WHAT ARE MEDICINES?

 It is a branch of the health sciences and is the sector of public life concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the
study, diagnosis, treatment and possible prevention of disease, injury and other damage to a body or mind.
 are chemicals or compounds used to cure, halt, or prevent disease; ease symptoms; or help in the diagnosis of illnesses.

Drugs are substances/chemicals which when taken into the body either nasal, oral, transdermal or intravenous way have psychological,
emotional, and behavioral effects on a person.
Any substance or drug can act either as an agonist or an antagonist.
An agonist is a substance that acts as an activator, or promotes activity of a specific regulatory system or body process.
An antagonist is a substance that acts as an inhibitor, having the opposite effect to the agonist.

Drugs act on a regulator molecule, known as a receptor, which literally receives the agonist or antagonist molecule, and sends the signal to the
body system it regulates, changing it to the liking of the agonist (activate) or antagonist (inhibit).

Drugs that are artificially delivered to patients must have the following characteristics in order to be an effective pharmacological drug:
1. The drug must have a very specific size, shape, atomic configuration and electrical charge to be able to interact with the receptor.
2. A drug must have the necessary properties to travel to its site of action or receptor from its site of administration.
3. It must be easily inactivated or excreted from the body once it has been used for its purpose.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRUGS
1. Physical and Chemical Nature of Drugs: The physical nature of the drug determines how the drug is administered to the body.
2. Drug Size: The drug size must high enough to be unique to a receptor (this determines the lower limit of drug size, 100 Molecular
Weight (MW) – a drug ideally should not be lower than this).
3. Drug Reactivity and Drug Bonds
Drug-receptor bonds are of 3 major types: ▪
1. Covalent: Covalent bonds are very strong bonds that are not readily broken. An example of a drug that uses a covalent
mechanism of action is aspirin, which forms a covalent bond with its target enzyme, cyclooxygenase.
2. Electrostatic: This is a much more common type of bond in drug-receptor interactions. They can either be: Relatively strong ionic
linkages between permanently charged molecules (eg. electrostatic interaction between Na+ and Cl-).
3. Hydrophobic: These bonds are quite weak; usually found in the interactions between highly lipid-soluble drugs and lipids in the
cell membranes.
Classifications of medicines
1. Prescription-Only Medicine (POM) - has to be prescribed by a doctor or other authorized health professional and it has to be dispensed
from a pharmacy or from another specifically licensed place. Examples of prescription-only medicines include virtually all antibiotics and
medicines for treating high blood pressure.
2. Pharmacy (P) - an intermediate level of control, can be bought only from pharmacies and under a pharmacist’s supervision; examples of
pharmacy
medicines include tablets for emergency contraception and medicines containing codeine for treating pain that is not relieved by aspirin,
ibuprofen or paracetamol alone.
3. Over-the-counter medicines: ‘Over-the-counter (OTC) medicines’ covers all general sale medicines and pharmacy medicines. The description
conveniently distinguishes medicines that can be bought from those that must be prescribed. General sale medicines are taken for common,
easily recognized ailments which usually last around 2–3 days. These medicines cause few troublesome side effects in normal use. Examples
of general sale medicines include small packs of painkillers and of antihistamines for allergies.
Advantages:
a. They are usually cheaper than prescription drugs; b. You do not need a prescription to obtain them; c. You do not need a doctor visit;
d. They are readily available in manty types of stores, not just pharmacies.
Some examples of OTC drugs:
Paracetamol: commonly used for the relief of headaches
Ibuprofen: a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug derivative of propionic acid used for relieving pain, helping with fever and reducing
inflammation
Pseudoephedrine: It may be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant, or as wakefulness-promoting agent
4. Therapeutic classification: This type of classification describes the clinical purpose, or the physiological change induced by the drug, and
does not describe anything about the way the drug achieves this change. A large percentage of these categories begin with the prefix “anti”,
because anti means “against”, and these categories describe the condition that the drug is working against. There are antipsychotics,
antidepressants, anticonvulsants, antinauseants, and so forth. Some of their functions are immediately apparent from the name, while others
require a little more background information. Of course there are other classes that don’t begin with this prefix. Decongestants, hallucinogens,
sedatives, stimulants.
5. Pharmacological classification: Describes the specific thing that the drug does on the molecular level in order to elicit the desired
physiological effect. Again, focusing on the heart and blood vessels, calcium channel blockers quite literally block calcium channels in the heart,
which are protein channels in the membranes of cells that regulate the passage of calcium ions in and out of the cell.

