions looks different. When an object is viewed from above it
is the top view, when from front it is the front view and if viewed from left or right side it is the side view.
The different views of a house are shown below.

Object Top view Front view Side view

Some more examples of different views of objects are shown below.

Object Top view Front view Side view

Top

Front Side

Top

Front Side

199
 Object Top view Front view Side view
Top

Side
Front

Top

Side

Front

A cube is an example of a three dimensional figure. A unit cube is a cube in which length,
breadth and height are each 1 unit. By joining different unit cubes we can make three
dimensional figures and get different views of the solids so formed.
For example,

Object Top view Front view Side view

Top

Side

Front
Top

Side

Front

Top

Side

Front

Top

Side

Front

200
Example 1 Draw the top, front and side views of the given objects.

a. A tea cup b. A cupboard

Top Top
Side

Side

Front
Front

c. Soild made of four cubes d. Soild made of five cubes

Top Top
Side

Side
Front
Front

Solution:

Top view Front view Side view

a.

b.

c.

d.

201
 Let's Exercise
Exercise 14.1
1. Match the objects with their shapes.

a.

cylinder

A bowl
b.

A cylinder with conical ends

A four road crossing

c.

A hemispherical shell

Water storage container

d.

Two rectangular cross paths inside a rectangular park

Rocket

2. For each of the given objects, identify the corresponding front and the top views

Object Top view Front view

a.

Brick
b.

Bottle

202
 Object Top view Front view
c.

Box
d.

Paper cup

3. Identify the 3-D solids used in the adjoining solid. Also draw the different views of the
solid.

4. Identify the top, front and side view of each of the objects given below.

Object (i) (ii) (iii)

a. Top

Side

Front

Pyramid
b. Top

Front Side

Funnel
c. Top

Front Side

Hexagonal weight
d. Top

Front Side

Dice

203
 5. For each given solid, identify the top view, front view and side view.

Object (i) (ii) (iii)

a. Top

Side

Front

b. Top

Side

Front

c. Top

Side
Front

d. Top

Front
Side

6. Draw the front, side and top views of the following.

Object Top view Front view Side view

a. Top

Side

Front
A cap
b. Top
Side
Front

Gas

204
 Object Top view Front view Side view
c. Top

Front Side

A match box
d. Top

Front
Side

Ink bottle
e. Top

Side
Front

Bat

Polyhedron
3 Dimensional solids are of two types: polyhedrons and non-polyhedrons.
Polyhedrons have only polygons as faces example, cubes, cuboids, prisms and pyramids.

Polyhedrons

Non-polyhedrons have circular or curved face for example, sphere, cone, cylinder etc

Non-Polyhedrons

Convex and Concave Polyhedrons

Any polyhedron is either concave or convex. A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron whose all faces are
convex polygons. All regular polyhedrons, pyramids and prisms are examples of convex polyhedrons.

205
 Some examples of convex polyhedrons are shown below.

A concave polyhedron is a polyhedron whose all faces are not convex polygons. In other words, at
least one face is a concave polygon.
Some examples of concave polyhedrons are shown below.

Regular and Irregular Polyhedron

A polyhedron made up of all congruent faces with each face a regular polygon is a regular polyhedron.
In a regular polyhedron, the same number of faces meet at each vertex. Irregular polyhedrons do
not have either all faces congruent or regular polygons or number of faces meeting at each vertex is
different.

Regular Cube or Regular Regular A triangular prism is an

tetrahedron: 4 hexahedron: 6 octahedron: 8 irregular polyhedron as the
equilateral triangles squares as faces equilateral triangles number of faces meeting at
as faces as faces each vertex is same but the
faces are different polygons
(2 triangles and 3 rectangles)

Prisms and Pyramids

The most important members of the polyhedron family are the prisms and pyramids
A prism is a polyhedron with two congruent polygons as its bases and the remaining faces as
rectangles. A prism is named after its base.
Some common type of prisms are described below.

Triangular Prism
A triangular prism has triangular bases and rectangles on the three sides.

Rectangular Prism
A rectangular prism has rectangular bases and rectangles on the four sides. The
other common name for this prism is a cuboid.

206
Pentagonal Prism
A pentagonal prism has congruent pentagons as bases and rectangles on the five
sides.

Hexagonal Prism
A hexagonal prism has congruent hexagons as bases and rectangles on the four
sides.
A pyramid is a polyhedron with base as a polygon and the remaining faces as triangles. A pyramid is
also named after its base.
Some common type of pyramids are described below.
Triangular Pyramid
A pyramid whose base is a triangle and the faces are also triangles is called a
triangular pyramid.

Rectangular Pyramid
A pyramid whose base is a rectangle and the faces are triangles is called a rectangular
pyramid.

Square Pyramid
A square pyramid has a square base and triangles on the four sides.

Pentagonal Pyramid
A pentagonal pyramid has a pentagon base and triangles on the five sides.

Hexagonal Pyramid
A hexagonal pyramid has a hexagon base and triangles on the six sides.

Faces, Edges and Vertices

Any 3-D solid can be described using its faces, edges and vertices.
Face: The polygons forming a polyhedron are called faces. Vertex H G

Edge: The line segment where the two faces of a polyhedron

meet is called an edge. E F
Face
Vertex: The point where three or more edges of a polyhedron Edge C
meet is called a vertex. D

For example, A B
Consider a cuboid shown alongside.
It has 8 vertices A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

207
 There are 12 segments joining the vertices, namely, AB, BC, CD, AD, EF, FG, GH, HE, AE, BF, CG and
DH. These segments are the edges.
There are 6 faces, namely, rectangles ABCD, ABFE, BCGF, DCGH, ADHE and EFGH, forming the
surface of the cuboid.
Euler’s Formula
If a polyhedron has V vertices, F faces and E edges then Euler’s formula states that V – E + F = 2.
As seen above a cube has 6 faces, 8 vertices and 12 edges,
Thus, for a cube, F = 6, V = 8 and E = 12 then V – E + F = 8 - 12 + 6 = 2. This verifies the Euler’s formula.
Euler’s Formula holds true for all polyhedrons
Let us verify the formula for some prisms and pyramids.

Number of Number of Number of

3-D Solids V–E+F
Vertices, V Edges, E Faces, F

Triangular prism 6 9 5 6–9+5=2

Square/Rectangular prism 8 12 6 8 – 12 + 6 = 2

Pentagonal prism 10 15 7 10 – 15 + 7 = 2

Hexagonal prism 12 18 8 12 – 18 + 8 = 2

Triangular pyramid 4 6 4 4–6+4=2

Square pyramid 5 8 5 5–8–5=2

Pentagonal pyramid 6 10 6 6 – 10 + 6 = 2

Hexagonal pyramid 7 12 7 7 – 12 + 7 = 2

Example 1 Can a polyhedron have 15 faces, 30 edges and 20 vertices?

Solution:
Given F = 15, E = 30 and V = 20
By Euler's formula, for a polyhedronV – E + F = 2
∴ V – E + F = 20 – 30 + 15 = 5
Since, V – E + F ≠ 2, hence a polyhedron with 15 faces, 30 edges and 20 vertices is not possible.

208
Example 2 Find the number of edges of a polyhedron which has 8 faces and 6 vertices.

Solution:
Given, F = 8 and V = 6
By Euler’s formula, V – E + F = 2
∴6–E+8=2
⇒ 14 – E = 2
⇒ E = 14 – 2 = 12
Hence the polyhedron will have 12 edges.

Example 3 Verify the Euler’s formula for the given solid.

Solution:
Number of faces = 6, Number of edges =10, Number of vertices = 6
To verify Euler’s formula we will show that, V – E + F = 2
V – E + F = 6 – 10 + 6 = 2
Hence , Euler’s formula is verified.

Nets of solids
The net of the 3-D solid is a sketch of the faces of a 3-D object drawn on a 2-D surface which when
folded forms the 3-D object. A solid can have more than one net.
Given below are nets of some solids.

Cube(Square prism)

Rectangular prism

Triangular prism

Rectangular pyramid

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 Exercise 14.2
1. Can a polyhedron have for its faces:
a. A square and five triangles?
b. Three rectangles?
c. Four triangles?
2. Classify the following solids into convex and concave solids.
a. b. c. d.

3. Classify the following solids into regular and irregular solids.

a. Triangular pyramid with each side of length 3 cm
b. Cube with each side of length 5 cm
c. Hexahedron with each face a triangle and each side of length 4 cm
d. Pentagonal prism with each side of length 3 cm.
4. For the solids given below, name the following.
a. U b. F

D E

T S C

P R
A B
Q
i. all the vertices
ii. the base and
iii. all the faces
5. Why is a cuboid called a rectangular prism?
6. Find the number of faces of a polyhedron having 4 vertices and 6 edges.
7. Find the number of edges of a polyhedron having 10 vertices and 7 faces.
8. Find the number of vertices of a polyhedron having 18 edges and 8 faces.
9. Verify Euler’s formula for the following solids.
a. Square prism b. Triangular prism c. Triangular pyramid d. Hexagonal pyramid

10. Verify Euler’s formula for the following.

a. b. c. d.

210
11. Draw the nets of the following solids.
a. b.

Recollections
ŠŠ A nested solid is a combination of 2-D and 3-D shapes.
ŠŠ An object has different views from different directions, i.e. front, top and side.
ŠŠ 3 dimensional solids are of two types: Polyhedrons and non-polyhedrons.
Polyhedrons have only polygons as faces while non-polyhedrons have circular or curved faces.
ŠŠ A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron whose all faces are convex polygons.
A concave polyhedron is a polyhedron whose all faces are not convex polygons.
ŠŠ A regular polyhedron has all congruent faces with each face a regular polygon and the same
number of faces meeting at each vertex.
ŠŠ Irregular polyhedrons do not have either all faces congruent or regular polygons or number of
faces meeting at each vertex is different.
ŠŠ A prism is a polyhedron with two congruent polygons as its bases and the remaining faces as
rectangles.
ŠŠ A pyramid is a polyhedron with base as a polygon and the remaining faces as triangles.
ŠŠ Any 3-D solid can be described using its faces, vertices and edges.
ŠŠ If a polyhedron has V vertices, F faces and E edges then Euler’s formula states that V – E + F = 2.
ŠŠ A sketch of the faces of a 3-D object drawn on a 2-D surface which when folded forms the 3-D
object is called the net of the 3-D solid.

Check your understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. Which of the following is a 3 dimensional shape?
i. Circle ii. Trapezium iii. Sphere iv. Square
b. The number of faces in a triangular pyramid are:
i. 6 ii. 3 iii. 5 iv. 4
c. Which of the following is a Euler’s formula?
i. F+V–E=2 ii. F+E–V=2 iii. F – V – E = 2 iv. E + F – V = 2
d. The other name for a cuboid is:
i. Rectangular pyramid ii. Rectangular prism iii. Square pyramid iv. Square prism
e. Which of them is the face of a pyramid?
i. Square ii. Rectangle iii. Triangle iv. Pentagon

211
 2. Match the following 3-D solids in the first column to the corresponding number of faces in the
second column.

3-D solids Number of faces

a. Hexagonal pyramid i. 5
b. Hexagonal prism ii. 4
c. Rectangular pyramid iii. 7
d. Triangular prism iv. 8

3. State true or false.

a. A cone is a polyhedron with 2 faces.
b. A cube is a regular polyhedron.
c. A square prism is a concave polyhedron.
d. A triangular prism is a convex polyhedron.
4. Draw the top, front and side view of each of the objects given below.
a. Top b. Top c. Top

Side Side Side

Front Front
Front

5. Find the number of edges of a polyhedron having 7 vertices and 7 faces.

6. Identify the polyhedrons used in the adjoining solid and draw the different views of
the adjoining solid.

Review exercise
1. Match the nested objects with their shapes

a.
i. A cylinder with conical end

b.
ii. A cylinder mounted on a hemisphere.

c.
iii. A cylindrical shell

212
2. Draw the side and top view of the following.

Object Top view Side view

a.

A bottle
b.

A container
c.

A table

3. Which of the following are prisms?

a. b. c.

A pencil A paper weight A Pencil box

4. Draw the nets of the following solids.
a. b.

5. Verify Euler’s formula for the following solids.

a. b.

213
 6. Find the number of faces of a polyhedron having 6 vertices and 9 edges.
7. Find the number of edges of a polyhedron having 8 vertices and 6 faces.
8. Find the number of vertices of a polyhedron having 10 edges and 6 faces.
9. Name different plane shapes needed to draw the net of Heptagonal Pyramid.
10. Identify the regular solids from the given figures.
a. b. c. d.

11. Using Euler’s formula find the unknown.

Faces Vertices Edges

a. 4 ? 12

b. ? 12 15

c. 8 6 ?

Weblinks
http://www.learnhive.net/learn/cbse-grade-8/mathematics/3d-visualization
https://www.dronstudy.com/book/visualising-solid-shapes-class-8-notes/

As on 09.05.2019

214
 15. Perimeter and Area

You know
ŠŠ to find the area and perimeter of closed figures
ŠŠ to find the perimeter and area of a square, rectangle, parallelogram, triangle and circle
ŠŠ to find the area of a square, rectangle, parallelogram, triangle and circle

You will learn

ŠŠ to find the area of any quadrilateral
ŠŠ to find the area of a trapezium
ŠŠ to find the area of a rhombus
ŠŠ to find the area of any polygon

Let us recall the formulae for finding the perimeter and area of plane figures, which you have studied
in earlier classes.

Shape Name of the shape Perimeter, P Area, A

P Q

Square P = 4 × side = 4a A = (side)2 = a2

S R
a

P Q

b P = 2 × (length + A = length × breadth

Rectangle
breadth) = 2(l + b) =l×b
S R
l

P Q
P = 2 × (sum of the
a h A = base × height
Parallelogram adjacent sides)
=b×h
S R = 2(a + b)
T b

P
1
P = sum of the all A= × (base ×
h Triangle 2
Sides = PQ + QR + RS 1
height) = × (b × h)
Q Sb R 2

C = 2π × (radius) = 2πr
O (Note: Perimeter of a
Circle circle is also called the A = π × (radius)2 = πr2
r
circumference of the
A
circle)

215
 Example 1 Find the perimeter and area of the following figures.

a. b. c.
8 cm 11
cm 14 cm

cm
7 cm

9
15 cm 28 cm
14 cm
Solution:
a. Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(l + b) = 2 × (15 + 8) = 2 × 23 = 46 cm
Area of the rectangle = l × b = 15 × 8 = 120 cm2
b. Perimeter of a triangle = sum of length of three sides = 9 + 14 + 11 = 34 cm
1 1
Area of a triangle = × base × height = × 14 × 7 = 49 cm2
2 2
22 36
c. Perimeter of semicircle = r(2 + π) = 14 × �2 + � = 14 × = 72 cm
11
7 7
2
1 1 22
Area of a semicircle = × πr 2 = × × 14 ×14 = 11× 28 = 308 cm2
2 2 7
1 1

Example 2 Find the area of the shaded portion in the following figure. (π = 3.14)

3 cm

Solution:
The diagram above displays 3 circles inscribed in a rectangle. The diameter of each circle is same and
is same as the breadth of the rectangle. The length of the rectangle is thrice the diameter of the circle.
Given that the radius of each circle is 3 cm.
So, the diameter of each circle is 3 × 2 = 6 cm.
Thus, the breadth of the rectangle is 6 cm and its length is 3 × 6 = 18 cm.
We know the area of a circle with radius r is πr2.
∴ Area of each circle = π × 32 = 3.14 × 9 = 28.26 cm2
Also, the area of a rectangle is length × breadth.
∴ Area of rectangle = 18 × 6 = 108 cm2
Area of the shaded region = Area of the rectangle – 3 × Area of the circle
Thus, the required area = 108 – 3 × 28.26 = 108 – 84.78 = 23.22 cm2
The radius of a wheel is 14 cm. Find the number of times the wheel revolves to cover
Example 3 22
a distance of 110 m. (π = )
7
Solution:
Given that the radius of a wheel, r = 14 cm.

216
 22
Then the circumference of the wheel, C = 2πr = 2 × � � × 14 = 88 cm
7
That is, in one revolution the wheel covers a distance of 88 cm.
Now, 110 m = 11000 cm
11000
Therefore, number of times wheel revolve to cover 11000 cm = = 125
88
The ratio of the base and height of a triangle is 3 : 2. Find the base if the area of the
Example 4
triangle is 48 cm2.
Solution:
Given the ratio of the base and height of a triangle is 3 : 2.
Let the common multiple be x.
Then the base of the triangle is 3x and its height is 2x.
The area of the triangle is 48 cm2.
1
Area of a triangle = × (base × height)
2
1
∴ 48 = × 3x × 2x ⇒ 48 × 2 = 6x2
2
8
48 × 2
⇒ x2 = ⇒ x 2 =16
6
1

⇒ x = 16 = ±4

If x = –4, the base and height becomes negative which is not possible.
∴x=4
Thus, the base of the triangle is 3 × 4 = 12 cm and its height is 2 × 4 = 8 cm.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 15.1
1. Find the area and perimeter of the following.
a. Rectangle with length 5 cm and breadth 4 cm.
b. Right triangle with base 4 cm and height 3 cm.
c. Square with side 6 cm.
d. Rhombus with base 14 cm and height 9 cm.

2. Find the area of the shaded portion in the following figures. (π = 3.14)
a. b. c. d.

3 cm
3 cm 15 cm 8 cm 15 cm
8 cm

217
 3. A square and a circular field have the same perimeter. Which
field has a larger area?

88 m
4. A rectangular field has dimensions 50 m × 30 m. Find the cost of fencing the field at the rate of
` 20 per m.
5. The base and the height of a parallelogram are in the ratio 1 : 3. Its area is 12 sq. cm. Find the base
and height.
6. The floor of a rectangular room has length 4 m and breadth 3.2 m. Find the number of tiles required
to cover the floor, if each side of a tile measures 40 cm.

7. The shape of a garden is rectangular in the middle

7m
and semicircular at the ends as shown in the diagram.
Find the area and perimeter of this garden.
30 m

Four maximum equal sized circular plates are cut from a rectangular sheet of paper with
dimensions 56 cm × 15 cm. What is the area of the remaining sheet of paper?
22
What is the perimeter of each circular plate? (π = )
7

Area of a Quadrilateral B

Consider a quadrilateral ABCD. The diagonal BD divides the quadrilateral in F

two triangles, ∆ABD and ∆CBD having same base BD and height AE and CF, A
E C
respectively.

Let BD = b, AE = h1 and CF = h2.

So, area of the quadrilateral ABCD = A(∆ABD) + A(∆CBD) D

We have,
B
1 1
A(∆ABD) = × (base × height) = × b × h1 F
2 2
1 1 A
A(∆CBD) = × (base × height) = × b × h2 E h2 C
2 2
b

h1
Area of the quadrilateral ABCD = A(∆ABD) + A(∆CBD)
1 1 D
=� × b × h1� + � × b × h2�
2 2
1
=× b × (h1 + h2)
2
1
∴ Area of quadrilateral = × diagonal × sum of perpendiculars on the diagonal from the vertices
2
Let us consider special quadrilaterals: Trapezium and Rhombus

Area of Trapezium
Let us understand, how to find the area of a trapezium with the help of an activity.

218
Math Lab Activity
Objective: To find the area of a trapezium.
Materials required: A chart paper, a ruler, geometry box.
Procedure:
P a Q
1. Take a chart paper and draw a trapezium PQRS. Draw a perpendicular
line segment, PA, from P on SR. h
PA denotes the distance between the parallel sides of the trapezium, also S A R
b
called the height of the trapezium.
Let PA = h, PQ = a and SR = b.
P a Q
2. Now, draw a line segment, QB, parallel to PS from Q on SR. We get
h
a parallelogram PQBS and a triangle QBR, having the same height as of
the trapezium. S A B b–a R
In a parallelogram, the opposite sides are equal. ∴PQ = SB = a
Then, the base of the triangle QBR is BR = SR – SB = b – a.
The area of the trapezium PQRS is same as the sum of the areas of the parallelogram PQBS and
the triangle QBR.
∴ Area of trapezium PQRS = area of parallelogram PQBS + area of triangle QBR
We have, area of parallelogram PQBS = base × height = a × h
1 1
Area of triangle QBR = × (base × height) = × (b – a) × h
2 2
1 
∴ Area of trapezium PQRS = ( a × h ) +  × ( b − a ) × h 
 2 
2ah + ( b − a ) h 2ah + bh − ah ah + bh ( a + b ) h 1
= = = = = × (a + b) × h
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
Area of the trapezium = × (a + b) × h = × (sum of the parallel sides) × height
2 2
1
Therefore, Area of a trapezium = × (sum of the parallel sides) × height.
2
Area of Rhombus
P
Let us understand, how to find the area of a rhombus with the help of an activity.

Math Lab Activity a

S Q
b O
Objective: To find the area of a rhombus.
Materials required: A chart paper, a ruler, geometry box.
Procedure: R

1. Take a chart paper and draw a rhombus PQRS.

2. Join the diagonals PR and QS.
Let QS = a and PR = b.
In a rhombus, diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.

