http://www.ucalgary.ca/hic ISSN 1492-7810 2006 Vol. 6, No.

Milan Kundera on Politics and the Novel

*** Si je devais me dfinir, je dirais que je suis un hdoniste pig dans un monde politis lextrme.MilanKundera 1 ThisarticleexaminesMilanKunderasperspectiveonthecontrastinglogicsofartandpolitics.Itisthe product of a broader research project on the essayistic works of writers and intellectuals who participatedactivelyinthepoliticaldebatesoftheirtimewhileclaimingtohavetheabilitytoexamine the realm of politics from outside, fortified with the superior cognitive and moral elixir of art. 2

1Intranslation:IfIhadtodefinemyself,IwouldsaythatIamanhedonisttrappedinaworldthatispoliticizedtoextremes. In Milan Kundera, Foreword to Jacques and his Master, an Homage to Diderot in Three Acts (New York: Harper & Row, 1985 [1971]),quotedinKvetoslavChvatik,LemonderomanesquedeMilanKundera,translatedfromtheGermanbyBernardLortholary (Paris: Gallimard, coll. Arcades, 1995), 65. An earlier version of this article was presented in September 2005 at the annual conferenceoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociationinWashingtonD.C.IwishtothankMichaelKeren,MichaelS.Kochin, Simon Snow, Alberto Spektorowski, and History of Intellectual Cultures anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments andsuggestions.SpecialthankstotheSocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanadaforitssupport. 2Forusefuldiscussionsontheinterplaybetweenartandpolitics,seethespecialissueofMillenniumonImagesandNarratives inWorldPolitics30,1(2001);RolandBleiker,PabloNerudaandtheStruggleforPoliticalMemory,ThirdWorldQuarterly20, 6 (December 1999): 112942; and Why, Then, Is It So Bright? Towards an Aesthetics of Peace at a Time of War, Review of International Studies 29 (2003): 387400. As well, see: Yvon Grenier, From Art to Politics: Octavio Paz and the Pursuit of Freedom

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Kunderasreflectionsonartandpoliticsdonotamounttoacomprehensiveandsystematicexposby thestandardsofphilosophyorthesocialsciences.Nevertheless,Kunderasinsightshelpusappreciate the nature and limitations of an insiders view of politics. In addition, they provide thoughtful comments on Central European politics and culture, dissidence and exile, the responsibility of the intellectual,andthemissionofart. Kunderas ideas are elegantly formulated in essays such as The Art of the Novel (Lart du roman),TestamentsBetrayed(Lestestamentstrahis),andrecentlyLerideau(TheCurtain; not yet translated into English). 3 Most of his thought on art and politics is the object of literary experimentation in his novels, either in the thematic structure of the novels themselves, or in self standing reflections and digressions formulated by the characters or the narrator. 4 This particular article focuses mainly onKunderas essays, essentially because thisis whereKundera explicitly and intentionally uses a propositional register that lends itself to the universality of the law of contradiction. 5 I am a political scientist interested in interdisciplinary approaches. What I propose hereisananalysisofKunderasideasonthecontrastbetweenartandpolitics. *** Kunderasbackgroundiswellknown.ACzechnovelistandessayistborninBrno,Czechoslovakia,in 1929,KunderajoinedtheCommunistPartyin1947andwelcomedtheCommunisttakeoverin1948, but was expelled from the party in 1950 for saying something he would better have left unsaid. Reinstated in the thaw that followed the 1956 Twentieth Party Congress in Moscow, he became a teacheratthePragueInstituteforAdvancedCinematograhicStudies.Afterdelaysbycensors,TheJoke (1967)waspublishedandbecameacultbookofthePragueSpringof1968. 6 Soon,theshortlived opening under the reformist government of Alexander Dubek came to a tragic end. Kundera was deprivedofhisprivilegeofworkingafatesharedwithmanyofhischaractersandhesought exileinFrancein1975wherehehasbeenlivingandthrivingasanauthoreversince. An outspoken critic of the Communist regime in his native country, the famous author of The UnbearableLightnessofBeing(1984)isusuallypresentedasapoliticaldissidentfromtheCommunist bloclaHavel,Milosz,orSolzhenitsyn. 7 Kunderatirelesslyresiststhischaracterization,preferringthe roleofcontinentalandculturaldissidentwhosemissionistoalerthiscontemporariestothepresence of broader or deeper menaces than just communism or any other narrowly defined political phenomena. As Fred Misurella writes, Kundera passed twenty years in a country [Communist Czechoslovakia] where any human problem, large or small, was considered only in the political

(Lanham,MD:RowmanandLittlefield,2001);andMaartenvanDeldenandYvonGrenier,GunshotsattheConcert:Literatureand PoliticsinLatinAmerica(Nashville,TN:VanderbiltUniversityPress,forthcoming). 3MilanKundera,TheArtoftheNovel,translatedfromtheFrenchbyLindaAsher(NewYork:GrovePress,1988);Testaments Betrayed,AnEssayinNinePartsI,translatedfromtheFrenchbyLindaAsher(NewYork:HarperPerennial,1996);LeRideau (Paris:Gallimard,2005). 4 As Italo Calvino puts it: Like his eighteenthcentury masters Sterne and Diderot, Kundera makes of his extemporaneous reflectionsalmostadiaryofhisthoughtsandmoods(OnKundera,ReviewofContemporaryFiction9,2[1989]:53). 5 For a useful discussion on the propositional and nonpropositional registers, see Margaret Archer, Culture and Agency: The PlaceofCultureinSocialTheory(Cambridge,MA:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),xix. 6MilanKundera,TheJoke(NewYork:HarperPerennial,1993).ForfactsandthoughtfulcommentsaboutKunderasitinerary, see David Lodge, Milan Kundera, and the Idea of the Author in Modern Criticism, Critical Quarterly, 26, 12 (Spring and Summer,1984):105. 7 Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, translated from the Czech by Michael Henry Heim (New York: Harper & Row,1984).