Medicines often come in some of the following preparations, types, or formats:

1. Liquid
The active part of the medicine is combined with a liquid to make it easier to take or better absorbed. A liquid may also be called a ‘mixture’,
‘solution’ or ‘syrup’. Many common liquids are now available without any added colouring or sugar.
2. Tablet
The active ingredient is combined with another substance and pressed into a round or oval solid shape. There are different types of tablet.
Soluble or dispersible tablets can safely be dissolved in water.
3. Capsules
The active part of the medicine is contained inside a plastic shell that dissolves slowly in the stomach. You can take some capsules apart and
mix the contents with your child’s favourite food. Others need to be swallowed whole, so the medicine isn’t absorbed until the stomach acid
breaks down the capsule shell.
Other types of medicine:
a. Topical medicines
These are creams, lotions or ointments applied directly onto the skin. They come in tubs, bottles or tubes depending on the type of medicine.
The active part of the medicine is mixed with another substance, making it easy to apply to the skin.
b. Suppositories
The active part of the medicine is combined with another substance and pressed into a ‘bullet shape’ so it can be inserted into the bottom.
Suppositories mustn't be swallowed.
c. Drops
These are often used where the active part of the medicine works best if it reaches the affected area directly. They tend to be used for eye, ear
or nose.
d. Inhalers
The active part of the medicine is released under pressure directly into the lungs. Young children may need to use a ‘spacer’ device to take the
medicine properly. Inhalers can be difficult to use at first so your pharmacist will show you how to use them.
e. Injections
There are different types of injection, in how and where they're injected.
1. Subcutaneous or SC injections are given just under the surface of the skin.
2. Intramuscular or IM injections are given into a muscle. Intrathecal injections are given into the fluid around the spinal cord.
3. Intravenous or IV injections are given into a vein. Some injections can be given at home but most are given at your doctor’s surgery or in
hospital.
4. Intrathecal injections are given into the fluid around the spinal cord.
f. Implants or patches
These medicines are absorbed through the skin, such as nicotine patches for help in giving up smoking, or contraceptive implants.
g. Tablets you don't swallow (known as buccal or sublingual tablets or liquids). These look like normal tablets or liquids, but you don’t swallow
them. Buccal medicines are held in the cheek so the mouth lining absorbs the active ingredient. Sublingual medicines work in the same way
but are put underneath the tongue. Buccal and sublingual medicines tend only to be given in very specific circumstances.

Prevention is better than cure means:

 Easier to stop problems than correct them later;
 It is better to stop something bad or illness before it happens; and
 Avoid something rather than deal with the consequences.
PRESCRIPTION MEDICINES or OVER THE COUNTER MEDICINES
Pharmacology - the study of drugs and medications
A drug is a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.
What is the difference between prescription drugs and OTC drugs?

Prescription drugs are:

● Prescribed by a doctor
● Bought at a pharmacy
● Prescribed for and intended to be used by one person
● Regulated by FDA through the New Drug Application (NDA) process. This is the formal step a drug sponsor takes to ask that the FDA consider
approving a new drug for marketing in the United States. An NDA includes all animal and human data and analyses of the data, as well as
information about how the drug behaves in the body and how it is manufactured.

OTC drugs are:

● Drugs that do NOT require a doctor's prescription
● Bought off-the-shelf in stores
● Regulated by FDA through OTC Drug monographs. OTC drug monographs are a kind of "recipe book" covering acceptable ingredients, doses,
formulations, and labeling. Monographs will continually be updated adding additional ingredients and labeling as needed. Products conforming
to a monograph may be marketed without further FDA clearance, while those that do not, must undergo separate review and approval through
the "New Drug Approval System."

Some Commonly Prescribed Drugs in the Philippines

1. VICODIN (HYDROCODONE/ACETAMINOPHEN)
Vicodin is a popular drug for treating acute or chronic moderate to moderately severe pain. Its most common side effects are lightheadedness,
dizziness, sedation, nausea, and vomiting. Vicodin can reduce breathing, impair thinking, reduce physical abilities, and is habit forming.
2. SIMVASTATIN (GENERIC FOR ZOCOR)
Simvastatin is one of the first "statins" (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors) approved for treating high cholesterol and reducing the risk of stroke,
death from heart disease, and risk of heart attacks. Its most common side effects are headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain,
and muscle pain. Like other statins it can cause muscle breakdown.
3. LISINOPRIL (GENERIC FOR PRINIVIL OR ZESTRIL)
Lisinopril is an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor used for treating high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, and for preventing
kidney failure caused by high blood pressure and diabetes. Lisinopril side effects include dizziness, nausea, headaches, drowsiness, and sexual
dysfunction. ACE inhibitors may cause a dry cough that resolves when the drug is discontinued.
4. LEVOTHYROXINE (GENERIC FOR SYNTHROID)
Levothryoxine is a man-made version of thyroid hormone. It is used for treating hypothyroidism. Its side effects usually result from high levels
of thyroid hormone. Excessive thyroid hormone can cause chest pain, increased heart rate, excessive sweating, heat intolerance, nervousness,
headache, and weight loss.
5. AZITHROMYCIN (GENERIC FOR ZITHROMAX, Z-PAK)
Azithromycin is an antibiotic used for treating ear, throat, and sinus infections as well as pneumonia, bronchitis, and some sexually transmitted
diseases. Its common side effects include loose stools, nausea, stomach pain, and vomiting. Rare side effects include abnormal liver tests,
allergic reactions, nervousness, and abnormal heart beats.
6. METFORMIN (GENERIC FOR GLUCOPHAGE)
Metformin is used alone or in combination with other drugs for treating type 2 diabetes in adults and children. The most common side effects
of metformin are nausea, vomiting, gas, bloating, diarrhea, and loss of appetite.
7. LIPITOR (ATORVASTATIN)
Lipitor is a "statin" (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor) approved for treating high cholesterol. It also prevents chest pain, stroke, heart attack in
individuals with coronary artery disease. It causes minor side effects such as constipation, diarrhea, fatigue, gas, heartburn, and headache. Like
other statins it can cause muscle pain and muscle break down.
8. AMLODIPINE (GENERIC FOR NORVASC)
Amlodipine is a calcium channel blocker used for treating high blood pressure and for treatment and prevention of chest pain. Its most
common side effects are headache and swelling of the lower extremities. Amlodipine can also cause dizziness, flushing, fatigue, nausea, and
palpitations.
9. AMOXICILLIN
Amoxicillin is a penicillin type antibiotic used for treating several types of bacterial infections such as ear, tonsils, throat, larynx, urinary tract,
and skin infections. Its side effects are diarrhea, heartburn, nausea, itching, vomiting, confusion, abdominal pain, rash, and allergic
reactions.
10. HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE
Hydrochlorothiazide is a diuretic (water pill) used alone or combined with other drugs for treating high blood pressure. Its side effects include
weakness, low blood pressure, light sensitivity, impotence, nausea, abdominal pain, electrolyte disturbances, and rash.