219
 b a P
∴PO = RO = , SO = QO = and PR ⊥ QS
2 2
Diagonal QS divides the rhombus into two triangles ∆PQS and ∆RQS having same
b S Q
base QS and equal height . Oa
2 b 2
So, the area of rhombus PQRS = A(∆PQS) + A(∆RQS) = 2 × A(∆PQS) 2
1 1 1 b
We have, A(∆PQS) = × (base × height) = × QS × PO = × a × R
2 2 2 2

1 b a×b 1
Area of rhombus PQRS = 2 × A(∆PQS) = 2 × � 2 × a × � = = ×a×b
2 2 2
1 1
Area of rhombus = × (a × b) = × (product of diagonals)
2 2
Area of any Polygon
Any polygon can be divided into triangles, rectangles and trapezium. The area of the polygon is then
the sum of the areas of its parts.
For example, a regular octagon (8-sided polygon with all sides equal) can be divided in different ways
as follows:

1 rectangle and 2 2 triangles and 2 4 rectangles, 1 square

6 triangles
trapeziums trapeziums and 4 triangles

Similarly, an irregular pentagon (5-sided polygon with unequal sides) can be divided in different ways
as follows:

1 triangle and 1 2 triangles and 1 1 rectangle and 3

3 triangles
trapezium parallelogram triangles
C
Example 1 Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD in the adjoining figure.
5 cm

Solution:
8 cm
In the given quadrilateral ABCD, diagonal BD = 8 cm. E
D B
F
3 cm

The perpendiculars AE and CF, from the opposite vertices A and C, on the
diagonal BD have lengths 3 cm and 5 cm.
A
We know,

220
 1
Area of a quadrilateral = × Diagonal × sum of perpendiculars on the diagonal from the vertices
2
1
∴ Area of the quadrilateral ABCD = × BD × ( AE + CF )
2
1 1 4
= × 8 × (3 + 5) = × 8 × 8 = 32 cm2
2 2
1

The lengths of parallel sides of trapezium are 10 cm and 6 cm, and its height is 5 cm.
Example 2
Find the area of the trapezium.
Solution:
1
We know, area of trapezium = × ( sum of parallel sides ) × height
2
1
= × (10 + 6 ) × 5
2
1
= ×16 × 5
2
= 8 × 5 = 40 cm2
The diagonals of a rhombus are in the ratio 2 : 3. If the longer diagonal is 9 cm, then find
Example 3
the area of the rhombus.
Solution:
The ratio of the diagonals of a rhombus is 2 : 3.
Let the common multiple be x
Then the longer diagonal of the rhombus is 3x and shorter diagonal is 2x.
Given the longer diagonal is 9 cm.
9
∴ 3x = 9 ⇒ x = = 3 and 2x = 2 × 3 = 6
3
So, the shorter diagonal has length 6 cm.
1
We know, the area of rhombus = × (Product of diagonals)
2
1
Area of the given rhombus = × 9 × 6 = 27 cm2
2
B
Example 4 Find the area of a heptagonal field having the adjoining sketch.
2m

Solution: J
The sketch displays that the field is divided into A
4m

10
3 triangles (∆BJC, ∆AKB and ∆GHF) and 3 trapeziums m
(GHKA, FEDL and LDCJ). 4m C
K 15 m
Area of the field is the sum of the areas of these triangles G 4m
6m
and trapeziums. L
1
We know that, area of triangle = × base × height H
2 4m 8m
D
F
4m E

221
 In ΔBJC, In ΔAKB, In ΔGHF,
Base, BJ = 2 m Base, BK = BJ + JK = 2 + 4 = 6 m Base, FH = 4 m
Height, CJ = 10 m Height, AK = 4 m Height, GH = 6 m
1 1 1
A(ΔBJC) = × BJ × CJ A(ΔAKB) = × BK × AK A(ΔGHF) = × FH × GH
2 2 2
1 1 1
= × 2 × 10 = 10 m2 = × 6 × 4 = 12 m2 = × 4 × 6 = 12 m2
2 2 2
Now, FB = FH + HL + LK + KJ + JB
⇒ 15 = 4 + HL + 4 + 4 + 2
⇒ HL = 15 m – 14 m = 1 m
1
The area of a trapezium is × (sum of the parallel sides) × height.
2
In trapezium GHKA, In trapezium FEDL, In trapezium LDCJ,
Height HK = HL + LK = 1 + 4 Height FL = FH + HL = 4 + 1 Height LJ = LK + KJ = 4 + 4
=5m =5m =8m
Parallel sides are AK and GH Parallel sides are LD and FE Parallel sides are LD and JC
Area of trapezium GHKA Area of trapezium FEDL Area of trapezium LDCJ
1 1 1
= × (AK + GH) × HK = × (LD + FE) × FL = × (LD + JC) × LJ
2 2 2
1 1 1
= × (4 + 6) × 5 = × (8 + 4) × 5 = × (8 + 10) × 8
2 2 2
1 1 1
= × 10 × 5 = 25 m2 = × 12 × 5 = 30 m2 = × 18 × 8 = 72 m2
2 2 2
Thus, the area of the heptagonal field = 10 + 12 + 12 + 25 + 30 + 72 = 161 m2

Exercise 15.2
1. Find the area of the quadrilaterals in the following figures.
a. BD = 12 cm A b. DE = 7cm D
AE = 8 cm B BF = 5 cm
F
F
CF = 5 cm E AC = 13 cm A E
D C C
B
c. AB = 14 cm D C d. AB = 16 cm C
BD = 12 cm DE = 6 cm D
F A
DE = 5 cm A E B BD = 10 cm
E
CF = 4 cm DC = 12 cm
B
Q

4 cm R
2. Find the length of the diagonal, if the area of the quadrilateral PQRS is 60 cm2. T
U
6 cm
P
S

222
3. The area of trapezium is 100 cm2 and its height is 8 cm. Find the lengths of the two parallel sides if
one side is longer than the other by 5 cm.
4. The floor of a room consists of 1500 tiles which are rhombus shaped and each of its diagonals are
40 cm and 25 cm in length. Find the total cost of polishing the floor, if the cost per m2 is ` 4.
5. Find area of a trapezium, if its parallel sides are 7 cm and 8 cm and the distance between the
parallel sides is 4 cm.
6. Ajay wants to buy a trapezium shaped field. Road
The area of the field is 10,800 m2 and the
perpendicular distance between the two
parallel sides is 80 m. If its side along the 80 m
railway track is parallel to and twice the side
along the road, find the length of the side
along the railway track. Railway track
7. The area of a rhombus is 24 cm and one of its diagonal is 6 cm. Find the length of the other
2

diagonal.
30 cm

10 cm
8. Find the area of the adjoining figure.

10 50 cm
cm

10 cm

30 cm

9. There is a hexagon shaped garden as shown in the figure. Arun and Sapna divided it in two different
ways to find its area.

10 m
22 m

16 m Sapna's method Arun's method

Find the area of this garden using both ways.
E D
5 cm F
10. Find the area of the polygon in the adjoining figure. 3 cm
4 cm
G
4 cm H
7 cm

A 7 cm
5 cm C

223
 The diagonals of a parallelogram are of lengths 6 cm and 8 cm. If the diagonals are
perpendicular to each other, find the area and the perimeter of the parallelogram.

Recollection
1
ŠŠ Area of quadrilateral = × diagonal × (sum of perpendiculars on the diagonal from the vertices)
2
1
ŠŠ Area of trapezium = × (sum of parellel sides) × height
2
1
ŠŠ Area of rhombus = × (product of diagonals)
2
ŠŠ Any polygon can be divided into triangles, rectangles and trapezium. The area of the polygon is the
sum of the areas of its parts.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.
a. The perimeter of rhombus with side 12 cm is
i. 48 cm2 ii. 144 cm iii. 48 cm iv. 144 cm2
b. The area of trapezium with parallel sides 13 cm and 7 cm and the height 5 cm is
i. 50 cm2 ii. 50 cm iii. 25 cm iv. 25 cm2
c. Perimeter of the parallelogram with adjacent sides 14 cm and 12 cm is
i. 52 cm ii. 52 cm2 iii. 168 cm iv. 168 cm2
d. The area of a rhombus with diagonal 14 cm and 16 cm is
i. 112 cm ii. 112 cm2 iii. 224 cm iv. 224 cm2
e. The sum of the length of the bases of a trapezoid whose height is 11 cm and area is 0.55 m2 is
i. 10 cm ii. 10 cm2 iii. 20 cm iv. 20 cm2
2. State true or false.

a. Area of a rhombus is the same as the product of its adjacent sides.

b. Area of a right triangle is half the product of its sides including the right angle.

c. Area of a trapezium is half the product of its height and sum of its parallel sides.

d. Area of a parallelogram is the same as the product of its diagonals.

3. The area of a trapezium is 44 sq cm and its height is 4 cm. Find the lengths of the two parallel sides
if one side is shorter than the other by 2 cm.

4. Find the area of a rhombus with diagonals having lengths 8 cm and 10 cm.
A
5 cm
5. If the area of the quadrilateral ABCD, given below is 52 sq. cm, find B
the length of segment BD. D 3 cm
C

224
 P Q 10 cm R

7.5 cm
6. Find the area of the adjoining 14 cm
polygon. 5 cm 7.5 cm

N M S
15 cm
Review Exercise
1. Find the perimeter of the following.

a. Equilateral triangle with each side 5 cm

b. Rhombus with each side 7 cm.

c. Right triangle with base 4 cm and hypotenuse 5 cm

d. Parallelogram with adjacent sides 4 cm and 6 cm

2. Find the area and circumference of a circle with diameter 10 cm. (π = 3.14)

3. The length of a rectangle is twice its breadth if the area of the rectangle is 288 sq cm. Find its
perimeter.

4. How many tiles measuring 20 cm × 20 cm each will be required to pave a 1 m wide strip around
a rectangular swimming pool with dimensions 10 m × 8 m?
D

3 cm
5. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD in the adjoining figure.
A 4 cm
H

7 cm
5 cm C

B
6. The area of trapezium is 45 sq cm and its height is 6 cm. Find the lengths of the two parallel sides
if one side is twice the other.

7. Find the area of a field in the shape of a trapezium with parallel sides of lengths 30 m and 40 m and
the distance between the parallel sides is 10 m.

8. The diagonals of a rhombus are in the ratio 2 : 3. If sum of the diagonals is 15 cm, find the area of
the rhombus.

9. The area of a rhombus is 75 sq. cm. If one of the diagonals is 5 cm longer than the other, find the
lengths of both the diagonals.

10. If the area of a trapezium is 80 sq. cm and sum of the parallel sides is 20 cm, find its height.

225
 11. Find the area of the trapezium whose parallel sides are of lengths 8 cm and 14 cm and non-parallel
sides are of length 5 cm each.

12. Find the length of a diagonal of a quadrilateral, if the area of the quadrilateral is 70 sq cm and the
perpendiculars to the diagonal from the opposite vertices are of length 6 cm and 8 cm.

13. The diagonal of a quadrilateral is 15 cm long. The perpendiculars to the diagonal from the opposite
vertices are of length 5 cm and 7 cm. Find the area of the quadrilateral.
T

14. A laboratory in the shape of a regular heptagon has U 4m S

dimensions as shown in the adjoining figure. Find its
Y
area.
10 m

X 12 m

V I
M

L 8m
Z 3m

P Q

15. A plot of land is in the shape of a right angled triangle.

6m

The land contains four wells of radius 1 m. Find the

area of the land if the lengths of sides forming the right 1m
angle are 6 m and 8 m. (π = 3.14)
8m

16. The front wall of a room is shown in

1.2 m
the diagram given below. If the wall
1.2 m

is to be painted from outside at the

rate of ` 20 per sq. m, find the cost 1.5 m
3.6 m

of painting the wall.

2.1 m

6m
Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/area.html
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/perimeter.html
As on 09.05.2019

226
 16. Surface Area and Volume

You know
ŠŠ area of plane figures
ŠŠ a 3-D solid has length, breadth and depth
ŠŠ a 3-D solid occupies space and has a definite shape
ŠŠ to identify 3-D solids like cuboid, cube and cylinder
ŠŠ to identify the vertices, edges and faces of 3-D solids
ŠŠ to visualize and draw nets of 3-D solids

You will learn

ŠŠ to find the surface area and volume of a cuboid
ŠŠ to find the surface area and volume of a cube
ŠŠ to find the surface area and volume of a cylinder

You know that a two dimensional (2-D) shape encloses some region and lies completely on a plane.
Whereas a three dimensional (3-D) solid occupies space and cannot lie completely in a plane.
The region enclosed by a 2-D shape is measurable and is called the area of the shape. Similarly, the
space occupied by a 3-D solid can also be measured.

Surface Area and Volume

Any 3-D solid is made up of flat or curved surfaces called the faces of the solid. These surfaces are
2-D and enclose an area. The area of all faces together gives the surface area of the given solid. The
space occupied by a 3-D solid is called the capacity or volume of that solid.
The measure of length of a one dimensional object is expressed in units such as mm, cm, m, etc.The
measure of area of two dimensional objects is expressed in square units such as mm2, cm2, m2, etc.
In the same way, the measure of volume of three dimensional objects is expressed in cubic units such
as mm3, cm3, m3, etc.
1 mm2 = 1 mm × 1 mm 1 mm3 = 1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm
1 cm2 = 1 cm × 1 cm 1 cm3 = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm
1 m2 = 1 m × 1 m 1 m3 = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
Here, 1 mm3 or 1 cm3 is the volume of a cube of side 1 mm or 1 cm. The volume of any 3-D solid is the
number of unit cubes that can be enclosed in the solid.

Surface Area of a Cuboid

Let us consider a cuboid of dimensions 5 cm × 4 cm × 3 cm. 3 cm

That is, the length of the cuboid is 5 cm, its breadth is 4 cm and its height
m
is 3 cm. 4c
5 cm

227
 A cuboid has 6 faces and each face of the cuboid is a rectangle.
The area of all 6 faces together gives the surface Top
area of the cuboid.
The adjoining figure shows a net of the cuboid.
3 cm Front Left Back Right
The faces at the front and back of the cuboid
are rectangles with the same dimensions 5 cm 4 cm
5 cm × 3 cm and hence have the same area Bottom
5 × 3 = 15 cm2.
The left and right faces of the cuboid are
rectangles with the same dimensions 4 cm × 3 cm and hence have the same area 4 × 3 = 12 cm2.
The faces at the top and bottom of the cuboid are rectangles with the same dimensions 5 cm × 4 cm
and hence have same area 5 × 4 = 20 cm2.

∴ � Total surface area � = �Area of front and� + � Area of left and � + � Area of top and �
of the cuboid back rectangles right rectangles bottom rectangles
= 2(5 × 3) + 2(4 × 3) + 2(5 × 4) = 2[(5 × 3) + (4 × 3) + (5 × 4)]
= 2[15 + 12 + 20] = 2 × 47
= 94 cm2
In general,

∴ � Total surface area � = �Area of front and� + � Area of left and � + � Area of top and �
of the cuboid back rectangles right rectangles bottom rectangles
= 2(l × h) + 2(b × h) + 2(l × b)
= 2[lh + bh + lb]
If we exclude the top and bottom faces, then the area of the remaining faces represents lateral surface
area of a cuboid.
∴ Lateral surface area = �Area of front and� + � Area of left and � = 2(l × h) + 2(b × h) = 2[l + b]h
back rectangles right rectangles
Note that the quantity 2[l + b] represents the perimeter of the base rectangle. Thus, the lateral surface
area of a cuboid is the product of perimeter of the base and height of the cuboid.

Surface Area of a Cube

A cube is a special case of cuboids having the same length, breadth and height. s
That is, length (l) = breadth (b) = height (h) = side (s).
s
Thus, the total surface area of the cube = 2[lh + bh + lb] = 2[s2 + s2 + s2] = 2 × 3s2 = 6s2 s
and the lateral surface area of a cube = 2[lh + bh] = 2[s2 + s2] = 2 × 2s2 = 4s2.

Surface Area of a Cylinder

circular faces
A cylinder has two identical circular faces parallel to each
lateral face
other and one curved surface. Each of the circular face
axis
is called the base of the cylinder and the curved face is
called the lateral surface.

228
The line joining the centres of both the circular faces is perpendicular to both the faces and is called the
axis of the cylinder.
The length of this axis is the height, h of the cylinder.
h
The radius of the circular base is the radius, r of the cylinder.
Consider a cylinder with height h and radius r as shown in the adjacent diagram. r

The surface area of a cylinder is sum of the areas of the two circular faces and the lateral face.
Area of the circular face = πr2
Let us find the area of the lateral or the curved face as follows:
Cut the lateral face of the cylinder along a straight line parallel to the
axis of the cylinder and then lay the surface flat.
h h
The lateral face is in the shape of a rectangle with length as the
circumference of the base circle (2πr) and breadth as the height (h) of r 2πr
the cylinder.
The area of this rectangle is the area of the lateral face.
∴ Lateral surface area = area of the rectangle = length × breadth = (2πr) × h = 2πrh.
This demonstrates that the lateral surface area of a cylinder is the product of perimeter of the base and
height of the cylinder.
Thus, the total surface area of the cylinder is 2(Area of the circular face) + Area of lateral face.
∴ Total surface area = 2(πr2) + 2πrh = 2πr (r + h).
Find the lateral surface area and total surface area of a cuboid with dimensions
Example 1
6 cm × 4 cm × 2 cm.
Solution:
Length of the cuboid, l = 6 cm; the breadth of the cuboid, b = 4 cm; the height of the cuboid, h = 2 cm.
Lateral surface area of the cuboid = 2(l + b)h = 2 × (6 + 4) × 2 = 40 cm2
Total surface area of the cuboid = 2(lh + bh + lb) = 2 × (6 × 2 + 4 × 2 + 6 × 4) = 88 cm2

Example 2 Find the lateral surface area and total surface area of a cube with side 4 cm.

Solution:
Side of the cube, s = 4 cm
Lateral surface area of the cube = 4s2 = 4 × (4)2 = 64 cm2
Total surface area of the cube = 6s2 = 6 × (4)2 = 6 × 16 = 96 cm2
Find the cost of painting the walls of a rectangular room of dimensions 12 feet × 9 feet
Example 3
× 8 feet at the rate of ` 30 per square feet.
Solution:
Length of the rectangular room, l = 12 feet
Breadth of the rectangular room, b = 9 feet

229
 Height of the rectangular room, h = 8 feet
Area of the walls = the lateral surface area of the room
= 2 (l + b)h = 2 × (12 + 9) × 8 = 16 × 21 = 336 square feet.
Cost of painting 1 square feet area = ` 30
∴ The cost of painting an area of 336 square feet = 336 × ` 30 = ` 10080
Thus, the total cost of painting the walls is ` 10080.
The figure shows a section of a metal pipe. Given the internal radius
Example 4 5 cm
of the pipe is 4 cm, the external radius is 5 cm and the length of the
pipe is 20 cm. Find the total surface area of the pipe.
Solution: 20 cm

r = 4 cm, R = 5 cm, h = 20 cm
4 cm
Total surface area of the pipe
= area of internal surface + area of external surface + area of the two rings
= 2πrh + 2πRh + 2(πR2 – πr2)
= 2π × 4 × 20 + 2π × 5 × 20 + 2 (π52 – π42)
= 160π + 200π + 18π
22
= 378π = 378 × = 1188 cm2
7
22
Example 5 The curved surface area of a cylinder of height 8 cm is 352 cm2. Find its radius. �π = �
7
Solution:
Height of the cylinder, h = 8 cm
Curved surface area of the cylinder = 352 cm2
We know that, the curved surface area of the cylinder = 2πrh
∴ 2π rh = 352 ⇒ 2π r ( 8 ) = 352
 22 
⇒ 16 ×   × r =352
 7 
1
16
352 × 7
⇒r= =7
16 × 22
1 1

Therefore, the radius of the cylinder, r is 7 cm.

Find the curved surface area and total surface area of a cylinder with diameter 7 cm and
Example 6 22
height 5 cm. �π = �
7
Solution:
Height of the cylinder, h = 5 cm
Diameter of the cylinder, d = 7 cm

230
 7
∴ Radius of the cylinder, r = cm
2
Curved surface area of the cylinder = 2πrh
22 7
=2× × × 5 = 110 cm2
7 2
Total surface area of the cylinder = 2πr(r + h)
22 7 7 17
=2× × × � + 5� = 22 × = 11 × 7 = 187 cm2
7 2 2 2
Hence, the curved surface area and total surface area of the cylinder are 110 cm2 and 187 cm2
respectively.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 16.1
1. Find the total surface area and lateral surface area for the solids with the following dimensions.
a. Cuboid: l = 6 cm, b = 4 cm, h = 3 cm b. Cube: s = 9 cm
c. Cylinder: r = 7 cm, h = 11 cm d. Cuboid: l = 12 m, b = 500 cm, h = 800 cm

2. There are two cuboidal boxes as shown in the

adjoining figures. Which box requires the lesser 50 cm
amount of material to make? 50 cm

cm cm
60 cm 40 50 cm 50
(a) (b)

3. Find the area of cardboard required to prepare a closed box of dimensions 12 cm × 10 cm × 8 cm.

4. A swimming pool is 15 m in length, 12 m in breadth and 2 m in depth. Find the cost of cementing
the floor and walls at the rate of ` 15 per sq. m.

5. Find the area of the base of a box of height 4 cm and lateral surface area 120 cm2 if its length is
twice its breadth.

6. An arrangement of wooden cubic blocks, each of side 2 cm, has surface area 216 cm2 when
arranged in the form of cube. How many blocks are used in the arrangement?

7. The curved surface area of a cylinder of radius 5 cm is 251.2 cm2. Find its height. (π = 3.14)
8. A metal pipe is 7 m long, the cross-section has inner diameter 2 m and outer diameter 2.2 m. Find
22
the cost of painting the pipe from both sides at the rate of ` 10 per square metre. �π = �
7
9. A road roller has length 2 m and radius 140 cm. Find the number of revolutions required by the
22
roller to cover an area of 616 m2. �π = �
7
10. The lateral surface area of a hollow cylinder is 4625 cm2. It is cut along its height and formed
a rectangular sheet of width 37 cm. Find the perimeter of rectangular sheet.