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context, and now he wanted to concentrate on other things. 8 Kunderas concern for the fate of EuropeanandWesternculturepredateshisstatusasadissident.Kunderastillwantstotreatmost, perhaps any, human problem, large or small, in a highly ironic and intellectualized context. This meansthathisnovelsare,attheveryleastintheirform,arepositoryforthekindofcriticalambiance thatinmostintellectualcirclespassesforbeingeminentlypolitical. In contrast with many intellectuals of his generation, Kundera eschews the idea of the political responsibility of the writer, opting instead for the aesthetic responsibility of the novelist to espouse and transmit a certain literary tradition. Kundera takes it as an affront to have his literary work labelled as political novels. In Testaments Betrayed, he claims: I have always, deeply, violently, detestedthosewholookforaposition(political,philosophical,religious,whatever)inaworkofart ratherthansearchingitinaneffortto know,tounderstand,tograspthisorthataspectofreality. 9 His essays on the mission of the novel seem written to defend the novel and what it represents (culture, civilization, wisdom, autonomy) against what he sees as the reductive world of ideology. Still, Kunderas writings on the mission of the novel are filled with interesting and insightful commentsonpolitics.Manyofhisnovelscanbeeffortlesslyinterpretedaspoliticalnovels.Theresult is an oeuvre in which the tension between the intent of the author and the intention of the text yieldsafruitfulandstimulatingambiguityforbothsocialscientistsandliterarycritics. For Kundera, the point is not to separate completely the novel (and conceivably art in general) frompolitics.Literaryimaginationisnot,asheoncecommentedonKafka,adreamlikeevasionora puresubjectivity,butratheratooltopenetratereallife,tounmaskit,tosurpriseit. 10 Byreallife, Kundera means human experience as a whole, including politics. In fact, politics is especially deservingofbeingpenetratedandunmaskedsinceitistherealmwherereductiveideologyand propagandaflourish.Infact,thenovel(thecommentconceivablyappliesmoregenerallytoliterature and even to art) should be doing the penetrating and unmasking of politics. It should not be penetratedandmanipulatedbyitasisthecasewithmuchofpoliticalartinitsmostdidacticform. The novelist speaks about politics, but from a higher position than politics, one that never fails to surroundpoliticswithitsbroaderandmoremeaningfulculturalcontext. The Mission of the Novel Kunderas comments on the superior nature and mission of culture and art generally focus on the novel as hisart form. Hedefines the novel asthe great proseform in which an author thoroughly explores, by means of experimental selves [characters], some great themes of existence. 11 By the novel he means the European novel pioneered by Boccaccio, Rabelais, and Cervantes, celebrated by English and French writers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries respectively, and more recently, in the twentieth century, by Russian and Centro European writers such as Tolstoy, Kafka, Musil,Broch,andGombrowicz. Kunderaisanythingbutmodestwhencommentingonthemissionofthenovel.Europeand,inits wake, western civilization, have failed to recognize the novel as the art form of modernity. CommentingontheRushdieAffair,KunderaconcludedthatthecondemnationofRushdiecanbe
SeeKunderasspeechmadeattheFourthCongressoftheCzechoslovakWritersUnion,2729June1967,inDuanHamk, WritersagainstRulers,translatedbyD.Orpington,withanintroductionbyW.L.Webb(London:Hutchison,1971),16777;Fred Misurella,NotSilent,ButinExileandWithCunning,PartisanReview,52,2(1985):88. 9Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,91. 10Mytranslationof:uneevasionrveuseouunepuresubjectivit,maisunmoyendepntrerlavierelle,deladmasquer, delasurprendre.MilanKundera,Praguepomequidisparat,LeDbat,2(June1980):51. 11Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,142(mytranslation).
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seen not as a chance event, an aberration, but as the most profound conflict between two eras: theocracy goes to war against the Modern Era and targets its most representative creation: the novel. 12 Infact,ifhalfofwhatheclaimsabouttheheuristicrichnessandintellectualpropertiesofthe novel proved to be accurate, one could wonder why most social scientists remain indifferent to literatureandliterarycriticism.Kunderagivesthenovelcreditfortheinventionofsuchkeywestern commodities as the individual, freedom, humour, intelligence, ambiguity, and criticism. The novel dealtwiththeunconsciousbeforeFreud,theclassstrugglebeforeMarx,itpracticedphenomenology (theinvestigationoftheessenceofhumansituations)beforethephenomenologists. 13 Contemporary predicamentsofmodernsocietiessuchasthehyperbureaucratization,thesocitduspectacle,the erosionofindividualautonomy,wereallanticipatedbygreatnovelists. Elsewhereinhiswritings,thesametypeofclairvoyanceiscreditedtogreatartingeneral,witha preference for his other preferred art form: music. Kundera talks about his native Bohemia/Czech Republic whose culture he defends as part of Central European culture. A particularly vibrant and rich (if underestimated because of its peripheral status in the realm of power) part of European culture, that is to say of the very cradle of Western culture, Kundera claims that the three greatest artisticmonumentserectedbymycountryinthiscenturyrepresentthepictureofthehellofthefuture anditsthreeconstituents:Kafkasbureaucraticlabyrinth,Haeksmilitarystupidity,andtheworldof theconcentrationcampwithJanek.Yes,betweenTheTrial(1917)andFromtheHouseoftheDead([by Leo Janek], 1928), everything had been said in Prague, and history had nothing left to do but to showupandmimicwhatthenovelhadalreadyimagined. 14 Thesuperiorityofthenovel,anexpressionofthesupremacyofartingeneral,underwriteswhat heseesasthepreeminenceandsupremacyofcultureoverpolitics;hence,theessentiallyreductionist qualityofanycommentonCentralEuropeanditsplaceintheEuropeancontinentthatwouldrestrict itselftopoliticaleventsanddevelopment.Fromthatpreeminencederiveshispreferenceforcultural (orevenpsychological)ratherthanstrictlypoliticalexplanationsforpoliticalproblems.Accordingto Kundera, we, his contemporaries, tend to exaggerate the importance of the political system, a bad habitthatconstitutestheheritageofvulgarizedMarxism,adopted,verycuriously,byboththeright andtheleft. 15 The novel is particularly apt at celebrating the leading actor of modernity: the free, audacious, willfulindividual.Itisparexcellenceindividualisticandpluralistic.Thepluralityandopennessofthe worldofnovelsisonewhereindividualscanbreath,imagine,create,andrecreatethemselves.InThe DiscourseofJerusalem:TheNovelandEurope(1985),uponreceivingtheJerusalemAward,Kunderasaid,
Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,26. Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,32.Inthesameessay,hecontinues:[A]llthegreatexistentialthemesHeideggeranalyzes in Being and Time considering them to have been neglected by all earlier European philosophy had been unveiled, displayed,illuminatedbyfourcenturiesofthenovel(fourcenturiesofEuropeanreincarnationofthenovel).Initsownway, through its own logic, the novel discovered the various dimensions of existence one by one: with Cervantes and his contemporaries, it inquires into the nature of adventure; with Richardson, it begins to examine what happens inside, to unmaskthesecretlifeofthefeelings;withBalzac,itdiscoversmansrootednessinhistory;withFlaubert,itexplorestheterra previouslyincognitaoftheeveryday;withTolstoy,itfocusesontheintrusionoftheirrationalinhumanbehavioranddecisions. It probes time: the elusive past with Proust, the elusive present with Joyce. With Thomas Mann, it examines the role of the mythsfromtheremotepastthatcontrolourpresentactions.Etcetera,etcetera(5). 14Mytranslationof:lestroisplusgrandsmonumentsdartquemonpaysarigsencesiclereprsententlestroisvoletsdu tableaudelenferfutur:lelabyrinthebureaucratiquedeKafka,lastupiditmilitairedeHasek,ledsespoirconcentrationnaire deJanek.Oui,entreLeProcs(1917)etLamaisondesmorts(1928),onavaittoutditPrague,etlHistoirenavaitqufaireson entre pour mimer ce que la fiction avait dj imagin. Milan Kundera, Prague pome qui disparat (63). See also Franz Kafka,TheTrial(London:Hesperus,2005);LeoJanek,FromtheHouseofthedead(NewYork,N.Y.:London,1991). 15QuotedinMisurella,NotSilent,88.OnecouldarguethatMarxismtendstoexaggeratetheimportanceofsocioeconomic infrastructuresratherthanthepolitical.
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The novel is the imaginary paradise of individuals. It is the territory where no one possesses the truth,neitherAnnanorKarenin,butwhereeveryonehastherighttobeunderstood,bothAnnaand Karenin. 16 Thenovelwastherewhentheindividualwasborn.ForKundera,weforgetthatbeforethe individualcouldhaverights,ithadtobeinventedassuch,ataskforwhichartingeneralandthe novelinparticularplayedacentralrole. Experimental Thinking ForKundera,thenovelistisanexplorerofexistence,notaprophetorahistorian. 17 Suchexplorers preferquestionstoanswers.Kunderaoftenseemstothinkthatonlynovelistsareendowedwiththis peculiar inclination: Outside the novel, were in the realm of affirmation: everyone is sure of his statements:thepolitician,thephilosopher,theconcierge.Withintheuniverseofthenovel,however, no one affirms: it is the realm of play and of hypotheses. In the novel, then, reflection is essentially inquiring,hypothetical. 18 This interrogation is performed through what he calls experimental thinking by which he means, essentially, a nonsystematic, openended, agnostic, relativistic, secular, hypothetical, and ironic mode of thinking. This contrasts with the reductive and rigid logic of the political or the ideological among other hard discourses (religion and science also come to mind). Kundera deservestobequotedaslengthonthispoint: a person who thinks is automatically prompted to systematize; it is his eternal temptation (mine too, even in writing this book): a temptation to describe all the implicationsofhisideas;topreemptanyobjectionsandrefutetheminadvance;thus tobarricadehisideas.Now,apersonwhothinksshouldnottrytopersuadeothersof hisbelief;thatiswhatputshimontheroadtoasystem;onthelamentableroadofthe manofconviction;politiciansliketocallthemselvesthat;butwhatisaconviction? It is a thought that has come to a stop, that has congealed, and the man of conviction is a man restricted; experimental thought seeks not to persuade but to inspire;toinspireanotherthought,tosetthoughtmoving;thatiswhyanovelistmust systematically desystematize his thought, kick at the barricade that he himself has erectedaroundhisideas. 19 ThiscelebrationofasystematismdoesnotimplythatKunderaissystematicallyopposedtosystematic thinking, if I may use this expression. Kunderas essays are propositional, coherent, and reasonably argued.Asaneducatedmusiclover,Kunderaclearlyhasanappreciationforsystemsinmusic. 20 He attachesgreatimportancetomanysystemlikeaspectsofhistrade,fromthenumberofchaptersina noveltoallthepracticalintelligenceandprofessionalskillsthatarepartoftheartofthenovel. To be sure, Kundera could be more clear on how and why an intellectual propensity to systematizecanwreckexperimentalthinking.Butitisfairlyevidentthatforhim,asystematismmeans rejection of what the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz calls jails of concepts, that is to say
Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,159. Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,44. 18Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,78.ThisisaconstantthemeinhislatestessayLeRideau. 19Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,1745. 20 Kundera is a great admirer of the (tonal) work of Leo Janaek. His parents were musicians and he was himself a jazz musicianwhostudiedmusicologyatthePragueCharlesUniversity.Ishallthankoneoftheanonymousreviewersforinsisting onKunderasappreciationforsystemsinherentinmusic.
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comprehensive and fairly rigid grand narratives or ideational systems from which interpretations canbededuced.Itisawarningagainstmodesofthinkingthatvaluedogmas:itisnotacelebrationof randomness,incoherence,orautomatism.Thispositionissomewhatakintotheromanticmistrustof reason epitomized in the twentieth century by the Surrealists, although Kundera is not rejecting reason: he just wants to put it at the service of a quest to know rather than an urge to dominate. 21 Furthermore,Kunderascommitmenttoasystematismisnotdirectedtotheformbutrathertothe contentofhiswriting.HisdebtsgonottothelikesofMallarmorArtaud,buttoessayistswriters philosophers such as Cioran and especially Nietzsche, both epigrammatic writers known for their rejection of systematic thinking. Kunderas writing style ties him to writers of the sixteenth century (Rabelais, Cervantes), the late eighteenth century (Sterne, Diderot), the early nineteenth century (Stendhal, Balzac and Flaubert), and the twentieth century (especially Central European: Broch, Gombrowicz, Musil, and Kafka) rather than to the socalled vanguards of the twentieth century. Kunderaenjoysavantgardeart,butnotlespritdavantgarde. 22 For Kundera, Nietzsches rejection of the grand theory project bears fruit in the form of an immense broadening of theme, meaning that it opens access to uncharted territories and brings down the barriers between modes and types of analysis and creativity. 23 Experimental thinking connectstoaspecifictypeofwisdomcommontogreatnovelistsand,conceivably,greatartistsaswell: the wisdom of uncertainty. Experimental thinking conjugates with uncertainty, polyphony, and perpetual quest, the way ideologies connect to truth, dogma, and final judgment. In a comment on Cervantes,Kunderacontends: Mandesiresaworldwheregoodandevilcanbeclearlydistinguished,forhehasan innate and irrepressible desire to judge before he understands. Religions and ideologies are founded on this desire. They can cope with the novel only by translating its language of relativity and ambiguity into their own apodictic and dogmaticdiscourse.Theyrequirethatsomeoneberight:eitherAnnaKareninaisthe victim of a narrowminded tyrant, or Karenin is the victim of an immoral woman; either K. is an innocent man crushed by an unjust Court, or the Court represents divinejusticeandK.isguilty.Thiseitherorencapsulatesaninabilitytotoleratethe essentialrelativityofthingshuman,aninabilitytolooksquarelyattheabsenceofthe SupremeJudge. 24 Understandably, Kundera conceives the novel as intrinsically incompatible with authoritarianism, especially in its most radical form: totalitarianism. In The Unbearable Lightness of Being, the narrator proclaims: In the realm of totalitarian kitsch, all answers are given in advance and preclude any questions. It follows, then, that the true opponent of totalitarian kitsch is the person who asks questions. 25 Andthepersonwhoasksquestionsis,parexcellence,thenovelist,thewriter,theartist, andthisbecausetheyarenotlongingforfinalsolutions.