OTC drugs are:

 Drugs that do NOT require a doctor's prescription and bought off-the-shelf in stores
 OTCs can be shared by friends and family;
 Non-prescribed medicines, on the other hand, are generally formulated to a strength deemed "safe and effective" by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA). If dosing instructions are followed properly, many non-prescribed medicines can be used together
without fear of dangerous interactions or overdoses.
 Most over-the-counter drug formulas are no longer proprietary secrets, however, so a number of companies can produce aspirin or
cough syrup and compete side-byside on store shelves.
Medicine Cabinet Essentials (Home Pharmacy OTC Drugs)
1. ACETAMINOPHEN
Common brand names: Tylenol, Panadol, and Tempra.
Acetaminophen is the most commonly recommended OTC medication for fever. It works well for minor aches and pains, especially for people
who cannot tolerate antiinflammatory medications such as ibuprofen or aspirin.
2. Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Common brand names: Motrin, Advil
Many non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used to treat inflammation, fever, and pain are available over-the-counter. OTC ibuprofen
is often recommended by health care practitioners to decrease pain and inflammation from minor orthopedic injuries.
3. DEXTROMETHORPHAN
Common brand names: (Delysm, Pedicare, Robitussin, Scot-Tussin, St. Joseph, Theraflu, Triaminic, Vicks 44, and many others)
It is an over-the-counter product used to control cough. It is usually found as one of many ingredients in cough syrups and cold medications
(those that have the DM in their names such as Robitussin DM or store brands).
4. GUAIFENESIN
Common brand names: (Robitussin, Mucinex among many others) is an expectorant (it loosens mucus in the bronchi or large breathing tubes).
It may initially cause more coughing to remove the mucus but will then decrease the cough intensity and frequency as the mucus is cleared
out. Adequate hydration will augment the effect of guaifenesin.
5. ORAL DECONGESTANTS come in either pill or liquid form and act by shrinking engorged blood vessels in the nasal and sinus passages. It is
important to read the ingredient list since many preparations contain multiple medications. These medications often contain an active
ingredient such as pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) which is an adrenaline like drug.
6. NASAL SPRAY DECONGESTANTS act similarly to oral decongestants but have the advantage of acting only in the area applied, usually without
the stimulant side effects. The most common active ingredient in nasal sprays is oxymetazoline (for
example, oxymetazoline [Afrin], Dristan Nasal Spray, phenylephrine [NeoSynephrine]). Nasal sprays can cause a "rebound" effect where nasal
symptoms can return if they are used for more than 3 days and then discontinued. It is important to read and follow the package label
instructions
7. DIPHENHYDRAMINE (BENADRYL)
Common brand names: loratadine (Claritin), cetirizine (Zyrtec), and fexofenadine (Allegra). It is an antihistamine used to treat the symptoms of
sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes. Its major side effect is drowsiness or sleepiness, so it also is the active ingredient in many OTC sleeping
pills.
8. CALCIUM CARBONATE
Common brand names: Caltrate 600, Os-Cal 500, Rolaids, Tums), aluminum hydroxide (for example, ALternaGEL, Dialume), and magnesium
hydroxide (Phillips Milk of Magnesia) These are antacids that work immediately to relieve acid indigestion and heartburn. They are available in
both chewable tablets and liquid forms. Aluminum based antacids may cause constipation, and the magnesium based products may cause
diarrhea. Maalox is a combination of the two types of antacids.
9. Medications for Constipation
OTC medications to relieve constipation include glycerin suppositories as well as medications that help bulk-up and lubricate the stool.
Bisacodyl (Correctol, Dulcolax), calcium docusate (Colace, Surfak), and Senna (Ex-lax, Senokot) are the most commonly available medicines.
Laxative dependence is a problem that may occur with laxative use; use of these drugs continually over one week indicates the individual
should seek /
10. LOPERAMIDE (Imodium A-D) is often recommended as an OTC medication for the treatment of diarrhea. However, if constipation, ileus
(constipation, abdominal distension, nausea, and vomiting), fever, or bloating occurs, the medication should be stopped.