231
 Volume of a Cuboid
Consider a cuboid of dimensions 5 cm × 4 cm × 3 cm.
3 cm
Let us fill this cuboid with cubes of side 1 cm, first fill the base layer with cubes.
The base layer can be filled using 5 cubes in a row length wise and making 4 such 4 cm
5 cm
rows.
So, the base layer contains 5 × 4 = 20 cubes.
To fill the cube completely we require 2 more layers (i.e., total 3 layers of 3 cm
20 cubes each).
So, the total number of cubes is 20 × 3 (i.e. 5 × 4 × 3) cubes. 5 cm 4 cm
Now volume of 1 cube is 1 cm3, then volume of 60 cubes is 60 × 1 cm3 = 60 cm3.
Therefore, the volume of the cuboid is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 cm3.
Thus, volume of a cuboid is length × breadth × height = lbh.
The product length × breadth denotes the area of the base of the cuboid and
hence, volume of a cuboid is also calculated as (Area of the base) × height.
Volume of a Cube
For a cube, length (l) = breadth (b) = height (h) = side (s).
Therefore, volume of a cube is side × side × side = (side)3 = s3.
Volume of a Cylinder
We have already observed that the volume of a cuboid is (Area of the base) × height.
h
Similarly, we can find the volume of the cylinder as the product of area of the base and
height.
Thus, the volume of a cylinder = (Area of the base) × (height) = πr2 × h = πr2h area of base
(= πr2)
Units of Volume
The volume of any solid is the measure of its capacity. That is, the measure of the quantity of the
material it can hold. In metric system, litre is the unit of measurement of capacity. Usually for liquids
such as milk water, etc, we use the unit litre rather than m3 or cm3.
Following conversions can be used.
1 litre (1 l) = 1000 cm3
1 kilolitre (1 kl) = 1000 l = 1000000 cm3 = 1 m3
1
1 millilitre (1 ml) = l = 1 cm3 = 1000 mm3
1000
A metal cube of side 6 cm is melted and cuboids are formed. If the dimension of each
Example 1
cuboid is 4 cm × 3 cm × 2 cm, how many cuboids are formed?
Solution:
Side of the metal cube, s = 6 cm
Volume of the metal obtained on melting the cube = volume of the cube = s3 = 6 × 6 × 6 = 216 cm3.
Length of the cuboid formed, l = 4 cm

232
Breadth of the cuboid formed, b = 3 cm
Height of the cuboid formed, h = 2 cm
Volume of the metal required for one cuboid = volume of the cuboid
= lbh = 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 cm3.
Volume of cube 216
Number of cuboids formed = = =9
Volume of cuboid 24
∴ 9 cuboids are formed.
Find the surface area and volume of a cuboid formed when two cubes with 4 cm edges
Example 2
are joined end to end.
Solution:
Side of the cube, s = 4 cm
Two cubes are joined end to end to form a cuboid.
4 cm
4 cm
Thus, the length of the cuboid is twice the length of the side of the cube whereas
the breadth and height are same as that of the cube. The adjoining figure shows 4 cm
the resultant cuboid.
4 cm
Thus, the dimensions of the cuboid are l = 8 cm, b = 4 cm and h = 4 cm.
The surface area of the cuboid is 2(lh + bh + lb) = 2(8 × 4 + 4 × 4 + 8 × 4) = 2(32 + 16 + 32) = 2 × 80 =
160 cm2.
And, the volume of the cuboid = lbh = 8 × 4 × 4 = 128 cm3.
22
Example 3 The total surface area of a cylinder with radius 7 cm is 528 cm2. Find its volume �π = �.
7
Solution:
Radius of the cylinder, r = 7 cm
Total surface area of the cylinder = 528 cm2
∴ 2πr ( r + h=) 528 ⇒ 2π× 7 × ( 7 + h=) 528
22
⇒ 14 × × (7 + h ) =
528
7
24 1
528 × 7
⇒7+h = = 12
14 × 22
2 1

⇒ h = 12 − 7 = 5 cm

∴ Height of the cylinder, h = 5 cm

22
Thus, the volume of the cylinder = πr2h = × 7 × 7 × 5 = 22 × 35 = 770 cm3
7
Find the volume of copper used in a hollow cylindrical pipe of length 12 m, outer diameter
Example 4
10 m and thickness 10 cm. (π = 3.14)
Solution:
The cylindrical pipe has a structure of a hollow cylinder. Thus, the length of the pipe denotes the
height of the cylinder.
Let R and r denote the outer and inner radius respectively.

233
 Length of the pipe is 12 m, ∴ h = 12 m
R
10
Outer diameter is 10 m, ∴ R = = 5 m.
2
Thickness t is 10 cm = 0.1 m h

∴ r = R – t = 5 – 0.1 = 4.9 m
r
∴ � Volume of copper used in � = � Volume of � – � Volume of �
the hollow cylindrical pipe outer cylinder inner cylinder
The volume of the outer cylinder = πR2h = (3.14) × 25 × 12 = 942 m3

The volume of the inner cylinder = πr2h = (3.14) × 4.92 × 12 = 904.6968 m3

∴ The volume of copper used = 942 – 904.6968 = 37.3032 m3.

10 identical metallic cylinders of radius 3 cm are melted to form one cylinder of radius
Example 5
15 cm. Find the ratio of their heights.
Solution:

The radius of the metallic cylinder, r is 3 cm.

∴ The volume of the metallic cylinder, v = πr2h = π(32)h = 9hπ cm3.

As 10 identical cylinders are melted to form a big cylinder, the volume V of the big metallic cylinder is
10 times the volume v of the small cylinder.

∴ The volume of the big metallic cylinder, V = 10 × v = 10 × 9hπ = 90hπ cm3

The radius of the big metallic cylinder, R is 15 cm.

Let H denote the height of the big cylinder.

∴ The volume of the big metallic cylinder, V = πR2H = π(152)H = 225Hπ cm3
h 225π 45 × 5 5
Thus we get, 90hπ = 225Hπ ⇒ = = =
H 90π 45 × 2 2
Therefore, the ratio of the height of the small cylinder to that of the big cylinder is 5 : 2.
A rectangular piece of paper 22 cm × 11 cm is folded without overlapping to make a
Example 6
cylinder of height 22 cm. Find the volume of the cylinder.
Solution:

Width of the paper becomes the perimeter of the base of the cylinder and length becomes height.

Let radius of the cylinder = r and height = h

Perimeter of the base of the cylinder = 2πr = 11

22
⇒2× × r = 11
7
7
⇒ r = cm
4
Therefore, volume of the cylinder = V = πr h
2

11
11
22 7 7 847
= 22
× × ×= = 211.75 cm3
7 4 4 4
2 2

234
Exercise 16.2
1. Find the volume of a cube if its total surface area is 294 cm2.
2. Find the volume of a cuboid if its surface area is 208 cm2 and the ratio of length, breadth and height
is 2 : 3: 4.
3. Find the height of a cuboid whose base area is 345 cm2 and volume is 3105 cm3.
4. A solid cuboid of dimensions 30 cm × 25 cm × 9 cm is melted and cast into 2 identical cubes. Find
the length of the cubes formed.
5. A cuboid is of dimensions 60 cm × 54 cm × 30 cm. How many small cubes with side 6 cm can be
placed in the given cuboid?
6. Water is pouring into a cuboidal reservoir at the rate of 30 litres per minute.
If the volume of reservoir is 54 m3, find the number of hours it will take to
fill the reservoir.

7. A log of wood in the shape of a cylinder has length 2 m and diameter 70 cm. Find the volume of
22
wood in the log. �π = �
7
8. A cylindrical water tank of diameter 4 m and height 3.5 m is filled completely with water. A tap
attached to the tank empties the tank at the rate of 2 litres per minute. In how many minutes will the
22
tank be empty? �π = �
7
9. A box contains 500 candles, each of length 10 cm and radius 14 mm. Find the volume of wax in
22
the box. �π = �
7
10. A milk tank is in the form of cylinder whose radius is 2 m and length is 7 m. Find the quantity of milk
in litres that can be stored in the tank.

A solid metallic cuboid of dimensions 10 cm × 5 cm × 3 cm is melted and cast into a box,

of thickness 0.5 cm, without lid. If the outer measurements of the base of the box are 12 cm
by 5 cm, find the height of the box.

Recollections
ŠŠ The area of all faces together gives the surface area of the given solid and the space occupied by
a solid is called the capacity or volume of that solid.

Cuboid Cube Cylinder

Solid
(l units × b units × h units) (side = s units) (radius = r units, height = h units)
Total Surface Area 2[lh + bh + lb] sq. units 6s2 sq. units 2πr(r + h) sq. units
Lateral Surface Area 2[l + b]h sq. units 4s2 sq. units 2πrh sq. units
Volume lbh cubic units s3 cubic units πr2h cubic units

ŠŠ The lateral surface area of a solid is the product of perimeter of the base and height.
ŠŠ The volume of a solid is the product of area of the base and height.
ŠŠ For conversion into metric units of capacity, we use the relation: 1 litre (1 L) = 1000 cm3

235
 Check Your Understanding
1. Select the correct option.
a. What is lateral surface area of a cube of side 8 cm?
i. 48 cm2 ii. 32 cm2 iii. 256 cm2 iv. 384 cm2

b. If the height of a cylinder is halved, its volume becomes how many times?
1 1
i. ii. iii. 2 iv. 3
2 3
c. If base area of cuboid is 12 m2 and height is 3 m, then its volume is:
i. 4 m3 ii. 36 m3 iii. 18 m3 iv. 24 m3

d. Three cubes whose edges are 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm respectively are melted without any loss
of metal into a single cube. The edge of new cube is:
i. 8 cm ii. 6 cm iii. 9 cm iv. 7 cm

e. What is the surface area of cylinder with radius of base 5 cm and height 30 cm?
i. 550 cm2 ii. 1100 cm2 iii. 2200 cm2 iv. 1650 cm2

2. Complete the following table for a cuboid of length l, breadth b and height h.

Sr. Lateral Surface Total Surface

Length, l Breadth, b Height, h Volume, V
No Area, LA Area, TA
a. 8 cm 5 cm 78 cm2

b. 7 mm 4 mm 2 mm

c. 6m 4m 120 m3

d. 3 cm 3 cm 54 cm2

3. The dimensions of a classroom are 20 feet × 20 feet × 12 feet. Find the sum of the areas of its floor
and the four walls.
4. 48 crystals, each in the shape of a cuboid of dimensions 4 mm × 3 mm × 3 mm, are combined to
get a single cubic crystal. Find the side of the new crystal formed.

5. A rubber tube in the shape of a cylinder is 30 cm long and outer diameter of its cross-section is
22
7 cm and inner diameter is 5.6 cm. Find the inner and outer curved surface area. �π = �
7
22
6. Find the cost of digging a pit of diameter 2 m and depth 14 m at the rate of ` 10 per m . �π = �
3
7

Review exercise
1. For the following solids, find the surface area and volume. (π = 3.14)
a. Cube with side 3 cm
b. Cuboid with dimensions 7 cm × 4 cm × 5 cm
c. Cylinder with radius 3 cm and height 5 cm
d. Hollow cylinder with inner radius 3 cm, outer radius 4 cm and height 5 cm

236
2. Find the surface area and volume of a cuboid formed when three cubes with 2 cm edge are joined
end to end.
3. The dimensions of an oil tin are 15 cm × 8 cm × 25 cm. Find the area of the tin sheet required for
making 40 tins. If 1 sq m of tin costs ` 15, find the cost of tin used for these 40 tins.
4. The perimeter of one face of a cube is 32 cm. Find its total surface area.
5. Find the maximum number of cubes of side 3 cm that can be placed inside a cuboid of dimensions
18 cm × 12 cm × 9 cm.
6. Find the volume of metal required to make a closed box of thickness 1 cm with external measurements
12 cm × 7 cm × 10 cm.
7. A water tank has a capacity to hold 5000 l of water. If the base of the tank has dimensions
5 m × 2 m find its height.
8. Find the volume of a cube, if its lateral surface area is 100 sq cm.
9. The length of a cuboid is one more than its breadth and the perimeter of its base is 18 cm. If its
lateral surface area is 54 sq. cm, find the volume of the cuboid.
10. Find the number of bricks, each of dimensions 12 cm × 5 cm × 7 cm, required to construct a wall
6 m long, 2.8 m high and 15 cm thick.
11. A metal cube of side 12 cm is melted and a cuboid of base 18 cm by 16 cm is formed. Find the height
of the cuboid.
12. A pit 4 m long 4 m wide and 2.8 m deep is dug from a corner of a rectangular ground with
dimensions 20 m by 12 m. If the earth taken out is spread evenly over the remaining area of the
ground, find the rise in the level of the ground.
13. How many wooden cubic blocks, each of side 2 cm, should be arranged to form a cuboid with
dimensions 10 cm × 8 cm × 40 cm.
22
14. The curved surface area of a cylinder with radius 3 cm is 132 sq cm. Find its height. �π = �
7
15. Find the curved surface area of a cylinder with radius 4 cm and height 5 cm. (π = 3.14)
16. A cylindrical well is of height 3.5 feet above the ground, the level of water is 7 feet below the ground
level. If the volume of water in the well is half the volume of the capacity of the well, find the total
height of the well.
17. Find the volume of metal used in a solid cylinder of length 14 cm and diameter 10 cm.

18. Find the time required to fill a cylindrical water tank of radius 2 m and height 7 m through a pipe at
22
the rate of 11 litres per min. �π = �
7
19. A metallic cylinder of diameter 14 cm and height 49 cm is melted and cast into cubes with side
22
7 cm. How many cubes will be formed? �π = �
7
20. A rectangular sheet of paper of length 35 cm and breadth 28 cm is folded in two ways to form
22
a cylinder. Find the difference in the volumes of cylinders formed. �π = �
7
Weblinks
http://www.mathopenref.com/circumference.html
https://www.cimt.org.uk/projects/mepres/step-up/index.htm
As on 09.05.2019

237
 17. Data Handling

You know
ŠŠ to collect and organise data to get information
ŠŠ to define the arithmetic mean, the median, the mode and the range of a group of numbers
ŠŠ to draw pictographs, bar graphs and double bar graphs to represent data
ŠŠ meaning of chance
ŠŠ probability of an event

You will learn

ŠŠ to construct frequency distribution tables
ŠŠ to draw and interpret histograms and pie charts
ŠŠ to calculate probability of an event

Statistics plays an important role in our daily lives. Population census, weather forecasts, political polls,
business decisions, etc. are a few examples where statistics is widely used. The study of statistics
helps us to understand the methods and the techniques used to collect, analyze and represent data.
In the previous classes you have learnt about data, pictorial representation and interpretation of data
using bar graphs and double bar graphs.
Let us revise those concepts.

Bar Graph
A bar graph or a bar chart is a pictorial representation of data using rectangular bars of equal width
with equal space between them.
The bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The height (or length) of the bar is proportional to the
frequency of the corresponding observation.

Example 1 Read the given bar graph and answer the following questions.

a. What information is given in the bar graph?

b. Give the total number of newspapers published in English, Hindi, Bengali and Punjabi.
c. Find the excess number of newspapers published in English over those published in Bengali.
Solution:
a. The given bar graph shows the total number of newspapers published in 8 different Indian
languages.
b. 11,750 newspapers were published in English, Hindi, Bengali and Punjabi.
c. 1250 more English newspapers were published than Bengali.

238
 Y
Scale: Y axis: 1 cm = 500 newspapers
5000

Number of newspapers published

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 X
Malyanam

English

Gujarati

Hindi

Bengali

Marathi

Punjabi

Urdu
Languages

Double Bar Graph

A double bar graph is used to compare two different sets of data simultaneously pertaining to one
particular observation or group.
The two data sets are represented in the same graph paper with the same scale. There is no space
between the two bars for the same observation. The double bars for different observations have equal
space between them.
The following data represents the total number of club members participating in each of
Example 2
the events organized by the club. Represent the data using a double bar graph.

Events Seminar Fun fair Dance show Orchestra

Number of male participants 9 11 21 25
Number of female participants 11 15 26 16

Answer the following questions from the double bar graph.

a. Which event had the maximum number of participants?
b. What is the total number of male participants? Y Participation of Club Members
Scale: 1 cm = 5 participants
Number of participants

c. What is the total number of female participants? 30 Males

Females
25
d. In which event participation of the male participants
was more than that of the female participants? 20
15
Solution:
10
Let x-axis represent 'Events' and y-axis 'Number of
5
Participants'. The double bar graph is shown alongside.
0 X
Seminar

Fun fair

Dance
show

Orchestra

a. The maximum number of members participated in

the dance show.
Events

239
 b. The total number of male participants is 66.
c. The total number of female participants is 68.
d. The participation of the male participants was more than that of the female participants in the
orchestra.

Let's Exercise
Exercise 17.1
1. The data given below shows the number of tourists who visited a small hill station during five years.

Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Number of tourists 700 800 450 600 750
Draw a bar graph to represent the data.
2. The following data represents marks secured by Ramesh in five subjects. Represent the data using
a bar graph.

Subject Mathematics Social Science Science Hindi English

Marks (out of 100) 60 65 70 60 55

3. The donation amount in rupees given by Individual Donations

Y
five individuals to NGO are shown in the Scale: 1 cm = ` 1000
adjoining bar graph. Read the graph and 6000
answer the following questions. 5000
Amount (in `)

a. Who gave maximum donation? 4000

3000
b. Who gave minimum donation?
2000
c. How much more donation did 1000
Abraham give than Zena?
0 X
Abraham

Zena

Sara

Lester

d. What is the total amount of donation Ulla

collected?

Individuals
4. In the given table the percentage of stamps of each country in Eric’s and Susan’s collection is
tabulated. Draw a double bar graph to represent the data.

Country India France Austria Sweden Belgium

Eric 40 20 15 10 10
Susan 30 15 20 10 15

5. The following are the points scored by two teams A and B in a quiz competition in five rounds.
Represent the data using a double bar graph.

Teams Point scores in different rounds

Rounds 1 2 3 4 5
A 4 8 10 12 18
B 6 8 8 12 20

240
6. Observe the given bar graph and answer the
Y
following questions.
40 Maximum temperature
a. Which is the coldest city?
Minimum temperature
35
b. Name the two cities, in which maximum
30
temperature of one was equal to the

Temperature (°C)
25
minimum temperature of the other.
20
c. Which two cities have the least
15
difference in the maximum and minimum
temperatures? 10
5
0 X

Paris
Delhi

Mumbai

Bangkok
London
Cities

Organising Data
Data is a collection of facts, related to a particular quantity or event, to gather information.
Data available to us is usually unorganized. Such data is called raw data.
Data can be classified as: Primary Data and Secondary Data.
Primary Data: Data that is collected by a person himself from sources such as a survey, interview or
questionnaire is called primary data.
Secondary Data: Data that is collected directly from sources such as internet, newspapers, articles or
government resources is called secondary data.
Consider the data of marks obtained (out of 10) for 40 students in a class test.

10 5 3 7 10 5 5 6 5 6

10 3 5 4 6 10 10 7 5 10

5 8 7 6 9 8 5 6 9 5

5 5 8 8 8 5 6 4 5 6

Each entry in the above list is called an observation.

From the above data it is observed that the lowest mark is 3 and the highest mark is 10.

Range of a given set of data is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value present
in the data. For the above example, the range is 10 – 3 = 7.

Frequency of an observation is the number of times the observation occurs in the given data.

If the number of observations in the data collected is less, we can calculate the frequency directly. But
if there are more number of observations in the data collected, then we use tally marks for counting the
frequency of each observation.

A frequency distribution table is a convenient way of representing the frequency of each observation.

241
 The frequency table for the given data is as follows:

Marks Tally Marks Frequency

3 2

4 2

5 13

6 7

7 3

8 5

9 2

10 6

Total = 40

The sum of the frequencies of each observation is equal to the total number of observations in the
data collected.

Grouped Frequency Distribution

In the above examples, the range of data or the number of observations was less. So, we used an
ungrouped frequency distribution table to represent the data. But, if the range is large, the number of
rows in the frequency table is more, which makes the data enormous to handle.
Consider the data of marks obtained (out of 50) for 40 students in a class test.

29 39 15 31 17 45 30 36 23 31
47 37 17 15 33 46 15 13 42 32
15 14 49 34 14 30 11 15 48 32
11 36 36 16 18 14 46 31 25 41

The lowest mark is 11 and the highest mark is 49.

Range = Highest mark – lowest mark = 49 – 11 = 38
As the range is large, we classify the data into groups.
The groups 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 – 40 and 40 – 50 are called classes.
In the class 10 – 20, the lower class limit is 10 and the upper class limit is 20.
The difference between the two class limits is called class interval or class size.
In the above example, the class size is 20 – 10 = 10.
lower limit + upper limit
The class mark is the mid-value of the class. It is calculated as .
2
10 + 20
Here, the class mark of class 10 – 20 is = 15
2

242
 20 + 30
Class mark of class 20 – 30 is = 25 and so on.
2
Though the size of all the classes is same but the class marks are different.
The value 20 goes into class 20 – 30 and not into class 10 – 20.
Thus, lower class limit is included in class but upper class limit is not included.
The grouped frequency distribution table for the given data is as below:

Class (Exclusive) Tally Marks Frequency

10 – 20 15
20 – 30 3
30 – 40 14
40 – 50 8

The following data represents the colours of flowers in Mary’s garden. Prepare
Example 1
an ungrouped frequency distribution table for this data.

green indigo blue indigo blue indigo blue yellow red orange
green green yellow violet yellow blue green red yellow yellow
orange indigo violet orange orange orange green yellow indigo violet
Solution:
The given data displays seven colours of flowers in Mary’s garden, namely, green, indigo, blue, yellow,
red, orange and violet. The ungrouped frequency distribution table for the above data is as below:

Colours Tally Marks Frequency

green 5
indigo 5
blue 4
yellow 6
red 2
orange 5
violet 3
Total = 30

Example 2 The following data represents the weight in kg of 60 students of a class.

48.06 45.12 48.14 45.27 45.14 46.34 45.24 49.09 46.13 48.14
46.18 49.03 49.25 45.18 49.02 45.58 45.16 48.20 48.02 47.21
45.28 50.00 49.07 49.09 50.00 50.27 47.07 47.13 47.44 46.07
45.67 49.31 47.07 49.16 50.02 48.16 45.11 48.77 50.18 49.26
50.30 46.14 45.21 49.05 48.13 47.34 47.39 45.53 46.17 50.02
49.05 48.12 50.16 46.01 45.55 45.13 47.07 50.20 46.54 46.76

243
 With the classes as 45 – 46, 46 – 47, 48 – 49, 49 – 50, 50 – 51, make a grouped frequency distribution
table and answer the following questions.
a. What is the size of the class intervals?
b. Which class has the highest frequency?
c. Which class has the lowest frequency?
d. What is the upper limit of the class interval 49 – 50?
e. Which classes have the same frequency?
Solution:
The ungrouped frequency distribution table for the above data is as given below.