TheartisticandintellectualmovementcalledSurrealismisobviouslyvastanddiverse.Here,IamsimplyreferringtoAndr Bretonswellknowncelebrationofpureautomatismasawaytoexploretherealfunctioningofthemind...intheabsence of any control exerted by reason. In Manifestes du surralisme (Paris: Gallimard, 1985), 36. See also Le Surralisme en Tchcoslovaquie:Choixdetextes,19341968,traduitdutchqueetprsentparPetrKrl(Paris:Gallimard,c1983). 22Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,158. 23Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,175. 24Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,7. 25Kundera,TheUnbearableLightnessofBeing,254.
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Interestingly, the incompatibility between the novel and totalitarianism is not political in the narrowManicheansense,whereoneispoliticallyrightandtheotheroneiswrong.Thecontradiction is,asheputsitinTheArtoftheNovel,ontological,ratherthanideological:[the]incompatibility [betweenthenovelandtotalitarianuniverse]isdeeperthantheonethatseparatesadissidentfroman apparatchik, or a humanrights campaigner from a torturer, because it is not only political or moral butontological.BywhichImean:theworldofonesingleTruthandtherelative,ambiguousworldof the novel are molded of entirely different substances. Totalitarian Truth excludes relativity, doubt, questioning;itcanneveraccommodatewhatIwouldcallthespiritofthenovel. 26 Thenoveldoesnot merely speak the truth to power, although it conceivably can and perhaps should, from time to time.Itdeniespower(oranybodyelse)amonopolyovertruth.Greatnovels(andgreatart)helpus resist the siren song of final solutions to human problems, either in its hard utopian form (totalitarianism)or,asIsaiahBerlinmasterfullyarguedinthecommonrenditionforeachproblema solution and all solutions can be construed as potentially compatible, nested in the tradition of Westernpoliticalthought. 27 *** ObviouslyKunderasperspectiveonthemissionofartrunscountertoperspectivesthatconceivethe novel or art in general as a springboard for messages. 28 Nevertheless, the thematic core of his generous views on the mission of the novel is not entirely original. We recognize its profile in the essayistic work of writers such as Carlos Fuentes, Salman Rushdie, Mario Vargas Llosa, and A.B. Yehoshua,amongmanyothers. 29 TheworkofscholarssuchasMikhailBakhtinorevenLionelTrilling havedonemuchtonurturethisvisionofthenovelasthereceptacleofeitherpluralistic,democratic andopenended,orpoliphoniccognitiveexploration.InCanada,MarcAngenotandRgineRobins works clearly favor this orientation as well. 30 Nevertheless, Kundera is arguably the writer who presents this thesis most forcefully, eloquently and, with the recent publication of Le rideau, one couldsay,obstinately. 31
Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,14. SeeIsaiahBerlin,TheCrookedTimberofHumanity(London:FontanaPress,1991),15. 28Foracelebrationofartasgovernmentpropaganda,forexampleseeDavidCraven,ArtandRevolutioninLatinAmerica,1910 1990(NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,2002). 29 In a particularly eloquent passage, Yehoshua contends that among the many art forms, such as poetry, drama, and short stories, one finds the novel the most accommodating to a democratic perspective and reflecting in its flexibility and open structuresomebasicdemocraticprinciples.Perhaps,onecanadd,somewhatboastfully,thenovel,morethananyotherartistic form,hasencouragedandsupportedthedemocraticrevolutionofmoderntimes...Thedemocraticinclinationofthenovelalso is manifested in its ability to accommodate a wide range of nonfiction materials, from philosophical extracts, to newspaper articles, to judiciary protocols, and so on. A.B. Yehoshua, Modern Democracy and the Novel, in Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger,andM.RichardZinman,eds.,DemocracyandtheArts(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1999),4478. 30 See Marc Angenot, avec la collaboration de Edmond Cros, Thorie littraire: problmes et perspectives (Paris: Presses UniversitairesdeFrance,1989);MikhailBakhtin,TheDialogicalImagination:FourEssays,editedbyMichaelHolquist,translated byCarylEmersonandMichaelHolquist(Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress,2004);RgineRobin,Lammoiresature(Paris: Stock,2003);andLionelTrilling,TheLiberalImagination(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,[1979]c1950). 31SeeValerieZ.NollanandGarySaulMorson,eds.,Bakhtin:EthicsandMechanics(NorthwesternUniversityPress,2004);Rgine RobinandMarcAngenot,Lasociologiedelalittrature:unhistorique,nouvelleditionrevueetcorrige(Montral:Ciadest,1993);and aspecialissueoftheYaleJournalofCriticismonMarcAngenotswork,Volume17,2(Fall2004).
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Politics and the Novel Kunderasdisenchantmentwithpoliticsismultifaceted.Forhim,politicsisbinaryandManichean.It seems to lead naturally to intolerance, inquisition, and dogma. Politics belongs to the world of reductive forces in sharp contrast with the imaginative creativity and openness of art. Thus, if a novel(orpoetry,afilm)isacontentinaform,itisnomorethanadisguisedideologicalmessage:its aestheticcharacterfallsapart.Theideologicalreadingofanovel(andtheonethatweareconstantly offered)isassimplifying,stupefyingandflatteningastheideologicalreductionofrealityitself. 32 The superstructure of politics (I use this term, not Kundera), with its dogmatic and Manichean proclivities, is ultimately a manifestation of deeper and not particularly political infrastructure cultureingeneral,andindividualdispositionsinparticular(needforcertainties,questforcommunity, desire to be part of something bigger, longing for adventure, love, wealth, recognition, and so on). Very much the hallmark of Kunderas approach is to examine politics by focusing on what can be called the metapolitical (the foundation the underpinnings as opposed to current events, politicalthoughtorinstitutions),andtofindrootsofthemetapoliticalinpsychologicaldispositionsin general. The novel examines not reality but existence; that is to say the realm of human possibilities, everythingthatmancanbecome,everythinghescapableof. 33 Politicsisevidentlypartofthatworld ofpossibilities.Politics,ideology,dogma,delusion,andselfdelusionbelongtotheverypossibilities oflife,andindeedtheyare,assuch,excellentmaterialforthenovelist.Artisnottobenestedinan ivorytower,separatefromreality.Rather,ifoneinsistsonartsspecificity,itisnottoseekevasion from reality; to the contrary, it expresses the will to see a tree in a tree, a picture in a picture; it representsaresistanceagainstallthereductiveforcesthatmutilateboththehumanbeingandart. 34 The language of art is not merely different than the language of politics: it is more intimately and comprehensivelyhuman. 35 WhenKunderadiscussesideology,eitherdirectlyasanessayistorusing (literally)oneofhischaracters,herefutesthedefinitionofideologyasafoundational,coherent,and rational set of positions. Ideologies have dramatic, even tragic consequences, but as intellectual constructions, they remain light and flimsy, genuine smokescreens for the crude quest for power, security,andemotionalfulfillment. 36 Ideasingeneral,andpoliticalideasinparticular,aresharedconstructionsthatseemunbearably light when examined from the perspective of an individuals life experience. In a discussion of Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy, Kundera explains that what is wrong with the former is the fact that the identity of his characters is both fixed and determines their ideological preferences. Real human
32 My translation of: Si un roman (une posie, un film) est un contenu dans une forme, il nest quun message idologique dguis: son caractre esthtique scroule. La lecture idologique dun roman (et cest elle qui nous est propose sans cesse partout)estaussisimplificatrice,abtissanteetaplatissantequelarductionidologiquedelaralitmme.Kundera,Prague pomequidisparat,59.AsKunderasummarizesinTheArtoftheNovel:Well,Illnevertireofrepeating:Thenovelssole raisondtreistosaywhatonlythenovelcansay(36). 33Kundera,TheArtoftheNovel,42. 34Mytranslationof:Siloninsistesurlaspcificitdelart,cenestdoncpaspoursvaderdurel;aucontraire,cestlavolont de voir un arbre dans un arbre, un tableau dans un tableau; cest la rsistance contre les forces rductrices qui mutilent et lhommeetlart.Kundera,Praguepomequidisparat,59. 35Onthispoint,seeinterestingcommentsbyChvatik,LemonderomanesquedeMilanKundera,199. 36InImmortality,thefollowingpassageillustratesthisconception:Ithink,thereforeIamisthestatementofanintellectualwho underratestoothaches.Ifeel,thereforeIamisatruthmuchmoreuniversallyvalid,anditappliestoeverythingthatsalive.My selfdoesnotdiffersubstantiallyfromyoursintermsofitsthought.Manypeople,fewideas:weallthinkmoreorlessthesame, andweexchange,borrow,stealthoughtsfromoneanother.However,whensomeonestepsonmyfoot,onlyIfeelthepain.The basisoftheselfisnotthoughtbutsuffering,whichisthemostfundamentalofallfeelings.MilanKundera,Immortality(New York:GroveWeidenfeld,1991),200.