What are brand name and generic drugs?

A brand name drug is a medicine that’s discovered, developed and marketed by a pharmaceutical company. Once a new drug is discovered, the
company files for a patent to protect against other companies making copies and selling the drug. At this point the drug has two names: a
generic name that’s the drug’s common scientific name and a brand name to make it stand out in the market-place.

Generic drugs have the same active ingredients as brand name drugs already approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Generics
only become available after the patent expires on a brand name drug. Patent periods may last up to 20 years on some drugs.
What’s the difference between brand name and generic drugs?
The Similarities
According to the FDA, to substitute a generic for a brand name drug:
■ It must contain the same active ingredients (the chemical substance that makes the drug work).
■ It must have the same dosage strength (the amount of active ingredients, for example 20 mg or 40 mg).
■ It must be the same dosage form (that is, it needs to be available in the same form as the original—for example, as a liquid, pill, etc.).
■ It must have the same route of administration (the way the medication is introduced into the body).
■ It must deliver similar amounts of the drug to the bloodstream (that is, it needs to deliver a comparable amount of the drug into the
bloodstream within a similar time period as the brand name drug).

The Differences
■ They look different. (Federal law requires this.)
– They could have different sizes, shapes, colors or markings.
– They have different names.
■ They might have different inactive ingredients.
– Drugs are made up of both active and inactive ingredients. Some people may be sensitive to inactive ingredients. For example,
some people have reactions to certain dyes used in some drugs.
■ The generic costs less than the brand name drug.
– The cash price and insurance co-pay is usually lower. Generics can cost between 20 and 80 percent less, but keep in mind that cost
is only one factor when considering the right medication for your condition.
■ Generics vary by manufacturer, which means you could receive different versions based on where you purchase your medications and what
type of generic they dispense.
– Different pharmacies carry different generics.
– Even the same pharmacy may change generic suppliers.

Cancer is a group disease involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Cancer is a family of
over 100 distinct diseases. Almost anywhere in the body, it can develop. Cancer starts when this orderly process is messed with by genetic
changes also known as genetic mutation. When it expands rapidly and uncontrollably, a cell becomes cancerous. This process contributes to the
development of tumors in most cancers. An irregular growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled growth of cells is a tumor.

Tumors are either malignant or benign. Tumors that are benign are not cancerous. There is no spread of cancerous cells from benign tumors
to other areas of the body. Normally, benign tumors are not life-threatening. Malignant Tumors are cancerous. Cancer can spread close to the
tumor to other tissues and organs. They can also spread to other sites in the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. This
spreading is called metastasis.

Types of Cancer Examples

Carcinoma originates in the skin or the tissue that covers the surface - prostate cancer; breast cancer; lung cancer; colorectal cancer
of internal organs and glands. Carcinomas could form solid tumors. (colon or the rectum)
Sarcoma starts in the tissues that support and connect the body. A Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (stomach and small intestine);
sarcoma can develop in fat, muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, blood Osteosarcoma (bones)
vessels, lymph vessels, cartilage, or bone.
Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including - Lymphocytic leukemia (lymphocytes)
the bone marrow and the lymphatic system. - Myelogenous (my-uh-LOHJuh-nus) leukemia (Myeloid cells
give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells and platelet producing
cells)
Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, which is part of the Hodgkin's lymphoma (formerly called Hodgkin's disease)
body's germ-fighting network. The lymphatic system includes the - Non-Hodgkin's
lymph nodes (lymph glands), spleen, thymus gland and bone lymphoma
marrow. Lymphoma can affect all those areas as well as other organs
throughout the body.
Myeloma is a type of bone marrow cancer. Bone marrow is the - Solitary Plasmacytoma (plasma cells)
spongy tissue at the centre of some bones that produces the body's - Extramedullary Plasmacytoma (throat, sinuses, nose and larynx
blood cells. It is also called multiple myeloma as the cancer often
affects several areas of the body, such as the spine, skull, pelvis and
ribs.