Classes Tally Marks Frequency

45 – 46 14

46 – 47 9

47 – 48 8

48 – 49 9

49 – 50 11

50 – 51 9

Total = 60

a. Size of class intervals = 46 – 45 = 1

b. Class interval 45 – 46 has the highest frequency. i.e. 14.
c. Class interval 47 – 48 has the lowest frequency i.e. 8
d. Upper limit of the class interval 49 – 50 is 50.
e. Classes 46 – 47, 48 – 49 and 50 – 51 have the same frequency i.e. 9.

Exercise 17.2
1. The number of goals scored by a football team in 10 matches is 3, 0, 1, 5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 4, 3.
a. What is the frequency of 4?
b. Which number has the maximum frequency?
c. In how many matches did the team score 0 goals?
d. What is the range of the given data?
2. Prepare an ungrouped frequency distribution table for the following data of blood sugar level of 40
persons from a locality.
69 67 67 67 68 70 66 70 66 66
67 65 68 68 68 66 67 66 68 67
65 66 65 65 68 70 66 70 66 67
69 67 67 67 66 67 70 65 70 70

244
3. The following data represents the favourite fruits of 40 students in a class. Make an ungrouped
frequency distribution table for the following data.

Apple Mango Guava Watermelon Grapes Jackfruit Apple Apple

Guava Pear Jackfruit Mango Pear Mango Apple Mango

Grapes Pear Guava Mango Apple Watermelon Guava Pear

Mango Grapes Grapes Jackfruit Mango Pear Watermelon Jackfruit

Guava Pear Watermelon Mango Jackfruit Jackfruit Watermelon Mango

4. Prepare a grouped frequency distribution table, with suitable class limits such that size of each
class is 5000, for the following data that represents the monthly salary of 40 employees in a
company in `.

30000 15800 24000 11200 29200 14200 27000 17000

38400 15800 37200 38000 37000 25000 14800 19400

15000 19800 33600 25600 21400 12600 17000 22400

21000 36800 37600 20200 31200 30000 38400 32000

12600 16200 34200 25800 32400 36000 16000 31800

5. The following data gives the profit made by 50 companies selling finished goods in the year 2018.

Profit limit
200 – 250 250 – 300 300 – 350 350 – 400 400 – 450 450 – 500
(in lakhs)

Number of
6 10 24 20 6 4
Companies

a. Write the class interval in which maximum number of companies made profit.
b. Write the class interval in which minimum number of companies made profit.
c. How many companies made profit in the class interval of 250 – 350 lakhs?
d. How many companies made less than 300 lakhs profit?

Histogram
A histogram is used to represent a grouped frequency distribution. It is similar to a bar graph but there
are no gaps between the bars. A histogram is used for classes which are in continuous form.
A proper scale is given to x- axis in a histogram, which was not required in a bar graph
The width of each rectangle is equal as it represents the classes of equal size.
Consider the frequency table that displays the data of marks (out of 50) for 40 students in a class test.

Class 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50

Frequency 15 3 14 8

245
 The given data has classes that are continuous (i.e. the upper limit of one class is the lower limit of the
next class.)
The adjoining diagram represents a histogram for the given Marks of students
Y
data. Scale:
16 x-axis: 1 cm = 10 Marks
Some points to be noted: y-axis: 1 cm = 2 Students
14

Number of students
ŠŠ x-axis represents the marks scored. 12
ŠŠ y-axis represents number of students. 10
ŠŠ Both x-axis and y-axis have a scale and the scale is 8
mentioned at the top-right corner of the histogram. 6

ŠŠ No gap is left between the rectangular bars for different 4

classes. 2
0 X
10 20 30 40 50
Marks scored
The following data gives the weight in kg of 60 students from a class. Draw a histogram
Example 1
to represent the data.

Weight in kilograms 45 – 46 46 – 47 47 – 48 48 – 49 49 – 50 50 – 51
Number of students 14 9 8 9 11 9 Total = 60

Solution: Weights of students

Y
Scale:
Let x-axis represent 'Weights in kg' and y-axis
16 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 kilogram
represent 'Number of students'. y-axis: 1 cm = 2 Students
14
Number of students

Then the histogram is as follows: 12

10
8
6
4
2
0 X
45 46 47 48 49 50 51
Weight in kg

Note: The symbol is used on the x-axis to show that the scale on the x-axis does not start at zero.
This symbol is called the kink or jagged line. The kink is used only at the start of any axis, if the scale
does not start at zero.

Exercise 17.3
1. The following data represents the distance in kilometres, from school to home, of students of class
VIII. Draw a histogram for the given data and answer the questions given below.

Distance in kilometres 0–2 2–4 4–6 6–8 8 – 10 10 – 12

Number of students 3 8 12 14 9 4

246
 a. How many students stay more than 6 km away from the school?
b. Which class interval has the maximum number of students?
c. How many students stay within 4 km distance from school?
d. How many students are surveyed in this data?
2. The height of 50 students in a class was recorded and the data was tabulated as follows. Draw
a histogram to represent the data.

Height (in inches) 50 – 55 55 – 60 60 – 65 65 – 70 70 - 75

Number of students 9 11 18 8 4

3. The data given below shows the daily earnings of 42 workers. Draw a histogram to represent
the data.

Daily earnings (in ` ) 250 – 300 300 – 350 350 – 400 400 – 450 450 – 500

Number of workers 6 8 12 6 10

4. A training institute trains its members for a 100 m Time taken to complete
race. The adjoining histogram shows the time taken Y a 100 m race
Scale:
by the members in a particular 100 m race.
14 x-axis: 1 cm = 2 Seconds

Number of members
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 Members
a. How many members took more than 16 seconds 12
to complete the race? 10
b. What is the range of time taken by maximum 8
members? 6
c. What is the total number of members trained? 4
2
d. How many members took less than 10 secs to
complete the race? 0 X
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Number of seconds

5. Given below is a histogram which shows the number

of people in the age groups 20 to 70 years in a town Y
Scale:
using local trains as a mode of transport. Observe
900 x-axis: 1 cm = 10 years
the graph and answer the following questions. y-axis: 1 cm = 100 people
800
a. What is the class size? 700
Number of people

b. Which age group has the maximum number of 600

people using local trains as a mode of transport? 500
c. Which age group has the minimum number of 400
people using local trains as a mode of transport? 300

d. What is the total number of people using local 200

trains as a mode of transport in the town? 100
0 X
20 30 40 50 60 70
Age group (in years)

247
 Pie Chart (Circle graph)
A pie chart (or a pie graph or a circle graph) represents data in the shape of a circle. Each observation
is represented as a sector of the circle. The angle of each sector is proportional to the frequency of the
corresponding observation.
Frequency of the observation
Central angle of the sector of an observation = × 360°.
Sum of the frequencies of all observations
Consider the frequency table that displays the subjects liked by 40 students in a class.

Subject English Hindi Maths Science

Number of students 8 3 15 14

To make a pie-chart, first find the measure of the central angle of the sector corresponding to each
class. All central angles should add to 360°.

Number of Ratio of the students to the Central angle of the

Subject
students total number of students corresponding sector

8 8
English 8 × 360° = (8 × 9)° = 72°
40 40
3 3
Hindi 3 × 360° = (3 × 9)° = 27°
40 40
15 15
Maths 15 × 360° = (15 × 9)° = 135°
40 40
14 14
Science 14 × 360° = (14 × 9)° = 126°
40 40
Total = 40 Total = 360°

Now draw a circle of any radius. First mark the sector corresponding to the English
first subject English with the central angle 72°. Label the sector with the Maths
72°
corresponding subject. 135°
126°
Then draw the remaining sectors and label each according to the subject
Science 27°
represented by the sector. This gives the required pie chart. Hindi

The different sectors of a pie chart can also be The different sectors can also be labeled using
shaded or coloured using different colours as the percentage or frequency instead of the
shown below. central angles as shown below.

20%
English, 8
37.5% English
Maths, 15
Hindi
Science
Maths
Science, 14
35%
7.5%
Hindi, 3

248
 The following pie chart shows data for 60 students who like a particular type of movie.
Example 1
Read the pie chart and answer the questions that follow.
a. Which type of movie is less popular among students? Science
fiction Comedy
b. Which type of movie is most popular among students? 20% 30%

c. How many students like Action movies? Drama

15%
d. How many students like Drama movies? Horror
Action
25%
10%
Solution:
a. The percentage of students who like horror movies is less than the other categories (the sector
corresponding to horror has the least central angle). So, the least popular are horror type movies.
b. The percentage of students who like comedy movies is more than the other categories (the sector
corresponding to comedy has the greatest central angle). So, the most popular movie type is
comedy.
c. The action type movies are liked by 25% of students. The total number of students is 60.
25
∴ Number of students who like action movies is × 60 = 15 students
100
d. The drama type movies are liked by 15% of students. The total number of students is 60.
15
∴ Number of students who like drama type movies is × 60 = 9 students
100
A company organizes different recreational activities for the employees in a year. The
Example 2
number of activities of different types is as follows.

Activity Farm visit Picnic Dinner Party Outdoor Game Indoor Game
Number of Activities 2 2 4 1 3

Represent the data using a pie chart.

Solution:
To make a pie-chart, first find the measure of the central angle of the sector corresponding to each
category.

Number of Ratio of the

Central angle of the
Activity Activities frequency to the
corresponding sector
(Frequency) total frequency
2 2
Farm visit 2 × 360° = (2 × 30)° = 60°
12 12
2 2
Picnic 2 × 360° = (2 × 30)° = 60°
12 12
4 4
Dinner Party 4 × 360° = (4 × 30)° = 120°
12 12
1 1
Outdoor Game 1 × 360° = (1 × 30)° = 30°
12 12
3 3
Indoor Game 3 × 360° = (3 × 30)° = 90°
12 12
Total = 12 Total = 360°

249
 The pie chart is as follows:

Farm visit,
60°
Indoor Game,
90°

Picnic, 60°
Outdoor
Game, 30°

Dinner Party, 120°

Exercise 17.4
1. In an activity organized by an NGO, 5 groups participated in selling handmade articles. Draw a pie
chart to represent the data of the number of articles sold by each group.

Group A B C D E

Number of articles sold 25 50 35 23 47

2. The adjoining pie chart shows Veena's expenditure in a month. The Monthly Expenses
Other
total expense incurred is ` 40000. Read the pie chart and answer utilities 5%

the following questions.

Rent Food
a. How much does Veena spend on food? and loan 25%
payments
38%
b. In which category does Veena have the maximum expenditure? Outing
12%
Savings
c. In which category does Veena have the minimum expenditure? 20%

d. What is the ratio of expenses on outing to savings?

3. The number of families in a colony, speaking different languages is given below. Represent the
data by a pie chart.

Language Marathi Hindi Gujarati Malayalam Bengali

Number of families 45 36 15 16 8

4. The pie chart given below represents the favourite sports of

a group of students. Observe the pie chart and answer the
following questions. Swimming
Football,
90 students 30%
a. What percentage of the students like football?

b. How many students prefer volleyball?

Baseball
20% Volleyball
c. How many more students prefer swimming than tennis? 15%

d. How many students were asked about their favourite sport? Tennis
10%

250
 5. A group of 300 people were asked to vote for their
Country Number of votes
favourite world cup team from the three teams
Australia, India and New Zealand. Australia 100
a. Which country got the most votes? India 135
b. Find the central angle of each sector. New Zealand 65
c. Draw a pie chart to show this information.

Colours Number of people

The table shows the colours preferred
by a group of people. Draw a pie chart Blue 18
showing the given information. Green 9
Calculate the respective proportion of Red 6
each colour and use that proportion to Yellow 3
find the central angle.
Total 36

Chances and Probability

In our daily life we often use statements like “Team A has better chances of winning than Team B”, “It
is likely to rain tomorrow”, “Probably I will get better marks in Mathematics”, “The teacher gave a list
of possible questions for the test.”, etc. Words such as chance, likely, probably, possible used in the
above statements indicate uncertainty of the things to happen. There is no assurance or guarantee that
the things will happen.

Probability is the measure of the uncertainty of a situation to occur or not. It is the numerical value
given to the chance of the occurrence of a certain situation.

In a cricket match, a coin is tossed and one of the captains predicts 'head' or 'tail'. If the captain’s
prediction is correct, he wins the toss and decides to bat or to field first.

Tossing a coin is a process whose result will be either head or tail.

Random Experiment

A process, whose all possible results are known but exact result cannot be predicted, is called a
random experiment or simply an experiment. These results are called outcomes.

Tossing a coin, rolling a die, spinning a spinner, drawing a card from a pack, etc., are all random
experiments. If an experiment is executed more than one time, each execution is called a trial.

For example,

(i) In tossing a coin, there are two possible outcomes, 'Head (H)' and 'Tail (T)'.

(ii) In rolling a die, there are six possible outcomes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

(iii) If two coins are tossed then the possible outcomes are HH, HT, TH and TT.

Note (H, T) and (T, H) are different outcomes as the first letter represents the outcome of the first coin
and the second letter represents the outcome of the second coin.

251
 Example 1 List the possible outcomes when three coins are tossed simultaneously.

Solution:
When three coins are tossed simultaneously, the possible outcomes are shown below.

First coin Second coin Third coin

H H H

H H T

H T H

H T T

T T T

T T H

T H T

T H H

Hence, the possible outcomes are HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, TTT, TTH, THT, THH.
Equally likely outcomes
In an experiment, outcomes that have equal chances of occurrence as compared to all the other
outcomes of the experiment are called equally likely outcomes.
For example, suppose a bag contains 4 different coloured balls such as blue, green, yellow and red. If
a ball is drawn at random, then the chance of getting a blue ball is the same as compared to the other
coloured balls.
On the other hand, if the bag consists of 3 blue balls and 2 yellow balls then the chance of getting a
blue ball is more than that of getting a yellow ball. In such cases, the outcomes are not equally likely.
Event
An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment. The outcomes that match the event
are called favourable outcomes.
For example,
(i) Getting a head, when a coin is tossed, is an event.
(ii) Getting an odd number (1, 3 or 5), when a die is rolled, is an event.
(iii) Getting two heads, when two coins are tossed, is an event.

Linking chances to probability

When a coin is tossed, there are only two possible outcomes- Head or Tail. Both the outcomes are
1
equally likely. So, the chance of getting H is one out of two outcomes i.e. .
2
1 Number of favourable outcomes
In other words, the probability of getting a head is
2 Total number of outcomes of the experiment

252
Probability of an Event
The probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is the measure of chance that the event occurs.
Number of favourable outcomes
It is calculated as P(E) = .
Total number of outcomes, n(S)
Where, n(S) denotes the number of elements in the sample space or the sample size.
For example,
1
(i) Probability of getting a head, when a coin is tossed is .
2
3 1
(ii) Probability of getting an odd number (1, 3 or 5), when a die is rolled is = .
6 2
1
(iii) Probability of getting two heads, when two coins are tossed is .
4
Sure event: An event which is going to certainly occur is called a certain event or a sure event. The
probability of a sure event is 1.
Impossible event: An event which will certainly never occur is called an impossible event. The
probability of an impossible event is 0.

For any event E, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1.

The sum of the probability of all possible outcomes is 1.
P(E) = 1 – P(Event E not occurring)

ŠŠ If the probability of each possible outcome is same, then the outcomes are said to be equally likely.
For example, when a die is thrown all six numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, are equally likely outcomes.
1
ŠŠ If the probability value lies near , the event has an even chance of occurrence. For example,
2
when a die is thrown, the event of getting an odd number has even chance of occurrence. Similarly,
the event of getting an even number has even chance of occurrence.
ŠŠ If the probability value lies near 0, the event has a poor (least) chance of occurrence. The event
is unlikely to occur.
For example, when a die is thrown, the event of getting the number 1 has a poor chance of
1
occurrence. Here, P = .
6
ŠŠ If the probability value lies near 1, the event has a good (maximum) chance of occurrence. The
event is likely to occur.
For example, the event of getting a number greater than 1 has a good chance of occurrence. Here,
5
P= .
6
Consider a spinner numbered from 1 to 5, as shown in the adjoining figure.
Let the random experiment be spinning the spinner. With each spin the 5 1
spinner lands on one of the 5 numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5.
The sample space of this experiment is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }.
Let E1 be an event that the spinner lands on 2. 4 2

E2 be an event that the spinner lands on an even number.

3
E3 be an event that the spinner lands on an odd number.
E4 be an event that the spinner lands on 0.

253
 E5 be an event that the spinner lands on a natural number.
Out of 5 possible outcomes, only one outcome (i.e. 2) is favourable for E1.
1
So, the probability of E1 is .
5
Out of 5 possible outcomes, two outcomes (i.e. 2 and 4) are favourable for E2.
2
So, the probability of E2 is .
5
Out of 5 possible outcomes, three outcomes (i.e. 1, 3 and 5) are favourable for E3.
3
So, the probability of E3 is .
5
The spinner has numbers from 1 to 5. So, the spinner will never land on 0. Thus, the event E4 is an
impossible event.
Out of 5 possible outcomes, no outcomes are favourable for E4.
So, the probability of E4 is 0.
The spinner has numbers from 1 to 5, which are all natural numbers. So, the spinner will always land
on a natural number. Thus, the event E5 is a sure event.
Out of 5 possible outcomes, all 5 outcomes are favourable for E5.
So, the probability of E5 is 1.
E4 E1 E2 E3 E5
(Unlikely) Likely)

0 1 2 1 3 4 1
(Impossible 5 5 2 5 5 (Sure
(Even
Event) Event)
Chance)
From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, find the probability that a card drawn at random
Example 2
is a king.
Solution:
There are 4 kings in a well shuffled pack of 52 cards.
∴ There are 4 favourable outcomes out of 52 possible outcomes.
4 1
Thus, the probability of drawing a king, P(king) = = .
52 13
One box contains 7 slips of paper labeled using the letters of the word “PASSION". If
Example 3
one slip is drawn at random, find the probability that the slip is labeled by
a. the letter S b. the letter I c. a vowel d. a consonant
Solution:
a. There are 2 slips of paper labeled ‘S’ in the 7 slips.
∴ There are 2 favourable outcomes out of 7 possible outcomes.
2
Thus, the probability that the slip is labeled by the letter S, P(letter S) = .
7
b. There is 1 slip of paper labeled ‘I’ in the 7 slips.
∴ There is 1 favourable outcome out of 7 possible outcomes.
1
Thus, the probability that the slip is labeled by the letter I, P(letter I) = .
7

254
c. Out of the 7 slips, there are 3 slips of paper labeled using the vowels, ‘A’, ‘I’ and ‘O’.
∴ There are 3 favourable outcomes out of 7 possible outcomes.
3
Thus, the probability that the slip is labeled by a vowel, P(vowel) =.
7
d. Out of the 7 slips, there are 4 slips of paper labeled using the consonants, ‘P’, ‘S’ and ‘N’.
∴ There are 4 favourable outcomes out of 7 possible outcomes.
4
Thus, the probability that the slip is labeled by a consonant, P(consonant) = .
7
There are 2 red balls, 7 green balls, 5 white balls and 5 blue balls in a sack. If one ball
Example 4
is drawn at random from the sack, find the probability of getting
a. red ball b. green ball c. white ball d. blue ball

Solution:

The total number of balls in the sack = 2 red balls + 7 green balls + 5 white balls + 5 blue balls

= 19 balls.
a. There are 2 favourable outcomes out of 19 possible outcomes.
2
Thus, the probability that the ball is red is P(red ball) = .
19
b. There are 7 favourable outcomes out of 19 possible outcomes.
7
Thus, the probability that the ball is green is P(green ball) = .
19
c. There are 5 favourable outcomes out of 19 possible outcomes.
5
Thus, the probability that the ball is white is P(white ball) = .
19
d. There are 5 favourable outcomes out of 19 possible outcomes.
5
Thus, the probability that the ball is blue is P(blue ball) = .
19
A die numbered using the numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 is rolled. Find the probability
Example 5
of getting
a. a multiple of 2 b. a multiple of 5 c. a prime number
d. a composite number e. a number less than 9 f. a number greater than 9

Solution:

a. Let E1 be the event of getting a multiple of 2 on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, there are 3 numbers which are multiples of 2, namely 10, 12 and 14.

∴ There are 3 favourable outcomes out of 6 possible outcomes.

3 1
Thus, the probability of getting a multiple of 2 is P(E1) = = .
6 2
b. Let E2 be the event of getting a multiple of 5 on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, there are 2 numbers which are multiples of 5, namely 10 and 15.
∴ There are 2 favourable outcomes out of 6 possible outcomes.
2 1
Thus, the probability of getting a multiple of 5 is P(E2) = = .
6 3

255
 c. Let E3 be the event of getting a prime number on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, there are 2 prime numbers which are namely 11 and 13.

∴ There are 2 favourable outcomes out of 6 possible outcomes.

2 1
Thus, the probability of getting a prime number is P(E3) = = .
6 3
d. Let E4 be the event of getting a composite number on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, there are 4 composite numbers, namely 10, 12, 14 and 15.

∴ There are 4 favourable outcomes out of 6 possible outcomes.

4 2
Thus, the probability of getting a composite number is P(E4) = = .
6 3
e. Let E5 be the event of getting a number less than 9 on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, none of the numbers is less than 9.

∴ There is no favourable outcome out of 6 possible outcomes.

Thus, the probability of getting a number less than 9 is P(E5) = 0.

f. Let E6 be the event of getting a number greater than 9 on rolling a die.

Out of the 6 numbers, all the 6 numbers are greater than 9.

∴ All outcomes are favourable.

Thus, the probability of getting a number greater than 9 is P(E6) = 1.

Exercise 17.5
1. List the possible outcomes when two coins are thrown simultaneously.
2. From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, find the probability that a card drawn at random is
a. red b. an ace
3. A tetrahedron is numbered using numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4. If the tetrahedron is rolled, find the
probability that it rests on
a. number 1 b. an even number c. a number greater than 4
d. a number less than 4 e. a positive number

4. A spinner, as shown in the adjoining diagram is rotated. Find the

probability of spinner landing on red.

5. Find the probability of getting a number less than 3 when a die, numbered 1 to 6, is thrown.
6. There are 50 students in a class out of which 20 are girls. If a class representative (CR) is appointed,
find the probability that the CR is a girl. What is the probability of the CR to be a boy?
7. A fruit is chosen at random from 5 oranges, 4 apples and 3 mangoes. Find the probability that a mango
is chosen.