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experience is not like that, according to Kundera, unless one is a true ideologue (in other words, unlessonechoosesnottoliveoneslifeinthefullest,sacrificingittoasharedemotionlikeacause). Thus,Kiriloviscompletelyabsorbedbyhisphilosophyofsuicide,whichheconsiderstobeasupreme manifestationoffreedom.Kirilov:anideabecomeman.Butinreallife,isamanreallysuchadirect projection of his personal ideology? Tolstoys characters in War and Peace (particularly Pierre BezukhovandAndreiBolkonsky)alsohaveaveryrich,verydevelopedintellectuality,buttheirsis changeable, protean, so that it is impossible to describe them in terms of their ideas, which are different in each phase of their lives. Tolstoy thus offers us another conception of man: he is an itinerary;awindingroad;ajourneywhosesuccessivephasesnotonlyvarybutoftenrepresentatotal negationoftheprecedingphases. 37 Here,Kunderaisnotcommendingtheabsenceofideasorcultural poverty, even though his antipolitical stand teases out this kind of interpretation. A more attentive interpretation suggests that for him, politics and political ideas occupy at best a secondary and derivativeroleinlife,atleastfromanovelistsperspective(whichisnotjustanyperspective).Arich intellectuality allows one to see politics from outside and for what it is: a reductive and ultimately impoverishingperspectiveonthehumanexperience. Politicalideasarediscolouredbyuseandabuse,andforKundera,surprisinglyfewofthemarein circulation. In the marketplace of received ideas, people pick and choose the ideas that suit them, usuallyinafairlysyncreticandfickleway.Theydeludethemselvesintothinkingthattheirchoiceis trulytheirownwheninfacttheyaremerelyfollowingwellestablishedtrends.Furthermore,political ideasincirculationarenomorethanapalereflectionofthemselves.Thisisduetothesuperficialand mindlesswaysinwhichpoliticalideasareusedintodayspolitics.ForKundera,politicalmovements rest not so much on rational attitudes as on the fantasies, images, words, and archetypes that come together to make up this or that political kitsch. 38 In Immortality, his narrator (echoing Kundera himself)typicallyexplainsthattheremnantsofMarxnolongerformanylogicalsystemofideas,but only a series of suggestive images and slogans (a smiling worker with a hammer, black, white, and yellow men fraternally holding hands, the dove of peace rising to the sky, and so on), we can rightfullytalkofagradual,general,planetarytransformationofideologyintoimagology. 39 Thelightnessandtheficklewayideasandideologiesareused,abused,anddisposedofpointsto anotherproblemquitecentraltoKunderasperspective:theproblemofforgetfulness.Thestruggleof man against power, for him, is the struggle of memory against forgetting. 40 Kitsch breeds forgetfulness. In The Book of Laughter and Forgetting (Le livre du rire et de loubli, 1978), Kundera talks aboutlagrandemarcheofhistory(infact,ofpolitics),andthepoliticalpalimpsestunderwritingmany political mobilisations. Consequently, the assassination of Allende soon buried the memory of the Russian invasion of Bohemia, the bloody massacre in Bangladesh soon made us forget Allende, the deafening noise of the war in the Sinai desert covered Bangladeshs complaints, the massacres in CambodiamadeusforgettheSinai,andsoon,andsoforth,untilthetotalforgetfulnessofeverything by everybody. 41 One can deduce from his reasoning that the transformation of ideology into
Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,213;LeoTolstoy,WarandPeace(NewYork:Viking,2006). Kundera,TheUnbearableLightnessofBeing,257. 39Kundera,Immortality,114. 40QuotedinSalmanRushdie,ImaginaryHomelands(London:GrantaBooks,inassociationwithPenguinBooks,1991),14. 41 My translation of: Lassassinat dAllende a bien vite recouvert le souvenir de linvasion de la Bohme par les Russes, le massacresanglantduBangladeshafaitoublierAllende,laguerredansledsertduSinaacouvertdesonvacarmelespaintes duBangladesh,lesmassacresduCambodgeontfaitoublierleSina,etainsidesuite,etainsidesuite,jusquloublicompletde toutpartous.QuotedinEugneIonesco,Dissidence,littratureetvrit,Commentaire,31,11(1980):469.Tomentionanother quote from The Unbearable Lightness of Being: Yes, said Franz to himself, the Grand March goes on, the worlds indifference notwithstanding,butitisgrowingnervousandhectic:yesterdayagainsttheAmericanoccupationofVietnam,todayagainstthe Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia; yesterday for Israel, today for the Palestinians; yesterday for Cuba, tomorrow against
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images and the general forgetfulness with which humanity throws itself forward in its quest for happinesshavetodowiththetriumphofsuperficialityinourculture.Thisaffectstheintelligentsiaas much (if not more) than anybody else. Kundera is not alone among the Central and East European exilecommunitytobeirritatedbythevulgarityandchaosofWesternmedia,perhapsbecauseitis seenasasubstituteforahigherculture. One could be misled to conclude that for Kundera, political agents of all stripes manipulate an ignorant and sentimental crowd. Things are not that simple. It takes a great deal of energy and intelligencethatis,notmerelyemotionalreflexestoconcoctandreproducepoliticalideologies. 42 The disposition that leads one to yield to ideology is intimately related to what sixteenth century thinker Etienne de la Botie called Voluntary Servitude. The contrast between high culture and stultifying ideology is nowhere clearer than in the work of scholars whose formidable intellectual capacityissecondonlytotheirideologicalcommitments. 43 Furthermore,Kunderadoesnotassociate totalitarianismwithcrueltyalone.TheManichaeismofpoliticspreventsusfromseeingtheconnection between innocence and oppression. 44 From the guillotine on (with the masked and sensitive executioner), oppression has been perpetrated for justice, freedom, revolution, history, nationhood, and the like. The angelic nature of the militant and the tormentor are identical. In sum, reason and unreason,virtueandmalice,arenotsharpalternativesintheworldofmodernpolitics.Emotionaland irrationalmotivescancoexistwithapparentlyrationalandcerebraldispositions(althoughinpolitics the former usually prevail over the latter), and as we all know, the road to hell is paved with good intentions. The Politics of Anti-Politics Milan Kunderas views on art and politics should be analysed for what they are: informed and insightfulviewsbyapoliticallyconsciouswriterwhoselifeexperienceincludeslivingonbothsidesof the iron curtain. For all his uniqueness and creative imagination, Kunderas vision has been very muchshapedbyhisuniqueitinerary,bytheexperienceofcommunism,thehopeanddisillusionment of 1968s Prague Spring, the persecution, and then his Parisian exile where he found an intellectual scenedominatedbytheleft,byaverydifferent1968experience,andbysuspiciontowardEastern blocdissidents.Hisescapefrompoliticsandhisseekingrefugeingrandcultureanderoticismare plausiblythecontingentstrategiesofanhdonistepigdansunmondepolitislextrme. 45