The most important risk factors are:

• Age: Although people of all ages can get cancer, older people are at greater risk.
• Genetics: The history of the family will put you at risk for cancer. You could be more at risk for that form of cancer if you or anyone in the
family had a similar type of cancer. For certain cancers, such as breast cancer and colon cancer, genetics plays a major part.
• Behaviors: Tobacco use and exposure to the sun or other sources of UV radiation are risk factors for cancer. Other lifestyle choices that might
affect the chances of getting cancer include a poor diet, lack of exercise, or heavy drinking.
• Viruses or bacteria: There is a virus or bacteria that trigger certain cancers. The human papillomavirus (HPV), which causes cervical cancer,
hepatitis B and C viruses, which can cause liver cancer, and the Epstein-Barr virus, which can cause a form of lymphoma, are several cancer
associated viruses. Likewise, the Helicobacter pylori can cause gastric cancer.
• Exposure to chemicals: As we have discussed, being exposed to chemicals may also be a risk factor.
• Radiation of certain wavelengths, called ionizing radiation, has enough energy to damage DNA and cause cancer. Ionizing radiation includes
radon, x-rays, gamma rays, and other forms of high-energy radiation. Lower-energy, non-ionizing forms of radiation, such as visible light and
the energy from cell phones, have not been found to cause cancer in people. UV rays can also damage the DNA in our skin cells and lead to skin
cancer.

Carcinogens
The known cancer-causing compounds are called carcinogens. It does not mean you are going to get cancer if you come into touch with a
carcinogen. It depends on what you have been exposed to, how much you have been exposed, and, among other aspects, how often you have
been exposed with. Increasing the risk of developing particular cancer types is related with certain carcinogenic agents.
The human body, including those that may contribute to cancer, has defenses to protect against all kinds of harmful exposures. It also goes
through a phase when something enters the body, which helps the body to use or get rid of it more quickly. This process is called metabolism.
Depending on how a chemical is processed, or metabolized, in the body, three types of carcinogens exist:
• Chemicals that can cause cancer (direct acting carcinogens),
• Chemicals that do not cause cancer unless they are changed when they are metabolized (procarcinogens), and
• Chemicals that do not cause cancer by themselves but can act with another chemical to cause cancer (cocarcinogens).

Tools for finding or diagnosing cancer include:

• Biopsy is a sample of tissue taken from the body in order to examine it more closely. A doctor should recommend a biopsy when an initial test
suggests an area of tissue in the body isn't normal;
• Ultrasound imaging uses sound waves to produce pictures of the inside of the body. It is used to help diagnose the causes of pain, swelling
and infection in the body's internal organs and to examine a baby in pregnant women and the brain and hips in infants. It's also used to help
guide biopsies, diagnose heart conditions, and assess damage after a heart attack. Ultrasound is safe, non-invasive, and does not use ionizing
radiation;
• X-ray (radiograph) is a non-invasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. Imaging with x-rays involves
exposing a part of the body to a small dose of ionizing radiation to produce pictures of the inside of the body. X-rays are the oldest and most
frequently used form of medical imaging;
• Mammography is specialized medical imaging that uses a low-dose xray system to see inside the breasts. A mammography exam, called a
mammogram, aids in the early detection and diagnosis of breast diseases in women;
• Pap smear also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer in women;
• HPV DNA tests, which look for DNA from cancer-causing HPV types in cervical cells;
• Fecal occult blood tests (FOBT), which check for blood in the stool; sigmoidoscopy, which examines the lower colon; and colonoscopy, which
examines the entire colon;
• Computed tomography (CT)—the use of x-rays to produce a crosssectional picture of body parts; and
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—the use of magnetic fields and radio waves to show changes in soft tissues without the use of x-rays.
• Ultrasound, X-ray, CT, and MRI are all painless and non-invasive; however, having too many CTs or x-rays can increase the risk of developing
cancer because they expose you to radiation. In most cases the benefits outweigh the risks. Some people choose to do self-exams, such as
feeling around their breasts or testicles for new lumps or looking over their skin. Talk to your doctor if you notice anything unusual.
Anticancer drug
Anticancer drug, also called antineoplastic drug, is any drug that is effective in the treatment of malignant, or cancerous, disease.
There are several major classes of anticancer drugs - alkylating agents, antimetabolites and anthracycline antibiotics. In addition, there are a
number of drugs that do not fall within those classes but that demonstrate anticancer activity and thus are used in the treatment of malignant
disease.
Drug treatment for cancer is called chemotherapy. The job of chemotherapy is to destroy cancer cells, including those that may have
spread beyond the main tumor. Unlike surgery or radiation, most types of chemotherapy, or "chemo," don't target a particular tumor or a
particular part of the body, although there are some newer "designer drugs" being developed that seek out and destroy cancer cells
specifically. Most forms of chemotherapy attack all rapidly dividing cells, and cancer cells fit that description.
When fighting cancer, the entire population of neoplastic cells - abnormal growth of cells must be eradicated in order to obtain
desired results. The concept of "total cell-kill" applies to chemotherapy as it does to other means of treatment: total excision of the tumor is
necessary for surgical care, and complete eradication of all cancer cells is required for a cure with radiation therapy. By investigation of a model
tumor system, the L1210 leukemia of mice, a number of important principles have been established as follows:
1. A single clonogenic malignant cell can give rise to sufficient progeny to kill the host; to achieve cure it is thus necessary to destroy every such
cell. Since the doubling-time of most tumors is relatively constant during logarithmic growth, the life-span of the host is inversely related to the
number of malignant cells that are inoculated or that survive therapeutic measures.
2. The cell-kill caused by antineoplastic agents follows first-order kinetics, that is, a constant percentage, rather than a constant number, of cells
is killed by a given therapeutic maneuver, this finding has had a profound impact on clinical cancer chemotherapy. For example, a patient with
advanced acute lymphocytic leukemia might harbor 1012 or about 1 kg of malignant cells. A drug killing 99.99% of these cells would reduce the
tumor mass to about 100mg, and this would be apparent as a complete clinical remission. However, 108malignant cells would remain, any of
which could cause a relapse in the disease.
Major classes of anticancer drugs
1. Alkylating agents are compounds that work by adding an alkyl group to the guanine base of the DNA molecule, preventing the strands of the
double helix from linking as they should. This causes breakage of the DNA strands, affecting the ability of the cancer cell to multiply. Eventually,
the cancer cell dies. The primary mode of action for most alkylating drugs is via cross-linking of DNA strands. They can be classified as either
monofunctional alkylating agents, implying reactions with only one strand of DNA, or bifunctional alkylating agents, which cross-link two
strands of DNA. Replication of DNA and transcription of RNA are prevented by these crosslinks. All alkylating agents depress bone marrow
function and cause gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea and vomiting. As bone marrow is responsible for the production of red blood
cells, white blood cells and platelets when it is weakened symptoms of anemia, infection and bleeding respectively, may occur. In rare cases,
this can lead to leukemia. The risk of leukemia from alkylating agents is “dose-dependent,” meaning that the risk is small with lower doses, but
goes up as the total amount of the drug used gets higher. The risk of leukemia after getting alkylating agents is highest about 5 to 10 years after
treatment. Alkylating agents play a significant role in the treatment of lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease, breast cancer, multiple myeloma, and
other malignancies. Anticancer drugs that contain alkylating agents are cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, melphalan, and chlorambucil.
2. Antimetabolites are called a “cytotoxic” type of drug because they kill cells. They work by mimicking the molecules that a cell needs to grow.
Cells are tricked into taking in the drugs and then using the antimetabolites instead of their normal building blocks of genetic material: RNA and
DNA. With the drugs on board, the cells can no longer copy their DNA, so they can’t divide into new cells. Because antimetabolites target cells
only as they are dividing, these medications are most effective against tumors that are growing quickly. The benefit of taking antimetabolite
drugs to treat cancer is that the drugs kill cancer cells, which can help you live longer and make your tumor stop growing or shrink. But
antimetabolites don’t work for everyone, and it can be hard for doctors to predict whose tumors will respond to these drugs. Even when
antimetabolites first work well, tumors often become resistant to this drug, which means they eventually don’t work anymore.
Hypomethylating agents represent a class of drugs that may restore normal Hypomethylating agents may function as biological
response modifiers by affecting cytokine cell signaling. These agents may be identified as antimetabolites and they include 5-azacytidine and
Decitabine. Methotrexate is used to treat certain types of cancer of the breast, skin, head and neck, or lung. Methotrexate is also used to treat
severe psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis. Other examples include 5-Fluorouracil and Cytosine Arabinoside.
3. Anthracyclines or anthracycline antibiotics are a class of drugs used in cancer chemotherapy derived from Streptomyces bacteria (more
specifically, Streptomyces peucetius var. caesius). These compounds are used to treat a wide range of cancers, including leukemias, lymphomas,
and breast, uterine, ovarian, and lung cancers. Examples include Bleomycin, Daunorubicin, and Doxorubicin. Anthracycline has three
mechanisms of action:
1. inhibits DNA and RNA synthesis by intercalating between base pairs of the DNA/RNA strand, thus preventing the replication of
rapidly-growing cancer cells,
2. inhibits topoisomerase II enzyme, preventing the relaxing of supercoiled DNA and thus blocking DNA transcription and replication,
3. Creates iron-mediated free oxygen radicals that damage the DNA and cell membranes. Patients treated with doxorubicin have been
described in acute and chronic cardiovascular effects. The first, which can develop within a few minutes after administration and include
hypotension and rhythm disturbances are usually reversible and easily treatable. However, doxorubicin is also able to induce chronic
myocardial damage, depending on the cumulative dose of drug administered and clinically characterized by hypotension, tachycardia,
ventricular dilation and congestive heart failure. It has been calculated that, from 27 to 60% of patients who undergo this event by doxorubicin
die because of it.