256
8. One letter is selected from the word “PROBABILITY”. Find the probability that the letter selected is
a vowel.
9. A die is labeled using the letters of the word “INDIAN”. If this die is rolled find the probability of
getting the following letters on its upper face.
a. I b. N c. A d. P

Recollections
ŠŠ Data is a collection of numbers, related to a particular quantity or event, to gather information.

ŠŠ Each numerical value is called an observation.

ŠŠ Data that is collected by a person himself from sources such as a survey, interview or questionnaire
is called primary data.
ŠŠ Data that is collected directly from sources such as internet, newspapers, articles or government
resources is called secondary data.

ŠŠ Range of a given set of data is the difference between the greatest value and the least value
present in the data.

ŠŠ Frequency of an observation is the number of times the observation occurs in the given data.

ŠŠ For large range of data, we classify the data into small groups or classes.

• Class Interval: A group or a class

• Class limits: The lower and upper boundaries of a particular class

• Class size or class width: The difference between the upper and the lower limits of a class
lower limit + upper limit
• Class mark =
2
ŠŠ A bar graph or a bar chart is a pictorial representation of data using rectangular bars (vertical or
horizontal) of equal width with equal space between them.

ŠŠ A double bar graph is used to compare two different data sets pertaining to one particular observation
or group.

ŠŠ A histogram is used to represent a grouped frequency distribution. It is always vertical and there
are no gaps between the bars.

ŠŠ A pie chart (or a pie graph or a circle graph) represents data in the shape of a circle. Each observation
is represented as a sector of the circle.
Frequency of the observation
ŠŠ Central angle of the sector of an observation = × 360°
Sum of the frequencies of all observations
ŠŠ Probability is the measure of the uncertainty of a situation to occur or not. It is the numerical value
given to the chance of the occurrence of a certain situation.
ŠŠ A process, whose all possible results are known but exact result cannot be predicted, is called
a random experiment or simply an experiment. These results are called outcomes.

257
 ŠŠ An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment. The outcomes that match the
event are called favourable outcomes.
Number of favourable outcomes
ŠŠ The probability of an event E, P(E) is calculated as .
Total number of outcomes, n(S)
ŠŠ The probability of a sure event is 1.

ŠŠ The probability of an impossible event is 0.

ŠŠ The sum of the probability of all possible outcomes is 1.

ŠŠ If the probability of each possible outcome is same, then the outcomes are said to be equally likely.

Check Your Understanding

1. Choose the correct option.

a. There is no gap between two adjacent rectangles in a

i. bar graph ii. histogram iii. line graph iv. pie chart

b. When a pair of coins is tossed, the probability of getting more than two tails is
1 1
i. 1 ii. 0 iii. iv.
2 3
c. The probability of choosing a vowel from the alphabets in the word 'PRECAUTION'
i. likely ii. unlikely iii. sure iv. even

d. The class mark of 35 – 45 is

i. 35 ii. 40 iii. 45 iv. 10

2. Complete the following table.

Class Interval Class Mark Lower limit Upper limit Tally Marks Frequency

20 – 30

35 30 7

45 50 8

50 60

Total =

3. From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, find the probability that a card drawn at random is of
a. spades b. clubs c. diamonds d. hearts

4. There are 3 red balls, 2 green balls, 4 white balls and 5 blue balls in a sack. If one ball is drawn at
random from the sack, find the probability that the ball is
a. red b. green c. white d. blue

5. If three coins are tossed, find the probability of getting all heads.

258
Review Exercise
1. A coin and a dice, labeled with letters A, B, C, D, E and F are tossed simultaneously. Find the
probability of getting a head and a vowel.
2. A die is tossed twice; find the probability of getting the same numbers in both tosses.
3. Draw a bar graph for the following data that represents the favourite musical instrument of 25
individuals.

Instrument Guitar Flute Trumpet Drum Violin

Number of people 6 4 2 8 5

4. The following data displays the grade obtained by 90 students in a class. Draw a double bar graph
to represent the following data.

A B C D
Boys 21 14 8 3
Girls 18 20 4 2

5. The following table displays the duration of 15 calls, of a person working in a call centre, on
a particular day. Draw a histogram to represent the data.

Time in minutes 0–2 2–4 4–6 6–8 8 – 10

Number of calls 5 3 4 2 1

6. The following data display the number of people of different age groups at a family function. Draw
a pie chart to represent the data.

Age in years less than 10 11- 20 21- 30 31- 40 41-50 51 above

Number of people 21 10 12 15 9 5

7. From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, find the probability that a card drawn at random is
a. a red queen b. a black ace c. king of hearts d. jack of spades
8. The following data represents the result of 50 throws of a dice numbered 1 to 6.
Prepare an ungrouped frequency distribution table for the given data

1 3 2 6 1 2 4 1 3 5
4 1 3 5 5 4 2 5 4 2
2 2 3 5 2 2 4 4 3 5
6 6 5 4 6 4 1 6 5 4
2 3 5 3 2 3 4 6 2 3

9. Draw a bar graph for the data of 50 throws of a dice given in Question No.8.
10. A spinner, as shown in the adjoining diagram is rotated. Find the probability of
spinner
a. landing on red
b. landing on green
c. landing on yellow

259
 11. A book shop records the number of books sold on each day in the month of June. The data is as
follows. Tabulate the data using classes 0 – 4, 4 – 8, 8 – 12, 12 – 16 and 16 – 20. Draw a Histogram
to represent the data.

13 7 5 19 11 10 17 1 3 5

9 6 14 7 7 4 2 20 12 9

15 14 11 7 13 1 6 5 8 16

12. The graph below displays Sale of kites

Y
the number of kites sold by Scale: 1 cm = 10 kites
Priyanka in a week. Read the 60
graph carefully and answer Number of kites 50
the following questions. 40
a. On which day were 30
maximum kites sold? 20

b. On which day were 10

minimum kites sold? 0 X
Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday
c. How many kites were sold
in all?
d. What is the ratio of the kites
Days of week
sold on Saturday to kites
sold on Sunday?

13. Find the probability of getting a number greater than 3 when a die, numbered 1 to 6, is thrown.

14. Three coins are tossed; find the probability of getting at least one head and one tail.

15. The following data represents the participation of high school students in interschool competitions.

Sport Chess Football Tennis Badminton Cricket

Number of Participants 10 22 16 7 23

Draw a bar graph to represent the data.

16. The adjoining histogram represents the data of the Height of Trees
Y
heights of 50 trees in Ninad’s farm. Scale:
12 x-axis: 1 cm = 10 Feet
a. In which class interval the height of most of the
Number of trees

y-axis: 1 cm = 2 Trees
trees belong? 10
8
b. How many trees have a height above 40 feet?
6
c. How many trees have a height in the range 30 – 40 4
feet?
2
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60
Height in feet

260
17. 30 sports clubs were surveyed to find the number of members in each club. The data collected was
as follows.

21 22 23 12 26 17 15 23 11 12

25 17 16 24 10 19 29 33 10 30

26 16 10 25 20 11 21 16 15 13

Draw a histogram to represent the data taking classes of size 5.

18. The adjoining pie chart displays the
monthly electricity consumption of a
17%
house. AC and fans
33% Refrigerators
10%
a. Which category uses the maximum Kitchen Appliances
Lights and Lamps
electricity? 13% TV, Computers and Music Systems
27%
b. Which category uses the minimum
electricity?
c. If the total units of electricity consumed are 90, what is the electricity consumption of light and
lamps?
d. What is the ratio of the electricity consumed by kitchen appliances to the total electricity
consumption?
19. Raghu’s diet includes 30% grains (rice, bread, cereals, etc.), 20% vegetables, 15% fruits, 10%
lean proteins (Meat, fish, eggs, etc), 15% dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.), 10% oils and
sweets. Draw a pie chart to display the data.
20. Five friends, Reshma, Selvi, Sara, Umesh and Rashid started a business. The table below displays
the capital invested by each of them.

Name Reshma Selvi Sara Umesh Rashid

Amount in Lakhs 2 3 1 5 4

Draw a pie chart and answer the following questions.

a. Who invested the maximum amount?
b. What is the ratio of the amount invested by Selvi to the amount invested by Rashid?
c. Who invested the minimum amount?
d. What is the total amount with them?

Weblinks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/data-handling/chance-and-probability/
As on 09.05.2019

261
 18. Introduction to Graphs

You know
ŠŠ to plot a number on a number line.
ŠŠ to draw pictographs, bar graphs, double bar graphs, histograms and pie charts to represent
data.

You will learn

ŠŠ the terms origin, axes, co-ordinates and quadrants
ŠŠ to plot points in cartesian plane
ŠŠ to draw and read linear graphs

In previous classes, you have come across a number line.

Negative numbers Positive numbers

–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The number 0 is called the origin of the number line. Positive numbers are marked to the right of zero
and the negative numbers are marked to the left of zero. The value of the number indicates the distance
of the number from 0 (origin). A number line is one dimensional and describes the location of a number
with respect to 0.
However, to locate the position of a point in a plane a number line cannot be used as a reference.
In the seventeenth century, a
Y
mathematician named Rene Descartes 10
9
introduced a method to determine the
8
position of a given point in a plane. This
7
two dimensional system is called the 6
cartesian system and the branch of Quadrant II 5
Quadrant I
mathematics that involves this system is 4

called Coordinate Geometry. 3

2
Cartesian Plane X'
1
X
0
The concept of one dimensional number –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
line is extended to two dimensions to –2
describe the location of a point in a –3

plane, with the use of two number lines –4

–5
placed perpendicular to each other and Quadrant III Quadrant IV
–6
intersecting at zero. –7
The horizontal line is called the x-axis –8
–9
and the vertical line is the y-axis. The
–10
point of intersection is called the Origin Y'
and is denoted by O.

262
The plane is called the cartesian plane or the coordinate plane.

The axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants.

Any point in this plane is described by its location using coordinates which are the distances of the point
from the x-axis and the y-axis.

In general, a point is described using small case letters as (x, y) Scale: Y

x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
where x, the distance of the point from the y-axis, is called as the y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
A (3, 4)
x-coordinate or the abscissa and y, the distance of the point 4
3
from the x -axis, is called as the y-coordinate or the ordinate. 2
1
For example, in the cartesian plane given alongside point A in X′ 0 X

the first quadrant. –5–4 –3 –2 –1

–1
1 2 3 4 5

–2
3 is the x-coordinate, which is the distance of the point A from
–3
the y-axis. –4
–5
4 is the y-coordinate, which is the distance of the point A from Y′
the x-axis.

So, the coordinates of the point A are (3, 4).

Scale:
x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
Y
Convention for signs of quadrants y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
(–, +) (+, +)
The two axes divide the plane into four parts called 4
3
quadrants. 2
1
XOY is the first quadrant. X′ 0 X
–5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
X’OY is the second quadrant. –1
–2
X’OY’ is the third quadrant. –3
(–, –) (+, –)
–4
XOY’ is the fourth quadrant. –5
Y′
The sign convention of abscissa and ordinate in the four
quadrants is as shown in the table.

First Second Third

Fourth quadrant
quadrant quadrant quadrant
Abscissa
+ – – +
(x coordinate)
Ordinate
+ + – –
(y coordinate)

For example, in the the cartesian plane, the point B is in the first quadrant and is at a distance of 6 units
from both the x-axis and y-axis.
So, the coordinates of B are (6, 6).
The point C is in the second quadrant and is at a distance of 4 units from the y-axis and 8 units from the
x-axis. So, the coordinates of C are (–4, 8).

263
 The point D is in the third quadrant and is at a distance of 5 units from the y-axis and 3 units from the
x-axis. So, the coordinates of D are (–5, –3).

The point E is in the fourth quadrant and is at a distance of 2 units from the y-axis and 4 units from the
x-axis. So, the coordinates of E are (2, –4).
Y
IInd Quadrant 10 Ist Quadrant
9 Scale:
C (–4, 8) x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
8
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
7
B (6, 6)
6
5
A (3, 4)
4
3
2
1
X′ 0 X
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
D (–5, –3)
–4
E (2, –4)
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
III Quadrant
rd
IVth Quadrant
–10
Y′

Coordinates of Points on the Axis

If a point lies on the x-axis, its distance from the x-axis is 0. i.e., its y-coordinate is 0. The coordinates
are given by (x, 0).

If a point lies on the y-axis, its distance from the y-axis is 0. i.e., its x-coordinate is 0. The coordinates
are given by (0, y).

The origin lies on both the axes. So, the coordinates of the Scale:
x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
Y
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
origin O are (0, 0). 5
4 Q (0, 4)
In the figure given alongside, the point P lies on x-axis and to 3
2
the positive side. So, the coordinates of the point P are (2, 0). R (–5, 0) 1 P (2, 0)
X′ 0 X
The point Q lies on y-axis and to the positive side. So, the –5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
coordinates of the point Q are (0, 4). –2
–3 S (0, –3)
The point R lies on x-axis and to the negative side. So, the –4
coordinates of the point R are (–5, 0). –5
Y′
The point S lies on y-axis and to the negative side. So, the
coordinates of the point S are (0, –3).

264
Example 1 Find the quadrants in which the following points lie.

a. (– 9, – 3) b. (5, –8) c. (– 7, 1) d. (6, 4)

Solution:

Points Quadrant
a. (– 9, –3) III
b. (5, –8) IV
c. (– 7, 1) II
d. (6, 4) I

Example 2 With reference to the cartesian plane given below find.

a. The coordinates of the points: A, B, C, E

b. The points represented by the coordinates: (0, –2), (5, 0), (1, 1), (0, 4)
Solution:
Scale:
Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
a. From the cartesian plane, A y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
The coordinates of A are (–4, 5). 4 H
3
The coordinates of B are (–5, 0). 2
G
The coordinates of C are (–4, –3). 1
X′ B 0 F X

The coordinates of E are (3, –3). –5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5

–1
–2 D
b. The coordinates (0, –2) represent point D.
–3
C E
The coordinates (5, 0) represent point F. –4
–5
The coordinates (1, 1) represent point G. Y′

The coordinates (0, 4) represent point H.

Example 3 Plot the following points on a cartesian plane.

a. A(2, 4) b. B(0, 2) c. C(5, –2) d. D(–2, 0)

Solution:
Scale:
Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
A(2, 4)
4
3
B(0, 2)
2
D (–2, 0) 1
X′ 0 X
–5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3 C (5, –2)

–4
–5
Y′

265
 Plot the points A(1, 8), B(–4, 8), C(–4, –3) and D(1, –3). What kind of quadrilateral is
Example 4
ABCD?
Solution:
Scale:
Y
x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
10
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit 9
B (–4, 8) A (1, 8)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
X′ 0 X
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
C (–4, 3) D (1, –3)
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
Y′

ABCD is a rectangle.
Write the coordinates of the vertices the quadrilaterals EFGH and KLMN given in the
Example 5
adjoining figure.
Solution:
Coordinates of EFGH: E(2, 4), F(5, 2), G(7, 4), H(5, 7)
Coordinates of KLMN: K(0, 0), L(0, –6), M(–4, –5), N(–2, –5)

Y
Scale: 8
x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
H
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
7
6
5
4 E G
3
2
F
L 1 X
0 K
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4

M N –5
–6
–7
–8

266
Let's Exercise
Exercise 18.1
1. With reference to the adjoining cartesian plane, Y
Scale:
x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
a. Find the coordinates of each of the following points. 5 P
4
i. P ii. R iii. S iv. V Q 3
2
b. F ind the points represented by each of the R
1
following coordinates X′ V 0 W X
–5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
i. (–5, –2) ii. (–1, 3) iii. (0, –4) iv. (4, 0) –1
–2
2. Find the quadrants in which the following points lie. T
–3
S

–4 U
a. (–5, 3) b. (2, 5) c. (5, –1) d. (–2, –1)
–5
3. Plot the following points on a cartesian plane. Y′

a. (0, –2) b. (–5, 0) c. (1, –4) d. (–2, 3)

4. Which of the following points lie on the coordinate axes? If so, name the axes on which the point
lies.
a. (5, –1) b. (6, 0) c. (0, –5) d. (3, 0)
5. Plot the points (1, 2), (–1, 2), (–3, 2) on a cartesian plane. Join them by a straight line. This line is
parallel to which axis?
6. Plot the points (5, 2) and (–3, –2) on a cartesian plane. Join the two by a straight line. Find the
coordinates of the point where this line intersects the x-axis.
7. Plot the points (1, 2), (–1, –2), (2, 4) on a cartesian plane. Join any two points by a straight line.
Does the third point lie on the same line?
8. Plot the points P(0, –3), Q(3, 1), R(6, –3) and S(6, 1) on a cartesian plane. What kind of quadrilateral
is PQRS?

Line Graph
As you know, a line graph is a pictorial representation of data that demonstrates the change in one
variable (y) with respect to other variable (x). They are useful as the trends and relationships between
data can be read easily from these graphs. For example, if the length of the side of a square increases
then the perimeter of the square will also increase. Thus, the length of the square is an independent
variable and its perimeter is a dependent variable. While drawing a graph, the independent variable
is plotted along the horizontal axis (X-axis) and the dependent variable (frequency) along the vertical
axis(Y- axis). These points are joined using straight lines.
Usually, line graph is used for the data that changes with time. That is, the variable x is used to represent
time.
Consider the adjoining graph, the x-axis represents the years and the y-axis represents the rate in
rupees.
The graph explains the changes in the rate of gold from the year 2014 to 2019.

267
 From the graph, we can say that
Gold Rates
The rate of gold increased from the year 2014 to 2017 Y Scale: 1 cm = ` 500
3500
and then decreased from the year 2017 to 2019. 3200
3000 2800 2800

Rate in Rupees
2600
The rate of gold in 2019 is more than the rate of gold 2500
2000
till 2015 and is less than the rate of gold after 2016. 2000
1500
1500
In 2017, the rate of gold was the highest i.e. ` 3200 per 1000
gram. 500
0 X
The jagged line or kink at the starting of the x-axis 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
indicates that the scale on x-axis does not start from Year
zero. The interval between 0 and 2014 is more than
the subsequent time interval between two successive years plotted in the graph.
1 unit on x-axis represents 1 year and 1 unit on y-axis represents ` 500.
Thus, the above line graph shows the variation of the rate of gold (y) with reference to the increment in
years (x).

While drawing a line graph remember the following.

a. Give a title to the graph
b. Label the axes.
c. Take the data variable along the x-axis and the frequency along the y-axis.
d. Choose an appropriate scale for the axes.
The following data represents the distance covered by the cars of Deep and Anita from
Example 1
7.00 am to 11.00 am. Draw a line graph to represent the data and answer the following
questions.

Time 6.00 am 7.00 am 8.00 am 9.00 am 10.00 am 11.00 am

Distance (in km) covered by Deep 0 50 120 120 220 300
Distance (in km) covered by Anita 0 70 150 240 240 300

a. In which time interval was Deep’s car stationary?

b. In which time interval was Anita’s car stationary?
c. What was the average speed of both the cars?
d. In which time intervals was the average speed of Deep’s car more than Anita’s car?
e. In which time intervals was the average speed of Deep’s car less than Anita’s car?
Solution:
First choose a suitable scale on the x-axis and the y-axis.
Let 1 unit on x-axis denote 1 hr and 1 unit on y-axis denote 50 km.
Use a jagged line to indicate x-axis starting at 6. The time interval between 0 and 6 is more than the
subsequent time interval between two successive intervals plotted in the graph.
Two different colours are used to denote two different quantities.

268
Let the blue and red colours represent the progression Y Scale:

Distance Covered (in km)

Deep
350 y-axis: 1 cm = 50 km
of Deep’s car and Anita’s car, respectively. Anita
300
300
240 240
Plot the points (6, 0), (7, 50), (8, 120), (9, 120), 250

(10, 220) and (11, 300) corresponding to Deep’s car 200

150 220
150
and join them by a blue line.
100 70
120 120
Plot the points (6, 0), (7, 70), (8, 150), (9, 240), 50
0 50
(10, 240) and (11, 300) corresponding to Anita’s car X
0

6.00 am

7.00 am

8.00 am

9.00 am

10.00 am

11.00 am
and join them by a red line.
Distance travelled
We have, Average speed = .
Time of travel Time

Let us calculate the average speed of the two cars in each time interval.