CubaandalwaysagainstAmerica;attimesagainstmassacresandattimesinsupportofothermassacres;Europemarches on,andtokeepupwithevents,toleavenoneofthemout,itspacegrowsfasterandfaster,untilfinallytheGrandMarchisa processionofrushing,gallopingpeopleandtheplatformisshrinkingandshrinkinguntilonedayitwillbereducedtoamere dimensionlessdot(2667). 42 A character named Grizzly has this very Kunderian thought in Immortality: You remind me of the young men who supportedtheNazisorcommunistsnotoutofcowardiceoroutofopportunismbutoutofanexcessofintelligence.Fornothing requiresagreatereffortofthoughtthanargumentstojustifytheruleofnonthought.Iexperienceditwithmyowneyesandears after the war, when intellectuals and artists rushed like a herd of cattle into the Communist Party, which soon proceeded to liquidatethemsystematicallyandwithgreatpleasure(122). 43 For example, Kundera says: What irritates me in Adorno is his shortcircuit method that, with a fearsome facility, links works of art to political (sociological) causes, consequences, or meanings; extremely nuanced ideas (Adornos musicological knowledgeisadmirable)therebyleadtoextremelyimpoverishedconclusions;infact,giventhataneraspoliticaltendencies arealwaysreducibletojusttwoopposingtendencies,aworkofartnecessarilyendsupbeingclassifiedaseitherprogressiveor reactionary;andsincereactionisevil,theinquisitioncanstartthetrialproceedings(TestamentsBetrayed,91). 44FranoisRicard,LedernieraprsmididAgns,EssaisurloeuvredeMilanKundera(Paris:Gallimard,coll.Arcades,2003),72. 45 In Milan Kundera, Foreword to Jacques and his Master, an Homage to Diderot in Three Acts (New York: Harper & Row, 1985 [1971]),quotedinKvetoslavChvatik,LemonderomanesquedeMilanKundera,translatedfromtheGermanbyBernardLortholary (Paris:Gallimard,coll.Arcades,1995),65.

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Kunderas views are mostly expressed in essays, freely and creatively, in the best tradition of Montaigne. 46 WhatisvaluableinKunderaswork,frommyperspectiveasapoliticalscientist,isthe ensembleofinsightsonpoliticsandtheirorigininwhatcanbecalledanartistsperspective.Hisviews amounttomorethanmerequestions,tobesure,butwithoutreachingthelevelofdevelopmentof properanswersinthesenseofeitherapoliticalorasocialscientificposition.Kunderasviewsshed light on a number of important issues in areas such as political theory, sociology of ideas, cultural studies,andevencomparativepolitics(comparativeregimes,democratization,publicopinion,andso on). His conjugation of politics and culture is also refreshing in an era that is characterized by the balkanizationofknowledge. *** In this second part of my article, I want to discuss Kunderas positions on two issues in particular, both fundamental to his perspective: first, his idealistic vision of art (and the novel in particular) in contrastwithhisnegativeandreductionistviewofpolitics;andsecond,hispositiononthepolitical responsibilityoftheartist. Taken as a variation of an idealistic conception of art, Kunderas position on the novel is, in its core,asoldasourcivilization.Inourtime,mostartistsandcommentatorsonartsandletterstakefor grantedthathighculturemakesusbettercitizens:morevirtuousyesterday,morecosmopolitan,and pluralistic,tolerant,andcriticaltoday.Theideaofartasauniversalrepositoryofvirtueseemstobe weathering the storm (in an academic tea pot) of postmodernity. 47 Every year, in rich and secular Westernnations,morepeoplevisitmuseumsthanattendsportevents.AsRgisDebraywrote,arthas becometheultimatebeliefoftheunbelievers. 48 Whilesuperficiallyagreeable,closerscrutinysuggestsamuchmorenuancedviewontheinnate merit of art. To begin with, if art and the novel in particular, are the repository of wisdom and a genuine school of freedom, artists and writers do not stand out of the crowd for their moral or political wisdom. Their political views can be selfindulgently useless, sometimes portentously banal, as Brooke Horvath said of a recent collection of writers political writings. 49 The political record of literary intellectuals(novelists are no exception) especially during the twentieth centuryis punctured with evidence of political naivet, unfastened contact with reality, and moral