SOME COMMON CHEMOTHERAPY DRUGS:

1. Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) is one of the most powerful chemotherapy drugs ever invented. It can kill cancer cells at every point in
their life cycle, and it's used to treat a wide variety of cancers. Unfortunately, the drug can also damage heart cells, so a patient can't
take it indefinitely.
 2. Cyclophosphamide (Cytotoxan) is a drug that can treat many different cancers. Like many other chemotherapy drugs, it scrambles
the DNA of cancer cells. Because it damages healthy DNA too, it can also cause longterm injury to the bone marrow, which, in a few
rare cases, can lead to a new case of leukemia (cancer of certain white blood cells).
3. Paclitaxel (Taxol) is an effective drug used for treating some cases of breast cancer and ovarian cancer, but it can damage nerves over
time, leaving some people with decreased sensation in their hands and feet. The anticancer compound in this drug was first
discovered in the bark of Pacific yew trees.
4. Fluorouracil (Adrucil) was first approved as a chemotherapy drug in 1962 and is one of the oldest chemotherapy drugs still prescribed
today. It's primarily used to treat gastrointestinal cancers (including colon, rectal, stomach) and certain types of breast cancer.
5. Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is a relatively new chemotherapy drug that is effective at slowing the growth of several types of cancer. Used
alone, it's a first-line treatment for pancreatic cancer that has spread or is inoperable. It's also used in combination to treat certain
types of breast, ovarian, and lung cancers.

Homeopathic Medicine

Alternative medicine is a term that describes medical treatments that are used instead of traditional therapy. Some people also refer to it as
“integrative” or “complementary” medicine. These are acupuncture and Tai chi, to herbal medicine, Reiki, chiropractic manipulation,
homeopathy, and more. These services are often used interchangeably with the term "alternative medicine", a designation created in the
1800s that distinguished these modalities as “alternative” to allopathic medicine.

Allopathic medicine is also commonly referred to as Western medicine, evidence-based medicine, conventional, or mainstream medicine. In
the nineteenth century, allopathic medicine was based on a practice of opposites whereas the alternative branch suggested that “like cures
like.” Present day differences remain but tend to revolve around a disease-centric (allopathic) versus a whole-body (alternative) approach.
Alternative practices focus on stimulating the body’s ability to heal itself via energy alignment, herbal supplementation, and other balancing
techniques. Conversely, allopathic medicine focuses on symptom-specific treatment, typically with pharmacological or invasive methods to
remove the offending agent. With ancient records supporting alternative modalities and rigorous clinical trials supporting allopathic modalities,
there continues to be disagreement over which method is proven beneficial and safe. Today, many physicians are embracing the beneficial
aspects of both types of medicine through the practice of Integrative Medicine in which they combine appropriate alternative and allopathic
techniques according to the patient, symptoms, and circumstances. Additionally, large trials attempting to solidify evidence for the anecdotal
benefits of alternative medicine are increasing in popularity.

Homeopathy, also spelled homoeopathy, a system of therapeutics, notably popular in the 19th century, which was founded on the stated
principle that “like cures like,” similia similibus curantur, and which prescribed for patients drugs or other treatments that would produce in
healthy persons symptoms of the diseases being treated.

This system of therapeutics is based upon the “law of similars” that was introduced in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann. He
claimed that a large dose of quinine, which had been widely used for the successful treatment of malaria, produced in him effects similar to the
symptoms of malaria patients. He thus concluded that all diseases were best treated by drugs and produced in healthy persons have effects
similar to the symptoms of those diseases. He also undertook experiments with a variety of drugs in an effort to prove this. Hahnemann
believed that large doses of drugs aggravate illness and that the efficacy of medicines thus increases with dilution. Accordingly, most
homoeopathists believed in the action of minute doses of medicine. Homeopathic medicines are made of combinations of natural ingredients
and herbs, minerals, animal products, disease-causing agent, healthy element, potentized energy sources and potentized antigens.

Homeopathy is based on rigorous dilutions and mixing, called successions. The dilution level is printed on the bottle of medicine. A typical
homeopathic dilution is 30X, where the X represents 10. So, one part toxin (such as the aforementioned poison ivy) is mixed with 10 parts
water or alcohol. The mixture is shaken; one part of this mix is added to 10 parts of water or alcohol again; and the whole process is repeated
30 times.

The final dilution is one molecule of medicine in 10 to the 30th power (10 30) of molecules of solution — or 1 in a million trillion. At this dilution
level you'd need to drink 8,000 gallons of water to get one molecule of the medicine — physically possible but implausible.

Other homeopathic solutions are 30C, which represents 100 to the 30th power (10030). There's not enough water in the solar system to
accommodate this dilution.