Time 6.00 am to 7.00 am to 8.00 am to 9.00 am to 10.00 am to Total time- 5 hr

interval 7.00 am 8.00 am 9.00 am 10.00 am 11.00 am (7.00 am to 11.00 am)
Average Average speed
120 – 50 = 120 – 120 220 – 120 = 300 – 220
speed of 50 km/hr 300
70 km/hr = 0 km/hr 100 km/hr = 80 km/hr = 60 km/hr
Deep’s car 5
Average Average speed
150 – 70 = 240 – 150 240 – 240 300 – 240
speed of 70 km/hr 300
80 km/hr = 90 km/hr = 0 km/hr = 60 km/hr = 60 km/hr
Anita’s car 5

a. In the time interval, 8.00 am to 9.00 am the average speed of Deep’s car was 0 km/hr. That is, the
car did not progress at all. So, Deep’s car was stationary in the time interval, 8.00 am to 9.00 am.
(The blue line in the graph representing the interval, 8.00 am to 9.00 am, is parallel to x-axis)
b. In the time interval, 9.00 am to 10.00 am the average speed of Anita’s car was 0 km/hr. That is, the
car did not progress at all. So, Anita’s car was stationary in the time interval, 9.00 am to 10.00 am.
(The red line in the graph representing the interval, 9.00 am to 10.00 am, is parallel to x-axis)
c. The average speed of both the cars is 60 km/hr as the cars travelled a distance of 300 km in 5 hr.
d. The average speed of Deep’s car was more than Anita’s car in the time intervals, 9.00 am to 10.00
am and 10.00 am to 11.00 am
e. The average speed of Deep’s car was less than Anita’s car in the time intervals, 6.00 am to 7.00
am, 7.00 am to 8.00 am and 8.00 am to 9.00 am.
The adjoining line graph displays the Comparison of Percentages of Anil and Ashok
Example 2
comparison of percentages of two Y Anil
Scale:
100 y-axis: 1 cm = 10 percent
students, Anil and Ashok, throughout Ashok 90
87
93
90
their high school. Answer the following 80
80
73 73
87

questions from the graph. 70 80

Percentage

70 70
60
a. In which class did Anil and Ashok have the same 60
50
percentages? 40

b. In which classes was Anil's percentage more than 30

20
Ashok's?
10
c. In which classes was Ashok's percentage more 0
X
than Anil's? Std V Std VI Std VII Std VIII Std IX Std X
Class

269
 Solution:
a. In the graph, the blue and red lines represent the percentages of Anil and Ashok respectively.
The two lines meet at the starting point i.e. Std V. That is, Anil and Ashok had same percentage in
class V.
b. The blue line graph is above the red line graph at the points that represent the classes VI, VII and
X. It means, Anil had more percentage than Ashok in 6th, 7th, and 10th classes.
c. The red line graph is above the blue line graph at the points that represent the classes VIII and IX.
It means, Ashok had more percentage than Anil in 8th and 9th classes.
Some Applications
We have learnt plotting of points on a cartesian plane. Now we will relate this concept to real life
situations such as:
ŠŠ Multiplication tables
ŠŠ Perimeter of a square and side of square
Y Scale:
10 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 cm
ŠŠ Time and simple interest etc. y-axis: 1 cm = 1 cm
9
Multiplication table of 2 8 (4, 8)
7
Let us plot the points that represent the first three multiples of 3. 6 (3, 6)
5
2 × 1 = 2; 2 × 2 = 4; 2×3=6
4 (2, 4)
In a table form, we can write this as: 3
2
x (1, 2)
1 2 3 1
X
y = 2x 2 4 6 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Points (1, 2) (2, 4) (3, 6)

Now, let us plot these points in a coordinate plane and join them by a straight line.
Note that if we extend this line endlessly, then we get a graph of all multiples of 2.
Thus, this line represents all points (x, y) where y = 2x. From the graph, multiple of 2 for 4 is 8.
Some observations from the above graph:
ŠŠ The values of x and y are both increasing.
ŠŠ The relation y = 2x implies y is in direct variation with x. (Recall: y is in direct variation with x if
y = k × x for some constant k.)
ŠŠ The straight line graph indicates direct variation between the variables.
Such a graph in which the quantities very directly is called a linear graph.
Length and Perimeter

Example 3 Draw a graph for the data given below.

Side of square (in cm) 1 2 3 4 5

Perimeter (in cm) 4 8 12 16 20

270
Solution: Y Scale:
20 (5, 20) x-axis: 1 cm = 1 cm
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 cm
To plot the points, 19
18
Take scale: 17

1 unit = 1 cm on the horizontal axis; 16 (4, 16)

15
1 unit = 1 cm on the vertical axis.
14
Mark side along the horizontal axis 13

and perimeter along the vertical axis. 12 (3, 12)

Perimeter
11
Plot the points (1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 12), 10
(4, 16), (5, 20) 9
8 (2, 8)
Join the points to get a graph as 7
shown below. 6
5
4 (1, 4)
3
2
1
0 X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Side

Example 4 Complete the following table and plot the points to represent the equation y = x + 4

x 1 2 3 4
y=x+4
(x, y)
Solution: Y Scale:
10 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
x 9
1 2 3 4
8 (4, 8)
y=x+4 1+4=5 2+4=6 3+4=7 4+4=8 7 (3, 7)
6 (2, 6)
(x, y) (1, 5) (2, 6) (3, 7) (4, 8)
5 (1, 5)
The required graph is given alongside. 4
3
2
1
X
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time and Simple Interest

Complete the table below where S.I. is the simple interest earned on principal ` 1000 at
Example 5
the rate of 4% p.a. in N years.

N (yrs) 1 2 3
S.I. (in `)

Plot the graph for the points (N, S.I.). From the graph calculate the simple interest earned on ` 1000
after 4 yrs at the rate of 4% p.a.

271
 Solution:
P×R×T
Simple interest can be calculated using the formula S.I. =
100
` 1000 × 4 × 1
For one year: S.I. = = ` 40
100
` 1000 × 4 × 2
For two years: S.I. = = ` 80
100
` 1000 × 4 × 3
For three years: S.I. = = ` 120
100
Thus, the complete table is as follows.

N (yrs) 1 2 3

S.I. (in `) 40 80 120

To plot the points,

Take scale: Y Scale:
200 x-axis: 2 cm = 1 year
y-axis: 1 cm = ` 20
2 units = 1 year on the horizontal axis 1 unit = ` 20 on the 180

Simple interest (in `)

vertical axis. 160
140
Mark years along the horizontal axis and simple interest along 120 (3, 120)

the vertical axis. 100

80 (2, 80)
Plot the points(1, 40), (2, 80) and (3, 120) 60
(1, 40)
40
Join the points to get a graph as shown alongside. 20
X
Corresponding to 4 years on the horizontal axis, we get the 0
1 2 3 4 5
simple interest as ` 160 on the vertical axis. Number of years

After 4 years the simple interest earned will be ` 160.

Example 6 (Time and Distance)

A car travels at a constant speed of 60 km/h. Draw a time-distance graph for this situation and use it to
1
find the distance travelled by the car in 3 h.
2
Solution:
In one hour the car travels 60 km.
⇒ In 2 hours, the car will travel 2 × 60 km = 120 km
⇒ In 3 hours, the car will travel 3 × 60 km = 180 km
⇒ In 4 hours, the car will travel 4 × 60 km = 240 km
Let us draw the table for the given data:

Time (in hours) 1 2 3 4

Distance covered (in km) 60 120 180 240

272
To plot the points, take scale: Y Scale:
x-axis: 2 cm = 1 hour
y-axis: 1 cm = 50 km
2 units = 1 hour on the horizontal axis; 1 unit = 50 km on the 450

Distance travelled (in km)

vertical axis. 400
350
Mark years along the horizontal axis and distance along the 300
vertical axis. 250
200 (4, 240)
Plot the points (1, 60), (2, 120), (3, 180) and (4, 240) (3, 180)
150
Join the points to get a graph as shown alongside. 100 (2, 120)
50 (1, 60)
1
Corresponding to 3 h on the horizontal axis, we get the X
2 0
1 2 3 4 5
distance travelled by the car as 210 km. Time taken (in h)
1
Thus, in 3 h the car will travel a distance of 210 km
2

Exercise 18.2
1. The following graph represents the sale of Sale of Refrigerators
refrigerators in Mumbai in a year. Read the graph Y Scale:
y-axis: 1 cm = 50,000

and answer the following questions. 450

Sale (in thousands)

400
a. In which month of the year were maximum
350 340
refrigerators sold? 320 310
300

b. How many refrigerators were sold in June? 250 245 250 260
200
c. In which month were the least refrigerators 150 150
120
sold? 100 90
50 40 43 60
d. In which month was there the greatest X
0
difference between the sales as compared to
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
its previous month? Months

2. Draw a graph for the following data of the number of pencils bought to the price of the pencils.

Number of pencils 10 24 42 50
Price (in ` ) 20 48 84 100

3. Draw a graph for the simple interest on deposits for a year.

Deposit (in ` ) 1000 1400 1800 2200

Simple interest (in ` ) 100 140 180 220

4. Draw a graph for the following.

Side of square (in cm) 2 4 4.5 6 8

Perimeter (in cm) 8 16 18 24 32

Side of square (in cm) 1 3 5 7 8

Area (in sq. cm) 1 9 25 49 64

Is it a linear graph?

273
 5. Draw a graph to represent 4 and its multiples.
6. Complete the table below where S.I. is the simple interest earned on principal ` 100 at the rate of
6% p.a. in N years.

N (yrs) 1 2 3

S.I. (in ` )

Plot the graph for the points (N, S). From the graph calculate the interest payable on ` 100 after 5
years at the rate of 6% p.a.
7. Complete the table below where S is the simple interest earned on principal P at the rate of 8%
p.a. in 1 year .

P (in `) 100 200 300

S.I. (in `)

Plot the graph for the points (P, S). From the graph calculate the interest payable on ` 800 after
1 year at the rate of 8% p.a.
8. The adjoining line graph displays the comparison of Runs Scored by Suresh and Rajesh
runs scored by two batsmen, Suresh and Rajesh, in 10 Y Suresh Scale:
100 Rajesh
y-axis: 1 cm = 10 runs
matches in a series. Answer the following questions from 90 84
90

the graph. 80 78
72
69 72 72
70
a. In which match did Suresh and Rajesh have the
60
Runs

51 57
same scores? 50 45 48
40 48 42 42
b. What is the highest score of Suresh? 33
30 33
30 30
c. What is the least score of Rajesh? 20
10 18
d. In which matches, Suresh scored more runs than X
0
Rajesh?
Match 1
Match 2
Match 3
Match 4
Match 5
Match 6
Match 7
Match 8
Match 9
Match Number Match 10

9. The following data represents the distance covered by the two cars in 6 h. Draw a line graph to
represent the data and answer the following questions.

Time (in h) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Distance travelled by car 1 (in km) 60 110 170 220 270 300

Distance travelled by car 2 (in km) 50 110 180 240 240 300

a. For how many hours was car 1 stationary?

b. For how many hours was car 2 stationary?
c. What was the average speed of both the cars?
d. For how many hours did the two cars travel at the speed of 60 km/h?

274
Recollections:
ŠŠ The location of a point in a plane is described using the distances of the point from two number
lines placed perpendicular to each other and intersecting at origin O.
ŠŠ The horizontal line is called the x-axis and the vertical line is called the y-axis and the four regions
formed are called quadrants. This plane is called the cartesian plane or the coordinate plane.
ŠŠ A point P has coordinates(x, y), x is called as abscissa, y, is called the ordinate.
ŠŠ The two axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants.
ŠŠ The sign convention of abscissa and ordinate in the four quadrants is as shown in the table.

First quadrant Second quadrant Third quadrant Fourth quadrant

Abscissa (x coordinate) + – – +
Ordinate (y coordinate) + + – –

ŠŠ A line graph is a pictorial representation of data that demonstrates the change in one variable (y)
with respect to other variable (x). These graphs are useful as the trends and relationships between
data can be read easily from these graphs.

Check Your Understanding

1. Fill in the blanks with reference to the following cartesian
Scale:
plane. x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
Y
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit A
5
a. The coordinates of the point A are . 4

i. (2, 6) ii. (2, –6) iii. (6, 2) iv. (6, –2) 3

D
2
b. The point E is . 1
C B
X′ 0 X
i. on the X-axis ii. on the Y-axis –5–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
iii. in the third quadrant iv. in the fourth quadrant –2
H
–3
F
c. The coordinates (4, –3) represent the point . –4
–5
i. B ii. F iii. D iv. H G
Y′
E

d. The x-coordinate of the point G is .

i. –2 ii. 2 iii. –3 iv. 3
2. Match the following points to the quadrant in which they would lie.

Points Quadrant
a. (–2,5) i. First
b. (2, –5) ii. Second
c. (–2, –5) iii. Third
d. (2,5) iv. Fourth

3. Plot the following points on a cartesian plane:

A (–5, 7), B (5, 2), C (3, 0), D (–3, –2), E(1, –4), F(0, –3)

275
 4. Complete the following table and plot the points to represent the equation y = 8x

x 1 2 3 4 5
y = 8x
(x, y)

5. The adjoining line graph displays the sale of the Comparison of Sale of Two products
number of units of two products X and Y. Answer Y Product X
35

Number of Units Sold

the following questions from the graph. Product Y
30
a. In which month did product X has the 25
20
maximum sale?
15
b. How many units of product Y were sold in the 10
month of August? 5
X
0
c. In the month of May, which product was sold March April May June July August
more? Months

d. How many more units of product X were sold in July than product Y?

Review Exercise
Y
1. With reference to the adjoining cartesian plane: 6
D
5
a. Find the coordinates of each of the following points. 4
i. E ii. F iii. G iv. H 3
2
B
b. Find the points represented by each of the following 1
C
A 0 HX
coordinates.
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
i. (–5, 0) ii. (2, 5) iii. (0, 1) iv. (–2, 1)
–2
E
2. Find the quadrants in which the following points lie. G
–3
F
–4
a. (–5, –2) b. (–1, 3) c. (1, –4) d. (4, 3) –5
–6
3. Plot the following points on a cartesian plane.
a. (–3, 2) b. (–1, 5) c. (5, –4) d. (0, 3)

4. Plot the points (4, 3), (4, –2), (4, 0) on a cartesian plane. Join them by a straight line. This line is
parallel to which axis.
5. Plot the points (4, 3), (–2, 3), (1, 3) on a cartesian plane. Join them by a straight line. This line is
parallel to which axis.
6. Plot the points (–5, 2) and (3, –2) on a cartesian plane. Join the two points by a straight line. Find
the coordinates of the point where this line intersects the X-axis.
7. Plot the points (2, 2), (–1, –1), (5, 5) on a cartesian plane. Are the points collinear?
8. Complete the following table and plot the points to represent the equation y = 2x

x 1 2 3 4
y = 2x
(x, y)

276
9. Complete the following table and plot the points to represent the equation y = 3x + 1

x 1 2 3 4
y = 3x + 1
(x, y)

10. Complete the table below, where S.I. is the simple interest earned on principal ` 100 at the rate of
5% p.a. in N years.

N (years) 2 3 4
S.I. (in `)

Plot the graph for the points (N, S.I.). From the graph calculate the interest payable on ` 100 after
1 year at the rate of 5% p.a.
11. Complete the table below where S.I. is the simple interest earned on principal P at the rate of 3%
p.a. in 1 year.

P (in `) 1000 2000 3000

S.I. (in `)

Plot the graph for the points (P, S.I.).

Sales of Water Purifier Units
12. The adjoining line graph displays the number of units of Y Scale:
Jim
water purifier sold by two salesmen, Mr. Jim and Mr. John. 16 John
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 units
14
14
Answer the following questions from the graph. Number of Units
13
12
11
a. How many units of water purifier were sold by Mr. Jim in 10 9

the month of April? 8

8
6
6 7
b. How many more units of water purifier were sold by Mr. 4 5
Jim in June than Mr. John? 2

0 X
c. Who sold more number of water purifier units in the 4 April May June July
months? Months

13. The following data represents the time taken by two students, A and B, in 5 trials during training for
50 m run. Draw a line graph to represent the data and answer the following questions.

Trial number 1 2 3 4 5
Time taken by A 9 sec 7.8 sec 9.2 sec 8.9 sec 7.9 sec
Time taken by B 8.2 sec 8.9 sec 7.6 sec 9.2 sec 8.4 sec

a. What is the average time taken by A in all the five trials?

b. What is the average time taken by B in all the five trials?
c. In which trial did A record the least time?
d. In how many trials did A perform better than B?

Weblinks
https://mathinsight.org/cartesian_coordinates
As on 09.05.2019

277
 Answers: 2 –5 8 9
2. a. b. c. – d.
13 31 11 15
1. Rational Numbers 21 13 7 –17
3. a. b. c. d.
9 –6 5 4
Exercise 1.1 11 –33 5 4
5. a. b. c. 4 d. –1
7 50 6 9
1. a. Commutative Property of addition
7 –8 2 –29
b. Distributive Property c. Commutative Property 6. a. b. c. 8 d.
9 55 5 60
of multiplication d. Multiplicative Identity –7 –5 35
8 1 6 2 7. a. b. c. d. 1
2. a. – b. c. d. – 6 24 4
13 2 7 15 29 –113
7 11 35 41 9. a. b.
3. a. b. c. d. – 36 36
2 4 8 9 –73 –31
–7 –47 –3 1 13 167 7 –1 10. a. b.
5. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 120 60
36 48 44 20 36 540 72 8 1 1 77 31 1 –59
3 –16 4 1 7 11. a. b. c. d. e. f.
8. a. b. 9. a. b. 10. – 54 3 60 51 10 1848
19 21 15 8 9 12. Number line 13. Number line
1 2 1 19 7
11. No, × ≠ 12. 13. 2 m2. –2 1 2
2 1 2 12 9 14. a. L� �; M� �; N� �
3 3 3
–3 7
14. 15. 7 kg of brinjals 2 4 2
20 8 b. L�2 �; M�2 �; N�3 �
5 5 5
Exercise 1.2 11 13 15 46 47 48
15. a. , , b. , ,
16 16 16 210 210 210
2 5 1
3. a. A�1 �; C�1 �; B�2 � –7 –5 –3 –1 1 3 5 7 9 11
8 8 8 16. a. , , , , , , , , ,
3 3 3 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
b. A�–2 �; B�–1 �; C�– � –85 –86 –87 –88 –89 –90 –91 –92 –93 –94
4 4 4 b. , , , , , , , , ,
–25 –24 –23 –22 –21 5 6 7 8 9 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140
4. a. , , , , b. , , , ,
143 143 143 143 143 48 48 48 48 48 41 3410 2
17. 3 kg 18. m 19. 6.5 m
31 32 33 34 35 21 23 25 60 9
5. a. , , , , b. , , ,
300 300 300 300 300 130 130 130
26 27 2. Squares and Square Roots
,
130 130
Exercise 2.1
6. Infinite rational number can be written between
1 and 2. 16 4
1. a. 1296 b. 2304 c. d.
169 49
Check Your Understanding 2. a. yes, 45 b. Not a perfect square c. yes, 84
d. Not a perfect square
1. a. i. b. i. c. i. d. ii.
5 2 11 3. a. 3 b. 7 c. 7 d. 3
2. a. rational b. c. d. e. 1
6 5 –8 4. a. 10 b. 3 c. 7 d. 5
3. a. True b. False c. True d. False e. True
–41 –42 –43 –44 –45 –46 –47 –48 –49 Exercise 2.2
4. , , , , , , , , ,
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
–50 1. a. 1 b. 6 c. 6 d. 4 e. 1 f. 9 g. 4 h. 5 i. 1 j. 9
100 2. The numbers end with 2, 3, 7 and 8 in (a. b. d.
Review Exercise e. h. i. j.) and no even number of zeroes in c. f. g.

1. a. Commutative property of addition b. Additive 3. a, c, f, g

inverse c. Commutative property of multiplication 4. a. 25 b. 49 c. 121
d. Distributive property

278
5. a. 26 b. 90 c. 156 d. 198
Check Your Understanding
6. a. Not a perfect square b. Is a perfect square
1. a. ii b. i c. iii d. ii e. iv
7. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15
2. a. iii b. v c. i d. iv e. ii
8. 264 + 265
3. a. 36 b. 49 c. 2 d. 2
9. a. 15625 b. 1225 c. 5625 c. 225 49
4. a. 1156 b. 7.0225 c. 529 d.
10. a. 1000002000001, 100000020000001 81
5. a. yes b. No c. No d. No
b. 1020304030201, 10101010101
6. a. 21 b. 143 c. 11.23 d. 20
11. 52 + 62 + 302 = 31; 62 + 72 +42. = 432
Review Exercise
Exercise 2.3
4
1. a. 3844 b. 441 c. 1225 d.
1. a. 1089 b. 1764 c. 7396 d. 3721 e. 2401 9
f. 6084 g. 9409 h. 3136 2. a. yes b. No c. No d. No
2. a. 8, 15, 17 b. 12, 35, 37 c. 28, 195, 197 3. a. 36 b. 55 c. 72
d. 34, 288, 290 4. 62 5. 2 6. 2 7. 1 8. 46 9. 48, 575, 577 10. 12
3. a. 8, 15, 17 b. 10, 24, 26 c. 14, 48, 50 11. a. 56 b. 30 c. 48 d. 14
d. 18 80, 82
12. a. 123 b. 66 c. 32.5 d. 42.32
4. a. 14, 48, 50 b. 8, 15, 17 c. 30, 224, 226
12 14 42 32
d. 16, 63, 65 13. a. b. c. d.
21 16 5 28
Exercise 2.4 14. 78; 86.58 15. 85 cm 16. 46 cm

1. a. 4 b. 8 c. 9 d. 11 3. Cubes and Cube Roots

2. a. 51 b. 22 c. 35 d. 87 e. 92 f. 78 g. 86 h. 69
Exercise 3.1
3. a. 3, 48 b. 11, 99 c. 5, 90 d. 2, 54 e. 6, 96
8
f. 35, 490 g. 7, 154 h. 14, 336 1. a. 216 b. –125 c. d. 15625
343
4. a. 3, 18 b. 3, 14 c. 5, 32 d. 3, 24 e. 7, 36 2. a. 8 b. 2 c. 5 d. 3
f. 21, 11 g. 6, 46 h. 10, 68
3. b. c. e. are not perfect cubes
5. a. 3600 b. 900 c. 400 d. 900
4. a. 49 b. 3 c. 11 d. 9 e. 9
6. 36 7. 66 m 8. 28
5. a. 3 b. 13 c. 5 d. 49 e. 7
Exercise 2.5
Exercise 3.2
1. a. 28 b. 59 c. 82 d. 114 e. 76 f. 146 g. 115
1. a. 99 b. 84 c. 33 d. 12
h. 148
2. a. 17 b. 47 c. 59 d. 23
2. a. 2 b. 3 c. 3 d. 3
3. a. 2; 18 b. 7; 35 c. 3; 39 d. 3; 48
3. a. 8, 26 b. 14, 29 c. 24, 49 d. 5, 97
4. a. 9; 9 b. 25; 8 c. 6; 13 d. 15; 22
4. a. 13, 14 b. 6, 15 c. 24, 43 d. 18, 56
5. a. 8.3 b. 1.16 c. 2.8 d. 10.4 Check Your Understanding

6. 18 m 7. 51, 56.661 8. 13 cm 9. 21 10. 24 1. a. ii b. ii c. iii d. i e. ii

15 5 15 7 2. a. ii b. iii c. i d. v e. iv
11. a. b. c. d.
20 2 2 12

279
 8 64 3. a. 1.6 × 10–3 cm b. 1.08 × 109 km per hour
3. a. 68921 b. 8000 c. d.
27 125 c. 1.00 × 1014 d. 4.0 × 10–7 m e. 7.0 × 10–6 m
4. only a is a perfect cube f. 7.53 × 10–10 kg
9
5. a. 31 b. 15 c. 8 d. 4. a. 30 times (approx) b. 1.82 times c. 110 times
11
5. 1.2009 × 10–2
Review Exercise
3375 Check Your Understanding
1. a. 238328 b. – 9261 c. 42875 d.
6859
2. a and c are perfect cubes 1. a. i b. iv c. iii d. i e. ii