AccordingtoOctavioPazfelicitousdefinition,theessayisadjacent,inoneofitsextremes,tothetreaty;intheother,to aphorism, sentence and maxim. What is more, it requires contrasting qualities: it must be brief but not laconic, light but not superficial,deepwithoutbeingheavy,passionatewithoutbeingpathetic,completewithoutbeingexhaustive,atoncebuoyant and penetrative, smiling without moving any of the faces muscle, melancholic without tears and, finally, it must convince withoutbeingargumentativeand,withoutsayingitall,saywhathastobesaid(OctavioPaz,ObrasCompletas.Volume9:Ideas ycostumbresI,Laletrayelcetro[MexicoCity:FondodeCulturaEconmica,1995],447). 47 Robert Hughes offers this gem on the liaisons between art and morality during the Renaissance: Nobody has ever denied thatSigismondodaMalatesta,theLordofRimini,hadexcellenttaste.Hehiredthemostrefinedofquattrocentoarchitects,Leon Battista Alberti, to design a memorial temple to his wife, and then got the sculptor Agostino di Duccio to decorate it, and retainedPierodellaFrancescatopaintit.YetSigismondowasamanofsuchcallousnessandrapacitythathewasknowninlife asIlLupo,TheWolf,andsoexecratedafterhisdeaththattheCatholicChurchmadehim(foratime)theonlymanapartfrom JudasIscariotofficiallylistedasbeinginHelladistinctionheearnedbytrussingupaPapalemissary,thefifteenyearold Bishop of Fano, in his own rochet and publicly sodomizing him before his applauding army in the main square of Rimini (RobertHughes,CultureofComplaint,TheFrayingofAmerica[NewYork:WarnerBooks,1993],178). 48RgisDebray,UniversalArt:TheDesperateReligion,NewPerspectiveQuarterly9,2(Spring1992):40. 49SeeChristianSalmon,ed.,InternationalParliamentofWriters,Autodaf,no.1(NewYork:SevenStoriesPress,2001).Alsoseethe excellentreviewoftheSalmon,ed.,issueofBrookeHorvathinReviewofContemporaryFiction,21,2(Summer2001):178.
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irresponsibility. As a whole, nineteenthcentury literary intellectuals seem to fare better arguably becausetheywerelessaddictedtototalideologies. 50 Abriefsurveyofthepoliticalpositionsoftwentiethcenturyliteraryintellectualsrevealsthatasa group,theyhavebeenatleastasattractedtoutopiasanddictatorshipsastheyhavebeentothemuse freedom. The list of great writers who embraced totalitarianism in the twentieth century gives one pause.GeorgeBernardShaw,forone,managedtopraiseStalin,Hitler,andMussolini.BenjaminPret had a point when he concluded that the twentieth century was shamed with the dishonour of poets. 51 Writers and artists routinely condemn the violation of human rights in this or that case (perhapsmoresoifoneofthemisbeingvictimized 52 ),thoughnotaseasilyinallcases. Whatismore,ifliteratureandthenovelaresuchadissolventoftyrannicalrule,abottomlesswell ofirreverencetoauthority,whyhasitbeensomuchappreciated,sincetimeimmemorial,byabsolute rulers?Inourtime,asRolandBleikerputsit,itseemsthatthemoreauthoritariantheruler,themore passionate their love for literature. Radovan Karadzic, Saddam Hussein, Muammar alGaddafi, Saparamurat Niyazov, orKim Jongil, to name justa few recent examples, allclaim to have written poeticworks. 53 Tyrantsareoftenfailed(frustrated?)artists.Bothhaveincommonalongingforthe triumphofthewillagainstallodds.InImmortality,acharacteraffirms:WhenLeninproclaimedthat helovedBeethovensAppassionataaboveallelse,whatwasitthathereallyloved?Whatdidhehear? Music?Oramajesticnoisethatremindedhimofthesolemnstirringsinhissoul,alongingforblood, brotherhood, executions, justice, and the absolute? Did he derive joy from the tones, or from the musingsstimulatedbythosetones,whichhadnothingtodowithartorwithbeauty? 54 Thenagain,Kunderaalsoconcedesthatmenofpowercanappreciateart:Itdoesnotsurpriseme that the Sorbonne theologians, the sixteenthcentury ideologicalpolice who kindled so many stakes, shouldhavemadelifesohardforRabelais,forcinghimoftentofleeandhide.Whatseemstomefar moreamazingandadmirableistheprotectionprovidedhimbythepowerfulmenofhistime,cardinal du Bellay, for instance, and Cardinal Odet, and above all Franois I, the king of France. Were they seeking to defend principles? Freedom of expression? Human rights? They had better motive: they lovedliteratureandarts. 55 Whatistobeunderstoodfromthesetwostatements?ThatforKundera,a politician can appreciate art but only if s/he can leave the lowest call of politics unanswered, not unlike the artist who, while examining a political subject, knows how to resist the siren song of ideology. Dictators, especially totalitarian ones, are unwilling or unable to do that, and thus their incapacitytoappreciatetrueart,accordingtoKundera.