Homeopathic medicine is regulated in the same way as conventional over-thecounter (OTC) medicines. But studies show that it is considerably
safer than most OTC drugs, like aspirin and acetaminophen. It is effective. More than two centuries of evidence from hundreds of thousands of
clinicians and millions of patients attest to homeopathy’s effectiveness and safety. Today, homeopathic remedies are prescribed by more than
400,000 health care professionals worldwide, including pediatricians, family physicians, plastic surgeons, dentists, and orthopedic doctors.
There’s a remedy for almost every condition. Homeopathy addresses very specific symptoms, so a homeopathic cold and flu remedy for
someone with a fever and sniffles will be different than one for a person with chills and a cough.
Effects of Homeopathic Treatment:
1. Reduces Anxiety & Depression: The conventional medical practice for mental health care includes prescribing pacifying medicines to people
who suffer from anxiety and depression. These medicines not only inhibit a person’s ability to emote, they also create a certain psychological
dependence and addiction on an external source for being functional. Homeopathy on the other hand understands that the symptoms of any
illness are indications that the body is either fighting or adapting to that illness, which means that it does not need medicines to suppress
symptoms but assistance in fighting off or adapting to the illness. Homeopathy focuses on healing the patient; however, if a person suffers from
violent episodes, even the practitioner would insist that the individual also seek the help of a psychiatrist.
2. Treats Allergies & Asthma: Asthma is a chronic disease which results in the inflammation of the air tracts causing chest pain, breathlessness
or shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing. Asthma can be developed at any age but is generally found in younger children. It can also be
triggered by anything like genetics, allergens, irritants, premature birth, cough or cold, changing season and so on. Traditional medicine
prescribes the long term use and dependency on inhalers which ease the inflammation of the air tracts. Homeopathy, on the other hand,
focuses on the cause behind the development of asthma in every patient and prescribes long term medicines around it. The long term use of
these medicines, lead to the patient being completely cured of Asthma with the last few months or years being riddled with random outbursts
of eczema for people who are more susceptible to allergies.
3. Treats Chronic Diseases: Acute diseases are short termed; however, they may have chronic roots. Mental or emotional trauma generally are
root causes of most chronic diseases, apart from psychological trauma certain unhealed or ill-treated physical injuries, sensitivity to particular
elements in the environment can cause chronic illnesses. Repetitive or chronic illnesses dilute a person’s quality of life, while traditional
medicine focuses on suppressing the symptoms of the chronic illness; it mostly doesn’t focus on the possible impact of seemingly unrelated
health issues causing these chronic illnesses. Homeopathy on the other hand deeply dives into a person’s past and present health issues to
understand the relationship between past traumas and present symptoms. Medicines are prescribed according to the unique chronic illness
root of the patient. Although it must be noted, that while homeopathy has a great response rate for the treatment of chronic illness,
homeopathy cannot guarantee completely curing some kinds of chronic illnesses and may refer a patient to seek help from allopathy too.
Potential Limitations and Side Effects of Homeopathy: Homeopathy medicines are created in such microdoses that most of them are safe from
episodes of overdose, however, this does not mean that homeopathic medicines do not have their side-effects or limitations.
1. Homeopathic Medicines can Delay other Healthcare Options: Getting the correct dosage or the medicine for the individual is a difficult and
time taking task for a practitioner. A patient may forget to mention a key symptom that he/she thinks is unrelated, leading to a wrong
prescription. Not to mention, homeopathic medicines show results after a point of time. While this may work very well during the onset of a
chronic disease,
such delays in healthcare during the terminal stages of the disease can only prove to be more dangerous.

2. Homeopathic Medicines Cannot Prevent Operations Completely: A myth surrounding homeopathy medicine is that they can prevent the
need for operations completely. This is not true, it is a fact that homeopathic medicines can reduce the need for an operation for several
illnesses, but even homeopathic practitioners agree that under certain unavoidable situations, operations are the best way forward.
3. Effectiveness of the Homeopathic Medicines Depends on the Environment of the Patient: This condition is especially true for allergic
reactions. Homeopathic medicine can help cure an acute reaction to an allergen but it will remain ineffective if the patient is being regularly
exposed to the allergen. Under such situations, the patient may suffer even more than he/she was suffering previously. It is necessary to isolate
the individual from allergen, for the medicine to work and in cases where it is difficult to isolate the individual and the allergen, exposure to the
allergen must be reduced.
4. Ineffective Against Nutritional Deficiencies: Homeopathic medicines are also ineffective against nutritional deficiencies, which could be
cured by change in lifestyle and diet as well as opting for necessary supplements.
5. Immunity of Certain Individuals to Homeopathy: This is probably the most frustrating limitation for practitioners: a patient who isn’t
responding adequately to the treatment for no reason at all. It is either because their correct similar element has not been identified yet or
that the person is simply immune to homeopathy. Interestingly, some individuals are resistant to certain allopathic treatments too.
6. Side-Effects: While it has already been proven that any serious overdose of homeopathic medications is hard to come by, there could be
certain instances where a person may start developing similar symptoms as they did when they started their medication. However, such
symptoms don’t bother practitioners, as they could be contained and remedied immediately. It is however important to remember that there
are several illnesses which could be triggered if homeopathy medicines are mixed with contradictory allopathic medicines for an unregulated
time period.