3. a. 84 b. 33 c. 18 d. 99 2. a. False b. False c. True d. False e. True

4. a. 16 b. 24 c. 46 d. 49 3. a. x = 1 b. x = 3
3 9
2 9 11 10 4. � �
5. a. b. c. d. 7
5 7 5 9
5. a. 8.7 × 10–5 b. 6.02 × 105 c. 1 × 10–7
6. 5 7. 11 8. 225; 135 9. 6; 17
d. 2.1463 × 108
1 1
10. 11. 1 12. 1728 13. 2197
2 2 Review Exercise
9 –1 2
4. Exponents and Powers 1. a. –1 b. c. d.
4 64 3
Exercise 4.1 7 2
1 6
2. a. � � b. – c. 81 d.
8 81 7
1 3375 625 4
1. a. b. 625 c. 32 d. 10000 3. a. b. c. d. 1
81 6859 81 9
11 2 –5 2
2. a. 73 b. � � c. � � d. 25 1
3 9 4. a. 3 b.
8
3. a. 632.542 = 6 × 103 + 3 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 5 –5 7 –2 5 –3 9 –2
10–1 + 4 × 10–2 + 2 × 10–3 b. 1023.981 = 1 × 104 + 5. a. � � b. � � c. � � d. � �
1 –2 6 –8
2 × 102 + 3 × 101 + +9 × 10–1 + 8 × 10–2 + 1 × 10–3 6. a. 5 × 105 + 4 × 104 + 1 × 102 + 2 × 10 + 3 × 1
c. 4.569 = 4 × 101 + 5 × 10–1 + 6 × 10–2 + 9 × 10–3 b. 2 × 100 + 4 × 10–1 + 1 × 10–2 + 4 × 10–4
d. 0.1235 = 1 × 10–1 + 2 × 10–2 + 3 × 10–3 + 5 × 10–4 c. 1 × 10–3 + 2 × 10–4 + 5 × 10–6
13 5 2 12 d. 4 × 100 + 2 × 10–1 + 5 × 10–4
4. a. b. 38 c. � � d.
12 6 7
1 3 7
1 7. a. 210000 b. 0.000103 c. 1420.9 d. 0.0001004
5. a. 5 b. 22 c. 2 d. 6
5 2 3 8. a. 5.42 × 10–5 b. 8.503 × 101 c. 6.02 × 104
1 –2 7 –3 31 –5 11 –9
6. a. � � b. � � c. � � d. � � d. 9.0 × 10–9
–5 4 12 –9
100 9 –1 9. a. 4 b. 4 c. –1 d. 1
7. a. b. 54 c. d.
81 –4 125 10. 4.518 × 10–4 11. 3.1536 × 107 seconds
8. a. 3 b. 5 c. 10 d. 5 e. 2 f. 2
12. a. 4 b. 5 c. 2
1
9. 2 10. 1 11. 1
3 13. a. b. 48
256
Exercise 4.2 25 1 3
14. 15. � � 16. 5
16 7
1. a. 15268 b. 0.000012 c. 6600000 d. 0.000020359
17. Paper is 5.3 times thicker than chip.
2. a. 7.9 × 105 b. 2.82 × 10–5 c. 1.57 × 10–3
d. 3.1313 × 106

280
 5. Playing with Numbers Review Exercise

Exercise 5.1 1. a. 70707 = 70000+700+7 b. 2307 =2000+300+7

c. 5678 = 5000+600+70+8 d. 123 = 100 + 20 + 3
1. a. 62 = 60 + 2 b. 75 = 70 + 5
2. a. 4573 b. 2305 c. 1086 d. 20022
c. 385 = 300 + 80 + 5 d. 405 = 400 + 5
3. a. divisible b. divisible c. not divisible
2. a. 323 b. 945 c. 346 d. 716
d. divisible
3. a. 18 b. 9 c. 6
4. By 3: b, c and d
4. a. 9 b. 11 By 5: a, c and d
5. a. 5 b. 9 5. 11 6. 5 7. 99 8. 2 9. 42 10. b = 2 11. a = 6
6. a. 3 b. 9 12. a. A = 2 b. A= 8, B = 6 c. A = 2 d. A = 3, B = 1
7. a. 36 b. 44 c. 11 d. 4 13. 14. 5
8 1 6
8. a. 111 b. 48 c. 16 d. 592 3 5 7 8 2
6 4
Exercise 5.2 4 9 2
1 3 7 9
1. a. A = 1, B = 7 b. A = 2, B = 5 c. A = 2, B = 3
d. A = 7, B = 3 e. A = 3, B = 1 f. A = 5, B = 2 6. Algebraic Expressions and Identities
2. 2 3.
6 11 10
Exercise 6.1
6 7 13 9 5
8 5 1. a. Trinomial, terms: 5x3, 4x2, –6
8 7 12
1 9 4 3 b. Binomial, terms: 5p3, 6p2q
c. Mononomial, terms: 4x2y2z
Exercise 5.3
d. Trinomial, terms: 5a2, 6a, 9
1. b and d 2. b, c and d 3. a , c and d 4. a and d 7 8
e. Binomial, terms: abc, bc
9 13
5. b and d 6. 3 7. 2 8. 1 9. 1 10. 1 10 3 2
2. a. 2xy b. 6x2y –3x + 4 c. x y + 10xy
7
Check Your Understanding d. 7x + 11xy + 7y
2 2

1. a. iv b. ii c. i d. ii 3. a. 2(xy + yz + xz) b. 2(a + b + c) – ab – bc – ac

2. c. 10x2y – 9xy2 d. 6a – 6b – 14c – 12abc
Divisible by
2 3 5 9 10 4. a. 16p2 + q b. 13x – 2y + 1 c. 3x3y2 – 7x2y + x + 7
Numbers
d. 7a2b + 8ab2 + 10b3
16384 Y N N N N
10215 N Y Y Y Y 5. a. 2pqr b. –5a2bc – 2ab + 11 c. 2a3 + 12a2 – 8a
d. 9x – 2xy – 14y + 9
14520 Y Y Y N Y
6. 10a2 + 8b2 7. –4 + 8x – 11x2
23112 Y Y N Y N
8. –2a2 – 3ab + 8b2 9. 15a3 + 8a2b2 + 5
3. 13
10. –7a2b – 6ab2 + 10ab + 10a – 9b + 11
4. A = 7, B = 5
Exercise 6.2

1. a. 18ab b. 27x2y2 c. 6p10 d. 15a48

281
 –48 –3
2. a. 720 b. –480 c. d.
5 2 Exercise 6.4
3. a. 6a2 + 27a b. –15mn + 35 c. 2p3q4 – 4p2q3 13xy2 25 –7
1. a. 6x2y2 b. –3x2y2 c. 36b d. e. xyz f. pq
d. –y5 + 5y4 2z2 12 2
1 3 2 4
4. a. 6a2 + 13ab + 6b2 b. x2 – 3x – 10 2. a. 3b – a b. 10a – b c. 2xy2 – xy +
2 2 3 3
c. 2p4 + 5p3r3 – 12r4 d. 9x2 – 4 d. 3ac + 6b + 9a e. –x4 – x3 + x2 + x
f. 6a3b2c2 – 4abc + 7
5. a. 12p2 b. 10a2 + 20a
3. a. 3x – 5 b. 5x – 1 c. x – 5 d. 3x + 10
6. a. 60x3 b. 48a2p2q2 c. 30x4y4
4. a. Quotient 3m + 6 remainder 0 b. x2 – 6x + 2
7. a. 6a2 + 15a b. –15mn + 35 c. 2p3q4 – 4p2q3
c. Quotient 5x2 – 2x + 4 remainder 5 d. –x + 6
d. –y5 + 5y4 e. 15x3 + 18x2 – 12x f. –8a3 – 20a2 + 32a
8. a. 10a2 – 15b2 + 24c2 + 5ab + 32ac – 2bc Check Your Understanding
b. –12p2 + 35q2 + 40r2 – 32pq + 38pr – 75qr
1. a. a2 + 2ab + b2 b. trinomial c. a2 – 2ab + b2
c. –12y4 – 26y3 + 56y2 – 53y + 12
d. a2 – b2 e. 5ac
d. 2x4 – 7x3y – 4x2y2 – 7x2 + xy + 3
3 1 2. a. true b. false c. true d. false e. false
9. a. c(a + b) b. 18x2 – 11 c. x2 – xy – 2y2
2 2 3. –2x2 – x – 1 4. 5x2 – 6x + 9
d. –6x2 + 20x – 6 e. 10x3 – 10x2 + 15x
f. –6p2 – 13p + 11 g. 3p2 + 48q2 – 4r2 – 9pq + 11pr – 16qrs 5. a4 + 7a3b – a2b2 – 3a2b – 7ab3 + 3b3 6. 8000
10. 10x2 + 16x – 8 11. 2ax2 Review Exercise
12. 3a3bc + 3ab3c + 3abc3 13. –88 1. a. 9p2q + 9pq + 7q b. 9xy – 9y2 or 9y(x – y)
14. 9x3 – 2y2 + 7xy + 9xz – 2yz c. p2 – pq – pr

15. –3p2 – 4r2 + 48q2 – 9pq + 11pr – 16qr 2.a. 3x2 – 13xy b. – 4xy + y c. x(3x + 3z + y)

16. 3a3bc + 3ab3c + 3abc3 3. a. 16p + 8q b. 3a – 4b + c

17. 2x4 + 3x3y + 12x2y2 + 25xy3 + 30y4 4. a. –25xy3z3 b. x8yz c. 3x5y6 d. 0.001a3b3
e. 60x2y + 15x2 f. 12x3y2 – 12x2y3 g. 2x3 + xy
Exercise 6.3 h. 0.005xy2 + 0.05xy i. 2a2 – 2a2b + 2ab
49 2
1. a. a2 + 4ab + 4b2 b. 9x2 + 42xy + 49y2 j. 4a2 – 9b2 k. 25p2 – q
121
4 l. –2m n – mn + 2n + 2mn2 – m2
2 2
c. 4p2q2 + 12pq + 9 d. a2 + 4a + 9
9
m. 6x3 + 5x2 – 21x + 10
2. a. 36x2 – 60xy + 25y2 b. p4 – 4p2q2 + 4q4
9 2 6 1 2 n. 4x2 – 14x + 13y + 10 – 3y2 – 4xy
c. x – xy + y d. 16m4 – 24m2n + 9n2 o. 3m3 – m2n – 3m5n + 7m2n2 + 4mn – 8n2 – 2mn3 – 4m
25 25 25
1
3. a. 4x2 – 49y2 b. p4 – q4 c. x2 – 2 d. 16a2b2 – 9 5. a. 3a – 3b b. (x + y) (x – y)2 c. x4 – 13x2 + 1
x
d. 5x2 – 2y2 e. 2n2 + m + 3m2 + 4mn + 2n
4. a. x2 + 13x + 42 b. a4 – 2a2 – 24
f. a3 – 2a2b + 2ab2 – b3
c. m2n2 – 8mn + 12 d. 16x2 + 16x – 21
6. a. 9 b. 32
5. a. 2688 b. 216 c. 10296 d. 40392
7. a. 4x2 + 9y2 – 12xy b. 9831 c. 9984 d. 9744
6. a. 10201 b. 3.99 c. 9999 d. 998001 e. 110.25
e. 63.99 f. x4 – 12x2 – 8 g. 256m4 – 625n4
f. 89397
m 2 n 2 2mn
h. � � + � � +
7. a. 80 b. 0.16 c. 800 d. 216 5 3 15
–9m
4 25 2 4 2 8. a. 4x b. 8x c. d. –5a2 e. –3x f. 6x2 + 4x – 3
8. a. x2 – y b. 9x2 – y 9. ----- 8p
9 49 25
g. m – 3 h. x + 5 i. z – 3

282
9. 12a5b5c4 10. 4x2 – 32x + 64 11. Yes 12. --- 13. 1 e. (a + b) (a + c) f. (a + b) (x2 + y2)
g. (a + 3) (a3 + 5) h. (3a + 1) (5b – 2)
7. Factorisation i. (a + b) (ab – bc)
3. a. (4 – 9x) (4 + 9x) b. (3x + 1) (4x + 1)
Exercise 7.1
c. 2(z + 2) (z – 2) d. (4a + 1) (4a + 1)
1. a. xy b. x2y2 c. 6x3y d. 4xy2 e. 5xyz f. 3p2qr e. 3(x + 3) (x – 3) f. x(x + 8y) g. (x – 4)2
g. 2m2n3 h. 3m2n2 i. xy h. (x – 3) (4x + 1) i. m(m – 4) (m – 3)
2. a. 11(2x2 + 3y2) b. –9x (9xy + 1) c. x2(1 + y4) 4. a. (p + 2) b. y(y + 3) c. 2x(x – 2) d. 9(5m – 7n)
d. 3p2q2(4p + 5q2) e. a2bc2(2c – ab) e. 9(p2 + 5p + 3) f. (x + 4) (x + 6)
f. 8lmn2(6m2 + 8l2 – 4lm) g. 2(a + b) (x3 – y2)
8. Linear Equations in One Variable
h. 6ab(3ab – 4a + 5b) i. 7(x – 4y)[2(x – 4y)2 – 3]

3. a. (l + n) (a + m) b. (a – b) (x + y) c. (x + 2y) (xy – 1) Exercise 8.1

d. (y + 3) (2x + 1) e. (m + n) (m + l) f. (x – 8) (x3 – y) 3
a. x = 22 b. y = 18 c. x = 1 d. x = 2 e. x =
7 1 3 2
g. (c – 8) (1 – ab) h. (2u – 5y) (2u – 3w) i. (b – a) (b + a2) f. x = g. x = h. x = 3 i. x = j. x = –12
10 10 4
Exercise 7.2 Exercise 8.2
1. a. (8a + 5b) (8a – 5b) b. (x + 6)2 c. 4(x – 4y)2 40
1. x = 5 2. x = 5 3. 4. 70 cm, 50 cm
y y 7
d. �x + � �x – � e. (a + 5) (a – 8) f. (a – c) (a + c – 2b)
11 11 5. 18, 21, 24 6. 120, 72 7. 6, 7, 8
g. 8(a + 2)(a – 2) h. (5mn + 7) (5mn – 7)
i. (l – m + n) (l – m – n) j. 4xy k. x3(9 + 15x)(9 – 15x) 8. Swena = 44 years, Her father’s age = 73 years
l. 3x(4 + x2) (4 – x2) and son’s age = 18 years
9. Boys = 24, girls 15, class strength = 39
2. a. (x + 4) (x + 3) b. (a – 9) (a + 8) c. (a + 7) (a + 3)
d. (m – 5) (m + 2) e. (z + 5) (z + 4) f. (x – 12) (x – 12) 10. 10 notes of ` 10 and 5 notes of ` 20)
g. (2x + 3y)2 h. 12(a + 12)(3a – 1) i. (3x – 4) (x – 3) 11. 20 coins of ` 5, 60 coins of ` 2, 80 coins of
` 1 12. 21
Exercise 7.3
Exercise 8.3
a. (p + q) b. (x + 2y) c. (5a + 3b) d. (11m + 8n)
7 25
e. 5y(x + 5) f. (x – 5) g. 5(7p + 6q) h. 2b(2a – b) a. x = b. x = c. x = 1 d. x = 7 e. z = –10
2 5 28
i. 66xy j. l (l + m) 5
3 f. y = –1 g. x = h. x = 2 i. y = 2 j. x = –3
2
Check Your Understanding
Exercise 8.4
1. a. iv b. i c. iii d. iv
1. 17 2. 35 3. 30 km/h
2. a. a2 + 2ab + b2 b. a2 – 2ab + b2 c. (a + b) (a – b)
d. (x + a) (x + b) 4. 4 notes of ` 50 and 8 notes of ` 20

3. a. 8ab b. 7x2 c. 11a2b d. 5mn2 5. 17 yrs 6. 96

Review Exercise 7. Vishal’s age = 2years, Nitesh’s age is 8 years.

8. Shalini's age = 38 years, her son’s age = 14
1. a. 3xy(x – 2y) b. 5a3b2(3ab + 4)
years.
c. (2x – 3y) (5a + 2b) d. 3a(a – 6b + 4b2)
9. 98 10. 72 sheep 11. 66 m, 24 m
2. a. (x – a) (x + b) b. (4a + b) (3a – ab)
c. (x – y) (2a + 3b) d. (p + q) (p + r)

283
 1
Exercise 8.5 6. 13 % 7. 8% 8. 5175 9. 25% 10. 16%
3
3
1. a. x = 16 b. x = 5 c. x = 2 d. x = 7 2. Exercise 9.3
7
3. Age of Raj = 12 yrs and age of Sameer = 16 yrs
1. Loss ` 3000, loss % 12%
4. 7 yrs 5. Length = 10 cm and Breadth = 5 cm
2. Loss 20% 3. Profit 25% 4. 32.4% 5. ` 138
6. 36 7. 25 km/h 8. 6 km/h 9. 36
6. a. ` 9000, ` 11,000 b. Loss ` 200 c. Loss % = 1%
Check Your Understanding 7. ` 21 per kg 8. ` 4800 9. 10% 10. Loss 10%
1. a. ii b. iii c. iii d. iv e. ii Exercise 9.4
2. a. True b. False c. False d. True 1.
Marked Selling Discount Discount
3. a. ii b. iv c. i d. iii price ` price ` ` %
4. 15 and 5 5. 7 and 21 a. 600 510 90 15%
b. 20,000 18000 2,000 10%
6. 80°, 40° and 60°
c. 1500 1320 180 12%
Review Exercise
d. 2800 2100 700 25%
5
1. a. x = 2 b. x = c. x = 1 d. x = 4
8 2. a. ` 650 b. 16%
2. 5 3. 5, 35 4. 21, 23, 25 5. 15 and 7 3. ` 6336 4. ` 6000
7
6. 27 7. 7.5 km/h 8. 9. 67 10. 33 km/h 5. a. ` 30,600 b. ` 38,250
9
11. 5.5 km/h 12. 15 13. 48 6. loss = 7% 7. gain 1.5% 8. ` 4403 9. ` 4000
14. 4 cm and 9 cm 15. 8 cm, 10 cm and 10 cm 10. 30% 11. a. ` 7700, ` 11550 b. gain 4%
12. ` 9676 13. ` 240
9. Percentage and its Applications
14. IGST is to be paid ` 900 15. ` 26,250
Exercise 9.1
Check Your Understanding
1. a. 75% b. 4.5% c. 60% d. 77.5%
88 52 326 1. a. iv b. iii c. i d. iii e. iii
2. a. , 0.88 b. , 0.52 c. , 0.326
100 100 100 2. a. marked price b. cost price c. discount
291
d. , 0.291 d. profit e. loss
100
3. a. 62.5% b. 87.5% c. 84% d. 31.25% 3. a. 44% b. 20% c. 8.7% d. 245% e. 475%
4. a. 3:2 b. 51:200 c. 1:3 d. 7:60 4. ` 12000 5. ` 18700
7 2
5. a. 17 % b. 24 % 6. 35% boys Review Exercise
9 3
7. 14 students 8. ` 30,000 9. 0.9 kg 10. ` 36,000 1. a. 87.5% b. 137.5% c. 20% d. 40.625%
9 13 21
11. a. ` 3,75,000 b. ` 1,20,000 c. ` 45,000 2. a. , 0.45 b. , 0.52 c. , 0.84
20 25 25
12. 30,800 votes 7
d. , 0.0056
1250
Exercise 9.2 3. a. 52% b. 18.75% c. 62.5% d. 6.4%
1. ` 73.78 2. 81 3. 20% 4. ` 2375 5. 20% 4. a. 13 : 20 b. 3 : 25 c. 3 : 20 d. 9 : 2000

284
5. ` 170,25% 6. 372 7. 24%
Review Exercise
8. 12.5% 9. ` 217
1. ` 205 2. ` 79860 3. ` 12648 4. ` 15500, ` 7564
1
10. a. ` 120, ` 200 b. loss ` 20 c. loss 6 %
4 5. ` 11,706 6. ` 20,727 7. ` 2,65,302
11. ` 30,000 12. ` 720
8. 80,000 9. ` 1,47,390 10. ` 19360
13. a. ` 4800, ` 6960 b. loss c. ` 624
14. ` 5040 15. ` 22400 11. Direct and Inverse Proportions

Exercise 11.1
10. Compound Interest
1. a. Do not vary directly b. Vary directly
Exercise 10.1
2. a. m = 7; n = 195 b. m = 30, n = 2
1. ` 1,449 2. ` 1,854 3. ` 12,167; ` 4,167
3. ` 7750 4. 9360 5. 4.5 kg 6. 160 bottles 7. ` 875
4. ` 15,680; ` 3,180 5. ` 3,993; ` 993 6. ` 19,008
8. 480 words 9. 280 km 10. ` 6832 11. ` 360
7. a. ` 2000 b. ` 24,200, c. ` 26,620
12. a. Full tank b. 10 min
8. ` 21840 9. ` 2916 10. ` 1200; ` 8640;
13. 4 projects 14. 5 m 60 cm 15. 18 km
Exercise 10.2
Exercise 11.2
1. a. ` 3,630; ` 630; b. ` 7,225; ` 825;
1. a. Vary inversely b. Do not vary inversely
c. ` 8,748; ` 1,248; d. ` 10,609; ` 609;
2. a. m = 45, n = 5 b. m = 130, n = 13
2. ` 4,160; 3. ` 18,816; 4. ` 12,617
3. 16 days 4. 20 days 5. 15 days 6. 6 days
5. ` 7,566 6. ` 11,349
7. 8 days 8. 3 h 54 min 9. 24min 10. 4 m
7. a. ` 48,000 b. ` 48, 400
8. ` 30,250 Check Your Understanding

9. a. ` 242.40 b. ` 243.62 1. a. ii b. iii c. iv d. i

Exercise 10.3 2. a. False b. False c. True

3. ` 70560 4. 4 h 5. ` 875
1. 2,80,900 2. ` 3,55,914; ` 3,94,086
3. ` 42, 592 4. ` 6,86,440 5. 2,646 Review Exercise