See Michel Winock, Les voix de la libert, Les crivains engags au XIXe sicle (Paris: Le seuil, 2001). Also see Mark Lilla, The RecklessMind:IntellectualsandPolitics(NewYork:NewYorkReviewofBooks,2001). 51OneremembersthatinJuly1943,theEditionsdeMinuit(France)clandestinelypublishedacollectionofpoemsunderthetitle LHonneurdespotes. 52 Talking about the Rushdie Affair and the support the author of the Satanic Verses received from his fellow writers, Daniel Pipeswrites:Solidasitwas,thewriterssupportforRushdieleftabadtaste.InbothEuropeandtheUnitedStates,thosewho hadforsomanyyearspoohpoohedtheverynotionofterrorismsuddenlydiscovereditwhenoneoftheirownwasthetarget. TwentyyearsofIRAandPLOatrocitiesmadealmostnoimpressiononthemsolongasthetargetswerepolicemenandairline passengers;whenterroristsdirectedtheirfireelsewhere,writerspleadedforanunderstandingoftheirrevolutionaryrage.Only whenthevictimwasafriendandafellowwriterdidtheywakeup,momentarilyanyway,andbegintalkingaboutanassault on civilized life (The Rushdie Affair, The Novel, The Ayatollah, and the West, second edition [New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers,2003],160). 53RolandBleiker,LearningfromArt:AReplytoHoldensWorldLiteratureandWorldPolitics,GlobalSociety17,4(October 2003):423.Dodictatorspreferpoetrytonovels,forthesamereasontheyseemtopreferclassicalmusictoJazz:becausethelatter celebrateindividualism,pluralism,andheterogeneity? 54Kundera,Immortality,79. 55Kundera,TestamentsBetrayed,278.
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To explain the apparent incongruity in literatures elective affinity with both freedom and unfreedom, what is needed, arguably, is an appreciation of the respective importance and mutual influenceofthewriterherselfversuswhatsociologistPierreBourdieucallslechamplittraire(the literary field) by which he means the more or less institutionalized microsociety made of practices and habitus, and in which the writer writes, socializes, publishes, debates, and so on. Equally important are the interactions between that particular champ and other areas, including the field of politics. 56 If a correlation exists between literature and freedom, the novel and nonauthoritarian politics, it involves not so much the writers political dispositions but the conditions of literary production themselves, at the center of which one finds some of the fundamental conditions for freedomitself:imagination,conversation,andcriticism.If,asGeorgeSteinercontends,allseriousart, music and literature is a critical act, a counter statement to the world, it is because of the concentrated, selective interactions between the constraints of the observed and the boundless possibilitiesoftheimagined,almostregardlessofthepoliticalbeliefsoftheartist/writer. 57 Iffreedom is understood as the possibility that results primarily from a type of interactions, rather than as an attributeorpropensitythatagivenactorpossessesornot,thenthepropositionthatliteratureandart are schools of liberty, as Octavio Paz once said, can still be maintained in the face of countless examplesofliberticidalwritersandartists. The literary champ is evidently not the only one that is amenable to the pursuit of freedom in society.Itisonethatisparticularlypronetofosteringpluralism,competition,creativity,imagination, andtheconjugationofdifferences,allimportantingredientstoliteratureandtoacultureoffreedom. Other milieus feature a comparable propensity: the intelligentsia (when and where it exists), the academic world, the educational system in general, and arguably the market. Art is freer, more imaginative and interrogative; the academic world and the intelligentsia are more dependent on available systems of beliefs, more propositional, and more systematic. The market is more instrumental, more mechanical and impersonal (the invisible hand): it is morally lenient but also merciless.Nosinglemilieuistheguarantoroffreedom,andofcoursemilieusaremadeofpeople.One shouldresistthetemptationtoreifyanysystemintosomethingseparatefromitsactors(Kafkahelps usrealisethis). 58 Ontheotherhand,itishardtoimagineafreesocietywherenobodyiscommittedto freedom. Once most people in a system are minimally committed to preserving the freedom that makesthesystemsexistencepossible,freedomenhancementisnolongerthemissionofaparticular agency.Itbecomestheresultofcertaintypesofinteraction,withtheacceptance(ornonopposition) byindividualsthatcertaintypesofinteractionarebetterfortheirbenefits(definedbroadly)andthe benefitsofall.Kunderasexclusiveemphasisonthenovelistarguablypreventshimfromappreciating theimportanceofthewholedynamicinvolvingtheliterarychampandsocietyatlarge. The chief political contribution of art may be found in the questions it raises rather than in its specific answers, as Kundera (among many others) argues. The poet Charles Tomlinson once said: Theartistliesfortheimprovementofthetruth.Believehim.Areformulationofthispropositioncan be: use the artist and her work as an emotional, intellectual, and sometimes moral stimulant, as an awakener, as a provider of good questions; believing her particular prescriptions or programmatic ideas is no more urgent than believing anybody elses. Again, freedom exudes primarily from the
ThisparticularapproachallowsBourdieutoelaborateasociologyofliteraturethatemphasizestheimportanceoftherelevant group,asopposedtotheindividualorsociety:Cestdirequecequiadvientdanslechampestdeplusenpluslilhistoire spcifique du champ, donc de plus en plus difficile dduire directement de ltat du monde social au moment considr (PierreBourdieu,Lesrglesdelart,Genseetstructureduchamplittraire[Paris:Seuil,1992],338). 57GeorgeSteiner,RealPresences(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),11. 58 On Kafka and politics, see the insightful Chapter 2 in Michael Keren, The Citizens Voice: TwentiethCentury Politics and Literature(Calgary:UniversityofCalgaryPress,2003).
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conditionsthataremettoallowarttoflourish,notfromtheartistsparticularpolitical(orapolitical) inclinations.Oneistemptedtosaythattheartistornovelistisinapositionsimilartoacharacterina novel as typically defined by Kundera: unique, yet not prevailing; simply adding to the group dynamic.Thisis,itseemstome,animportantdistinctiontobemadetoappreciatehowliteratureand freedomhavefedeachothersincethedawnoftime. Kunderaspointontheindividualisticandpluralisticquintessenceofthenoveliswelltaken.The novelisatitsbestrepresentingtheambivalenceandevencontradictorynatureofhumansituations, illuminatingthe many possibilities of life, andfreely combiningvarious literary genres. Conversely, politicstendstogeneratecertaintiesandsharpalternatives.Thenoveltypicallyfeaturesapluralityof charactersandanorchestrationthatisopenandfreetoborrowfromanyotherdiscursivegenres.That beingsaid,onecaneasilythinkofanumberofgreatnovelsthatpromoteacertainpointofview,some ofthemwrittenbyKunderahimself.Hisnovelsfeaturethemesthatareremarkablysimilartothe onesfoundinTheArtoftheNovelorTestamentsBetrayed. 59 Theyaremisenscneinanovelisticway butforalltheorchestratedambivalenceandpolyphony,thereaderisnotdrivenawayfromthemain pointarticulatedbytheauthor.ThebestexamplesofthepluralityofmeaningadvocatedbyKundera aretobefoundinworkswhereithappensunwittingly,byartisticaccident,asitwere,butlesssoin theworksofartistswhosepositionsagainstpoliticaldidactismendupasaformofpoliticaldidactism itself.Furthermore,thedistancebetweenthewriterandhispoliticaldispositionsononehand,andthe novelontheother,isfarfrombeingautomatic,justbecausetheauthorhappenstoadoptaneutralor ironicposturebeforehisownimaginaryworld.AsRobertBoyerswrote,ironycanalsobeunderstood astheexpressionofthedistancebetweenacharacterssenseofwhatheisdoingorfeelingandour instructedsenseofwhatisactuallyinvolved.Ironyisalso,andmoreelusively,thenovelsexpression ofhoweasyitistopromotearoutinecynicismthatcanbecomealmostasprogrammaticasthenaive enthusiasmsitmeanstoridicule. 60 Kunderaspositiononpoliticsisinterestingandstimulatinginspiteofbeingsomewhatsimplistic andreductionist.HispositionparallelsGeorgeOrwellsoftquotedviewthatpoliticallanguageofany stripeisdesignedtomakeliessoundtruthfulandmurderrespectable,andtogiveanappearanceof soliditytopurewind. 61 Botharguablydealwiththeirproblemofpoliticalcognitivedissonancewith theirintellectualmilieusbyadoptinganecumenicaldismissalofallpoliticalideologies. IhappentoshareKunderasbasicviewthatpoliticstendstobebinaryandManichean,proneto intolerance,inquisition,anddogmas.Abinarylogicisprobablyinherenttopolitics;itisnot,asone could argue, an upshot of the Cold War. It stems from politics moralizing and actionoriented impulses, and it is doubtlessly related to its religious roots as well. 62 Political debates and even discussions tend to frame problems in dualistic, mutually exclusive moral options: left versus right, North versus South, West versus East. Within some of these categories, more either/ortypes of funnels operate: social democracy versus revolutionary socialism, secular versus religious, military versus civilian. When comprehending a particular issue, political discussions easily turn into an ideologicalplebiscite:fororagainstglobalization,affirmativeaction,freetrade,gaymarriage. Allusiontothisbuiltindispositioncanbefoundinthepoliticalscienceliterature.Inhisclassicon politicalparties,MauriceDuvergercontendsthatadualityofpartiesdoesnotalwaysexist,butthere isalmostalwaysadualityoftendencies. 63 Afewdecadesearlier,thepoliticalandlegalscholar(and NationalSocialist) Karl Schmitt famously argued that the specific political distinction to which
SeeFranoisRicard,LedernieraprsmididAgns,1419. RobertBoyers,AtrocityandAmnesia:thePoliticalNovelsince1945(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985),2201. 61EdwardW.Said,RepresentationsoftheIntellectual(NewYork:VintageBooks,1996),28. 62SeeRaymondBoudon,Lartdesepersuaderdesidesdouteuses,fragilesoufausses(Paris:Fayard,1990). 63MauriceDuverger,PoliticalParties:TheirOrganizationandActivityintheModernState(London:Methuen,1954),205.
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politicalactionsandmotivescanbereducedisthatbetweenfriendandenemy.Inotherwords,Tell me who your enemy is and Ill tell you who you are. 64 Being fiercely antiliberal, Schmitt underestimated the importance of friendship and cooperation, two important ingredients in politics and essential ones in democratic politics. Politics in a liberal democracy tends to be less strictly ideologicalandmoreconcernedwithprocessandpersonalities.Theoverarchingdynamicisoneof cooperationratherthanoneoffundamentalconflict.Conflictsdotakeplace,astheyshouldinaplural society,butwithinthecontextoftheruleoflaw,supportedbycustomsoftoleranceandtrust.Here, politicsgenerallyconcernssmallpolitics,notepochalorregimedefiningissues.Politicizedcharacters inKunderasnovelstendtoadoptideologicalpostures,evenwhenforthem,therelativeimportance ofpoliticsisnegligible.Themoreideological,themorepoliticsresemblestheportraitKunderadraws ofit.Buttogiveafullerandmoreconvincingaccountofpoliticallife,oneneedstoappreciatethatasa practice, politics can be more than pure kitsch, superficial images and dogmatic dispositions. As a dimension of the human experience to be reflected upon, it can be the object of sophisticated and nuancedcommentsandinvestigation. Furthermore,itisimportanttopointoutthatnofacilecategorizationcanbemadebetweenreason and unreason when assessing great monstrosities of the twentieth century. Kundera generally understands the intimate link between reason and totalitarianism, reason and utopia. But he is not consistentinthis respect,arguing for instance that in the month ofAugust1968, the Czechs, nave rationalists, experienced the shock of the irrational. 65 As Joseph Brodsky reminded him in a convincingcritiqueofhisposition,ThepoliticalsystemthatputMr.Kunderaoutofcommissionisas muchaproductofWesternrationalismasitisofEasternemotionalradicalism. 66 Aperspectiveon politics that emphasizes reduction to kitsch, emotions, and images can easily miss an important dimension of modern politics: its roots in philosophical and intellectual movements of the past centuries, its builtin rationality, not to mention the very modern and rational intellectual foundationoftotalitarianism. 67 Kunderascritiqueofpoliticscanconceivablybeseenasacoverforsomethingmorefundamental: hisradicalindividualism,rootedinadeepmistrustofanyrepresentationofcollectivelendemainsqui chantent.TerryEagleton,whosecriticalarrowspointexactlyintheoppositedirection,contendsthat Kundera seems genuinely unable to imagine any universally shared emotion which would not, by definition,beintolerablybanal. 68 Thisisnotentirelytrue.KunderacelebratestheEuropeanculture (and by extension, for him, the Western culture), and especially the grand contexte of European literature.ButEagletonisaimingintherightdirection,forKunderaisclearlysuspiciousofanyshared andemotionalhopeinabrighterfuture.Politics,notculture,issharedthatway.Crowdsaremadeof individuals but redemption is possible at the individual level, never a priori at the collective level. Again,howmuchofthisperspectivederiveddirectlyfromtheexperienceofcommunismand/orofa failedstateishardtomeasure.Inanycase,itisnotoutoftunewiththefatigueofgrandnarratives widelyassociatedwiththeperiodand/orideaofpostmodernity.