6. Population = 54675, no. of people migrated = 1. b and c 2. a and b

20325 3. a. m = 240, n = 70 b. m = 72, n = 180
7. ` 9,44,784 4. a. m = 4, n = 6 b. m = 11, n = 11 5. 32 min
8. ` 13,122 6. 3 kg 600 g 7. 63 toys 8. 62 km/h 9. ` 8800
Check Your Understanding 10. 50 days 11. 26.25 m/ sec 12. 40 men
1. a. ii b. i c. iv d. ii 13. 160 km 14. 61.2 kg 15. 140 minutes
2. a. principal b. depreciation c. ` 420 16. 880 words 17. 8 months 18. ` 2100
d. Conversion period 19. 21 days 20. 16 cm
3. ` 825 4. 420

285
 6. Adjacent angles of a parallelogram are 80° and
12. Understanding Quadrilaterals
100°.
Exercise 12.1 7. x = 28, 80° and 100° 8. 112°
1. a. Simple curve – i, ii, iii, vi, vii b. Simple closed 9. a. x = 5 b. x = 93 c. x = 70° and y = 50°
curve – i, vi, vii c. Polygon – i, vi, vii d. Convex d. x = 28 e. x = 35 f. x = 4, y = 3 and z = 5
polygon – i, vii e. Concave polygon – vi 10. 65°, 115°, 65° ,115° 11. QS = 16 cm
2. a. 2 b. 20 c. 27 12. a. x = 4 and y = 8 b. x = 16 and y = 17
3. a. 540° b. 1080° c. 1440°
Check Your Understanding
4. Yes
1. a. iii. b. ii. c. iii. d. i.
5. a. 9 b. 30 c. 5 d. 20
2. a. two b. perpendicular c. square d. 360° e. two
6. 120°
3. a. True b. False c. False d. True e. True f. True
7. a. 108° b. 9 c. 132° d. 73°
Review Exercise
Exercise 12.2
1. 12 sides 2. 1440° 3. 40°
1. a. 16 b. 4 c. 3 d. 20
4. a. x = 23 b. x = 10 c. x = 10 d. x = 28
2. 120° 3. Yes
5. 48°, 60°, 132°, 156°, 144°
4. a. 92° b. 64° c. 35° d. 58°
6. Interior angle =120° and Exterior angle = 60°
5. 360°
7. 100° each 8. Proving 9. 122° 10. 95° each
Exercise 12.3
11. 27 12. 30 cm 13. 6 14. 46° 15. x = 3 16. 360°
1. a. Side AB and Side BC, Side BC and Side CD,
Side CD and Side DA and Side DA and Side AB. 13. Practical Geometry
b. ∠A and ∠B, ∠B and ∠C, ∠C and ∠D and ∠D
and ∠A. Check Your Understanding
c. Side AB and Side CD and Side AD and Side
1. a. iii. b. iii. c. ii. d. i. e. iii.
BC.
d. ∠A and ∠C and ∠B and ∠D. 2. a. Five b. 360° c. supplementary d. equal e. 90°
2. a. PQ = SR (Opposite sides are equal) 3. a. True b. False c. True d. False e. True
b. ∠PQR = ∠PSR (Opposite angles are equal)
c. OP = OR (Diagonals bisect each other) 14. Visualising Solid Shapes
d. m ∠PSR + m ∠QPS = 180° (Adjacent angles
are supplementary) Exercise 14.1

3. a. Square, Rectangle, Rhombus and 1. a.

A hemispherical
Parallelogram. b. Square and Rhombus.
shell
c. Square and Rectangle. d. Parallelogram A bowl
e. Trapezium b. Two rectangular
cross paths
4. a. Diagonals bisect each other so it is a
inside a
rhombus. b. Opposite sides are parallel so it is a A four road crossing
rectangular park
parallelogram.
5. ∠B = 80°, ∠C = 100° and ∠D = 80°.

286
 c. 6. Top Front Side
Object
view view view
cylinder
a.
Water storage container
d.
b.
A rectangle with
conical ends c.
Rocket

2. Object Top view Front view d.

a.
e.

Brick
b.

Exercise 14.2

Bottle 1. a. No b. No c. yes
c. 2. convex: a, b; concave: c, d
3. Regular : a, b; irregular: c , d
Box 4. a. i. P, Q, R, S, T, U ii. PQRST iii. PQU, QRU,
d. RSU, STU, TPU
b. i. A, B, C, D, E, F ii. ABC iii. ACFD, BCFE,
ABDE
Paper Cup
5. Since all faces are rectangles.
3. The given solid is obtained by surmounting a
6. 4 faces 7. 15 edges 8. 12 vertices 9. ---- 10. ---
hemisphere on a cylinder.Thus, the solid is made
up of a cylinder and a hemisphere. 11. a.

The different views of the solid are:

b.
Top view Front view Side view

Check Your Understanding

1. a. iii b. iv c. i d. ii e. iii
4. a. i. Front view, ii. side view, iii. top view
b. i. top view, ii. side view, iii. front view 2. a. iii b. iv c. ii d. i
c. i. Front view, ii. side view, iii. top view 3. a. false b. true c. false d. true
d. i. side view, ii. top view, iii. front view
4. Side view Front view
5. a. i. side view, ii. top view, iii. front view Top view
a.
b. i. Front view, ii. side view, iii. top view
c. i. Front view, ii. side view, iii. top view
b.
d. i. top view, ii. side view, iii. front view

287
 c. 2. 12 cm 3. 10cm, 15 cm 4. ` 300
5. A = 30 cm2 6. 180 m 7. 8 cm 8. A = 900 cm2
5. 12 9. A = 256 cm2 10. A = 113 cm2
6. Top view Side view Front view Check Your Understanding

1. a. iii. b. i. c. i. d. ii. e. i.
2. a. False b. True c. True d. False

Review Exercise 3. 10 cm and 12 cm 4. A = 40 cm2

1. a. iii, b. i c. ii 5. BD = 13 cm 6. A = 128.75 cm2

2. -------- 3. Paper weight Review Exercise

4. a. b. 1. a. P = 15 cm b. P = 28 cm c. P = 12 cm
d. P = 20 cm
2. A= 78.5 cm2; C = 31.4 cm 3. P = 72 cm
5. --- 6. 5 faces 7. 12 edges 8. 6 vertices 4. 1000 tiles 5. A= 44 cm2 6. 5cm, 10 cm
9. Heptagon, triangle 10. Regular: b 7. A= 350 m2 8. A= 27 cm2 9. 10 cm, 15 cm

11. 10. Height = 8 cm 11. A= 44 cm2 12. 10 cm

Faces Vertices Edges
13. A= 90 cm2
a. 4 10 12
14. A= 108 m2 15. A= 11.44 m2 16. ` 340.20
b. 5 12 15

c. 8 6 12 16. Surface Area and Volume

Exercise 16.1
15. Perimeter and Area
1. a. TSA= 108 cm2 and LSA = 60 cm2
Exercise 15.1 b. TSA= 486 cm2 and LSA = 324 cm2
c. TSA= 792 cm2 and LSA = 484cm2
1. a. A= 20 cm2 and P = 18 cm d. TSA= 392 m2 and LSA = 272 m2
b. A= 6 cm2 and P = 12 cm
c. A= 36 cm2 and P = 24 cm 2. Cuboid with dimension 60 cm, 40 cm and 50
d. A= 126 cm2 and P = 56 cm cm will require less amount of material to make.

2. a. A= 7.74 cm2 b. A= 45 cm2 c. A= 32 cm2 3. TSA= 592 cm2 4. ` 8700 5. 50 cm2 6. 9

d. A= 120 cm2 7. h = 8 cm 8. ` 937.2 9. 35 revolution 10. 324 cm
3. Area of circle is larger than area of square Exercise 16.2
4. ` 3200 5. b = 2cm and h= 6cm
1. V = 343 cm3 2. V = 192 cm3 3. h = 9 cm
6. 80 tiles 7. A= 248.5 m and P = 82 m
2
4. 15 cm 5. 450 cubes 6. 30 hours
Exercise 15.2 7. V = 770000 cm3 or 0.77 m3 8. 22000 minutes
1. a. A= 78 cm2 b. A= 78 cm2 c. A= 59 cm2 9. V = 30800 cm3 10. 88000 Litres
d. A= 108 cm2

288
 2.
Check Your Understanding Marks of Ramesh
Y
Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 10 marks
1. a. iii. b. i. c. ii. d. ii. e. ii.
80
2. a. 3 cm, 158 cm2, 120 cm3 70

Marks (out of 100)

b. 44 mm2,100 mm2, 56 mm3
60
c. 5 m, 88 m2, 148 m2
50
d. 3 cm, 36 cm2, 27 cm3
40
3. 1360 ft2 4. 12 mm
30
5. 528 cm2, 660 cm2 6. ` 440 20

Review Exercise 10
0 X
1. a. A = 54 cm2, V = 27 cm3

di

h
ic

nc

nc

is
in
b. A = 166 cm2, V = 140 cm3

at

gl
H
ie

ie
m

En
Sc

Sc
he
c. A = 150.72 cm2, V = 141.3 cm3

al
at

ci
M

So
d. A = 37.68 cm2, V = 109.9 cm3
Subject
2. A= 56 cm2; V = 24 cm3 3. ` 83 and 40 ps
3. a. Sara b. Lester c. ` 500 d. ` 22,500
4. A= 384 cm2 5. 72 6. V = 440 cm3
4.
7. h = 0.5 m 8. V = 125 cm3 9. V = 60 cm3 Collection of stamps
Y
Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 5% stamps
10. 6000 bricks 11. 8 m 12. 0.2 m 13. 400 Eric
45 Susan
14. h= 7 cm 15. A= 125.6 cm2 16. 21 m 40
Percentage of stamps

17. V = 1100 cm 18. 8000 min 3 35

19. 22 20. 5390 cm3 30

25
17. Data Handling 20
15
Exercise 17.1
10
1. 5
Scale: 1 cm = 100 tourists 0 X
Y
ia

ria

en

m
nc
d

iu

800
st

ed
In

lg
Au
Fr

Sw

Be
Number of tourists

700
Country
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 X
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year

289
 5. 2.
Collection of stamps Y Heights of Students
Y
Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 2 points Scale:
20 Team A 20 x-axis: 1 cm = 5 inches
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 Students
Team B
18 18
16 16

Number of Students
14 14
Point Scores

12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 X 0 X
1 2 3 4 5

55 5
60 0
65 5
70 0
5
Rounds

-5
-6
-6
-7
-7
50
6. a. London is the coldest city b. London and Height (in inches)
Delhi c. Paris and Bangkok 3.
Y
Exercise 17.2 Scale:
x-axis: 1 cm = ` 50
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 workers
Number of workers

1. a. 2 b. 3 c. 1 d. 5 12
5. a. 300-350 lakhs b. 450-500 lakhs c. 34 d. 16 10
8
Exercise 17.3
6
1. a. 27 b. 6 – 8 c. 11 d. 50 4

Y 2
Scale: x-axis: 1 cm = 2 km
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 students 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X
14 25 30 35 40 45 50
Number of students

12 Daily earnings (in `)

10
8 4. a. 7 b. 12 sec -14 sec c. 37 d. 4
6 5. a. 10 b. 30 – 40 c. 60 – 70 d. 2250
4
Exercise 17.4
2
0 X 1.
2 4 6 8 10 12
A,50°
Distance of kilometres
E,94°
B,100°
D,46°

C,70°

2. a. ` 10000 b. Rent & Loan payments

c. Other utilities d. 3:5

290
3. Bengali

Malayalam 24°
48°
45° Marathi
Gujarati 135°
108°
Hindi

4. a. 25% b. 54 c. 72 d. 360 5. a. India b. Australia- 120°, India-162°, New Zealand-78°

5. c.
New
Zealand Australia
78° 120°

162°
India

Exercise 17.5
1 1 1 1 3
1. HH, TH, TT, HT 2. a. b. 3. a. b. c. 0 d. e. 1
2 13 4 2 4
1 1 2 3 1 4 1 1 1
4. 5. 6. P (Girl CR) = , P (Boy CR) 7. 8. 9. a. b. c. d. 0
4 3 5 5 4 11 3 3 6
Check Your Understanding

1. a. ii. b. ii. c. iii. d. ii.

2.

Class Interval Class Mark Lower limit Upper limit Tally Marks Frequency

20 – 30 25 20 30 13

30 – 40 35 30 40 7

40 – 50 45 40 50 8

50 – 60 55 50 60 2

Total = 30

1 1 1 1 3 1 2 5 1
3. a. b. c. d. 4. a. b. c. d. 5.
4 4 4 4 14 7 7 14 8

Review Exercise
1 1
1. 2.
6 6

291
 3. 1 1 1 1
Favourite Musical Instrument 7. a. b. c. d.
Y 26 26 52 52
Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 1 person 8.
9
8 Result Tally Marks Frequency
Number of people

7
1 5
6
5 2 11
4
3 9
3
2 4 10
1
5 9
0 X
6 6
r

in
pe
ta

ut

ol
ru
ui

Fl

um

Vi
D
G

Tr

Instruments
Total = 50

4.
Comparison of Grades 9.
Y Results of a Dice
Boys Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 5 students Y
Number of Students

25 Girls Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 2 time

12
20
10
Frequency

15
8
10
6
5
4
0 X
A B C D 2
Grades 0 X
5. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Duration of Calls Results
Y
Scale: 1 1 3
x-axis: 1 cm = 2 minutes 10. a. b. c.
6 5 5 5
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 call
Number of calls

5 11.
4
Classes Tally Marks Frequency
3
2 0-4 4
1 4-8 10
0 X
2 4 6 8 10
8 - 12 6
Time in minutes
6. 12 - 16 6
51 above, 25°

16 - 20 4
41-50, 45° less than
10, 105°
Total = 30
31-40, 75°
11-20, 50°

21-30, 60°

292
 12. a. Sunday b. Wednesday c. 209 d. 4:5
18. Introduction to Graphs
1 3
13. 14.
2 4 Exercise 18.1
15.
Participation of 1. a. i. P = (0, 5) ii. R = (2, 1) iii. S = (1, -2)
Y high school students iv. V = (-4, 0)
Number of Participants

Scale: y-axis: 1 cm = 5
participants 1. b. i. T ii. Q iii. U iv. W
25
20 2. a. II quadrant b. I quadrant c. IV quadrant
15 d. III quadrant
10 3.
5 Scale:
6 Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
0 X 5
is

t
ll
ss

ke 4
ba

to
nn
he

ric
in
ot

Te

dm
C

D(–2,3) 3
C
Fo

Ba

2
Sports
1
B(–5,0) 0 X
16. a. 20 feet to 30 feet b. 3 c. 4
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
17. –2 A(0,–2)
Number of Members in
–3
Sports Club
Y –4
Scale: C(1,–4)
–5
12 x-axis: 1 cm = 5 members
–6
Number of Clubs

y-axis: 1 cm = 2 clubs
10
8 4. x-axis: b and d and y-axis: c
6 5.
4 Scale:
6 Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
2 y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
0 X 4
10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of Members (–1,2) 3
2
18. a. AC and fans b. Lights & Lamps c. 9 units (–3,2) 1 (1,2)
0 X
d. 13:100 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
19. oil and –2
sweets,
dairy 36° grains
–3
products
54°
108° –4
lean –5
protiens
36° vegetables –6
fruits 72°
54°

The line is parallel to x-axis

20.
Reshma, a. Umesh
48°
Rashid, 3
96° Selvi, b.
72° 4
Sara,
c. Sara
Lyle, 24°
120°
d. 15 lakh

293
 6. 3.
Scale:
Simple interest
6 Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit Y Scale:

Simple Interest (in `)

y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5 350 x-axis: 2 cm = ` 500
y-axis: 1 cm = ` 50
4 300
3 250
(5,2) (2200,220)
2 200
(1800,180)
1 150
X (1400,140)
0 100 (1000,100)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 50
–1
–2 0 X
(–3,–2)

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
–3
–4
–5 Deposit (in `)
–6
4. a.
Perimeter
The line intersects the x-axis in the point (1, 0). Y Scale:
35 x-axis: 2 cm = 2 cm

Perimeter (in cm)

(8,32)
7. 30
y-axis: 1 cm = 5 cmt

Scale: 25
6 Y x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit (6,24)
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit 20 (4.5,18)
5
15 (4,16)
4 (2,4) 10
3 (2,8)
5
2 (1,2) X
0
1 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 X
Side of square (in cm)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
(–1,–2) –2 4. b. It is not a linear graph
–3 Area
–4 Y Scale:
x-axis: 1 cm = 2 cm
70 (8,64)
Area (in sq. cm)

y-axis: 1 cm = 10 sq. cm
–5
60
–6
50 (7,49)
40
Yes, all three points are collinear. 30
(5,25)
8. --------- 20
10 (1,1) (3,9)
Exercise 18.2 0 X
2 4 6 8 10 12
1. a. June b. 3,40,000 c. Jan d. Oct - Nov Side of square (in cm)

2. 5.
Multiples of 4
Price(in `) Y Scale:
Y Scale: 18 x-axis: 2 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 2 units
140 x-axis: 1 cm = 10 pencils
16
y-axis: 1 cm = ` 20 (4,16)
120 14
Multiples of 4
Price(in `)

100 (50,100)
12 (3,12)
80 (42,84)
10
60 8 (2,8)
40 (24,48)
6
20 (10,20) 4 (1,4)
0 X 2
10 20 30 40 50 60
0 X
Number of pencils
1 2 3 4 5 6
Numbers

294
 6. 9.
Distance travelled by two cars
N 1 2 3 Y Car 1
350

Distance in kms
Car 2
S.I. (in `) 6 12 18 300
300 270
250 240
(x, y) (1,6) (2,12) (3,18) 180 240
200 220
Simple interest 150 110 170
Y Scale: 100
45 x-axis: 2 cm = 1 year 60
50
Simple interest (in `)

y-axis: 1 cm = ` 5
40 50
0 X
35 1 2 3 4 5 6
30 (5,30) Time in Hrs
25
20 a. 0 h, car did not halt b. 1 h, between 4 to 5
(3,18)
15
c. 50 km/ h d. Car 1: for 2 h Car 2: for 3 h
10 (2,12)
5 (1,6)
Check Your Understanding
0 X
1 2 3 4 5 6 1. a. i b. ii c. ii d. i
Number of years
2. a. ii b. iv c. iii d. i
7.
3. ----------
P (in `) 100 200 300
4.
S.I. (in `) 8 16 24
x 1 2 3 4 5
(x, y) (100,8) (200,16) (300,24)
y=x×8 8 16 24 32 40
Simple interest
Y Scale:
Points (1,8) (2,16) (3,24) (4,32) (5,40)
90 x-axis: 1 cm = ` 200
Y
Simple interest (in `)

y-axis: 1 cm = ` 10
Scale:
80 40 (5,40) x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
70 36
y-axis: 1 cm = 4 units
(800,64)
60 32 (4,32)
50 28
40 24 (3,24)
30 20
(300,24)
20 16
(200,16) (2,16)
10 12
(100,8)
0 X 8 (1,8)
200

400

600

800

1000

1200

4
0 X
Principal P (in `)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8. a. 3rd match b. 84 c. 18 d. 1st, 5th, 6th and 8th 5. a. June b. 16 c. Product Y d. 8
matches
Review Exercise

1. a. i. E(4,–2) ii. F(0,–3) iii. G(–4, –4) iv. H(6, 0)

1. b. i. A ii. D iii. C iv. B
2. a. III quadrant b. II quadrant c. IV quadrant
d. I quadrant

295
 3. 6.
Y Scale: Y Scale:
6 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit 6 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
(–1,5) 5 5
4 4
3 (0,3) 3
(–5,2)
(–3,2) 2 2
1 X 1 X
0 0
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3 (3,–2)
–4 (5,–4) –4
–5 –5
–6 –6

4. The line intersects the x-axis in the point (–1, 0).

Y Scale:
7.
6 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5 Y Scale:

4 6 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
3 5
(4,3) (5,5)
2 4
1 (4,0) 3
0 X 2
(2,2)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
–1 0 X
–2 (4,–2) –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–3 (–1,–1) –2
–4
–3
–5
–4
–6
–5
–6
The line is parallel to y-axis
5. Yes, all three points are collinear.
Y Scale:
8.
6 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
5
4 x 1 2 3 4
(–2,3) (1,3) (4,3)
3 y = 2x 2 4 6 8
2
1 (x, y) (1,2) (2,4) (3,6) (4,8)
0 X
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Y Scale:
–1 10 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
–2 9
–3 8 (4,8)
–4 7
–5 6 (3,6)
–6 5
4 (2,4)
The line is parallel to x-axis 3
2 (1,2)
1
0 X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

296
 9. 11.

x 1 2 3 4 P (in `) 1000 2000 3000

y = 3x + 1 4 7 10 13 S (in `) 30 60 90

(x, y) (1,4) (2,7) (3,10) (4,13) Simple interest

Scale:
Y x-axis: 1 cm = ` 500
y-axis: 1 cm = ` 10
Y Scale: 100

Simple interest (in `)

14 x-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
90 (3000,90)
y-axis: 1 cm = 1 unit
13 (4,13) 80
12 70
11 60 (2000,60)
10 (3,10) 50
9 40
8 30 (1000,30)
7 (2,7) 20
6 10
5 0 X
4 (1,4)

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500
3
2 Principal (in `)
1
0 X 12. a. 11 b. 8 c. Mr. Jim
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
13. a. 11 b. 8 c. Jim d. July
10. 14.
N (years) 2 3 4 Comparison of speed of 2 Runners
Y Series 1
S (in `) 10 15 20 10 9.2 9.2 Series 2
9 8.9
9
Simple Interest 8 8.9 8.4
8.2
Time in Secs

Y Scale:
7 7.8
Simple interest (in `)

35 x-axis: 2 cm = 1 year
7.9
y-axis: 1 cm = ` 5 6 7.6
30
5
25
4
20 (4,20)
3
15 (3,15)
2
10 (2,10) 1
5
X 0 X
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5
Trial Number
Number of Years
a. 8.56 sec b. 8.46 sec c. 2nd d. 3

297