QuotedinMarkLilla,TheRecklessMind,56. QuotedinFredMisurella,NotSilent,98. 66JosephBrodsky,WhyMilanKunderaisWrongaboutDostoyevsky,TheNewYorkTimesReviewofBooks(17February1985): 31. 67SeeJacobLeibTalmon,TheOriginsofTotalitarianDemocracy(London:Mercury,1961). 68TerryEagleton,EstrangementandIrony,Salmagundi73(Winter1987):32.Inhisfirstpublishednovel,TheJoke(1967),the main character, Ludvik, is expelled from the Communist Party for writing this joke on a postcard destined to his girlfriend: Optimism is the opium of the people! A healthy atmosphere stinks of stupidity! Long live Trotsky! Ludvik (147). Forget Trotsky:therestencapsulatesKunderasperspective.
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*** Kunderas views are liable to a double accusation of political irresponsibility: because he refuses to engage directly in the political debates of his time, at least with any of the competing political discourses that are dj l; and secondly, because when he does formulate political opinions, if obliquelyandfromwhatcanbeseenassuperiorartisticdistance,helikestotakethedissimilarities betweenthetwoworlds(inotherwords,CommunistEastandcapitalisticanddemocraticWest)as an overrated issue. Milan Kunderas position is controversial for those who would like him to be clearer and more forceful in denouncing the evils of communism and in praising (or at least recognizing clearly the undisputable advantages of) liberal democracy in other words, for those whowouldlikehim,onceandforall,tochoosehiscampinpolitics. 69 Kunderarejectsthenotionthatthedemocraticandcommunistworldsareinabsoluteopposition. From a political or an economic standpoint, perhaps. But for a novelist, the starting point is the concrete life of the individual; and from this standpoint, one is not less struck by the resemblance betweenthesetwowords. 70 Healsotendstoconflatetotalitariankitschwiththekitschthatisthe idealofallpoliticiansandallpoliticalpartiesandmovement. 71 For a writer, it is fairly uncontroversial to maintain that the human experience should not be flattened to its political and economic dimensions. Topics such as love, sex, anxiety before death, friendship, jealousy, greed, anger, sadness, and a host of other building blocs of writers and artists sincetimeimmemorialcanallbepresentedasdeeperandmorefundamentallyhumanthanpolitics. But another interpretation is implicit here: some dimensions of the human experience that do not originate directly or primarily from the political or economic realms have such a cultural resonance thattheyultimatelymakethetwoworlds(Communistanddemocratic)lookessentiallysimilarto such an extent that at the end, real historical similarities trump the differences. Here, societies, not merelyindividualexperiences,lookalike.Hence,theunmistakablypoliticalqualityofhisposition. Kunderatakesthereadertoajourneythatconjuresupmemoriesofthetheoryofconvergence of the 1970s (bureaucratization makes regimes look increasingly alike) and the GermanoFrench (in that order) critique of modernity pioneered by Heidegger (the alienating triumph of instrumental reason).Kunderastilljuggleswiththesefragmentsofsociologicaltheoryandphilosophyofhistoryin Le rideau (2005), portraying western societies as an analgesic mixture of commercial vulgarity, democratic illusions, and conquering bureaucratization. 72 Similar positions can be found in the writings of dissidents such as Alexander Sozhenitsyn or Alexander Zinoviev. Perhaps Kundera is simply reverberating the antiliberal or even antimodern dispositions of the French intelligentsia. 73 Butthereismoretoit:thesepredicamentsarenotnarrowlypoliticalintheiressence;theypointtoa morefundamentalproblemofalienation,fortheexaminationofwhichartandespeciallythenovel offersabundantandexplicitinsights.Itisnotthetwoworldsthataresimilarfromthestartingpoint of the concrete life of the individual: it is life in society in general, that is to say the encounter between the individual and the other. Making simple connections between this invariable condition
AtypicalexamplecanbefoundinNormanN.Podhoretz,AnOpenLettertoMilanKundera,Commentary(October1984): 349.SeealsoRogerKimball,TheAmbiguitiesofMilanKundera,TheNewCriterion(January1986):513. 70Mytranslationof:lesmondescommunisteetdmocratiquesontenoppositionquasiabsolue.Dupointdevuepolitiqueou conomique,soit.Maispourunromancier,lepointdedpartestlavieconcrtedunindividu;etdecepointdevue,onnest pas moins frapp par les ressemblances de ces deux mondes (Quoted in Kvetoslav Chvatik, Le monde romanesque de Milan Kundera,245). 71Kundera,TheUnbearableLightnessofBeing,312. 72Lerideau,158,125. 73 See Antoine Compagnon, Les antimoderne: De Joseph de Maistre a Roland Barthes (Paris: Gallimard, 2005); Raymond Boudon, Pourquoilesintellectuelsnaimentpaslelibralisme(Paris:Jacob,2004).
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and incompatible political arrangements, a priori bound to be inconsequential and insignificant, is politically reckless. Clearly, anticommunism and antitotalitarianism, even when conjugated with a broad defence of individualism and freedom, do not automatically stem from or require a sophisticatedcomprehensionofliberaldemocraticsocieties. Interestingly, apparently Kundera does not completely discard the possibility of legitimate politicalactioneveninthekindofactivist,sloganeeringformshedespises.InTheUnbearableLightness ofBeing,herisksaconcession: I cant help thinking about the editor in Prague who organized the petition for the amnesty of political prisoners. He knew perfectly well that his petition would not help the prisoners. His true goal was not to free the prisoners; it was to show that people without fear still exist. That, too, was playacting. But he had no other possibility. His choice was not between playacting and action. His choice was between playacting and no action at all. There are situations in which people are condemned to playact. Their struggle with mute power (the mute power across the river,apolicetransmogrifiedintomutemicrophonesinthewall)isthestruggleofa theatrecompanythathasattackedanarmy. 74 Here,theactionisinfrapolitical:itsucceedsonlyinaffirmingthebasicvalueofhumandignityinthe midst of a political defeat. To be legitimate and valuable, the action must bypass the political and reachforsomethingdeeper.Andperhaps,ingoodromanticfashion,defeatisanecessarycondition forredemption.Thisisnotwithoutconjuringupthemodernsensibilityinfavourofhumanrights understoodasacontemporaryexhibitofnaturallawflourishingintheinfrapoliticalpublicsphere. ArecentessaybyCharlesTaylorprovidesaninterestingparallel.Taylorconceivesthecontemporary public sphere as a space of discussion that is selfconsciously seen as being outside of power and extrapoliticalinstatus.ItsprecursorwasnootherthantheRpubliquedeslettres. 75 Suchaspaceis usefulinitsownterms,butitrestsforagoodpartonanillusion. Kunderaisnotmerelyadoptinganartforartssakeposition.Heisattemptingtofindaposition from whence he can elaborate his position on politics while remaining staunchly antipolitical (in otherwords,notmerelyapolitical).Fromapoliticalscienceperspective,thissuggestsaninteresting question:canpoliticsbeexaminedandjudgedfromoutside?Istheresuchathingasapoliticallogic that one is bound to adopt, consciously or not, when thinking about politics, pushing us in one of politicsmanyalternativesandawayfromvantagepointsfromwhichpoliticscouldbecriticizedasa whole?Kunderademonstratesthatitisfeasibletocriticizepoliticsfromanovelistperspectiveifoneis satisfiedwithwhatnovelistsdobest:scrutinizeandevenpassjudgmentwhilekeepingpropositional orprogrammaticdimensionsofcriticismopen.Toputitdifferently,whatispossibleandevenuseful asacomplementtoresultorientedpoliticalactionisagooddoseofirresponsiblecriticism.Thisdoes not typically yield a fully coherent or practical position, however. William Phillips aptly points out thatsoonerorlater,notyieldingtothedemandsofpoliticalresponsibilityisboundtoclashwiththe rational and pragmatic concerns of politics. 76 To be meaningful and interesting, sooner or later a politicalpositionhastoconfronttherationalandpragmaticconcernsofpoliticsbecausepoliticsisalso (Kunderachoosestoelidethat)aboutchoiceanddecision.

TheUnbearableLightnessofBeing,2678. CharlesTaylor,ModernSocialImaginaries(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,PublicPlanetBooks,2004),8992. 76WilliamPhillips,TheArtofKundera,PartisanReview,57(Summer1990):470.

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A number of useful lessons can be learned from Kunderas position. We should pay more attention to the nature and the importance of the nonprimarily political content of political forms; that is to say, the cultural (aesthetic, emotional, religious, psychological) dimension of politics. Politicalactionistheresultofaclusterofmotivations,notallofwhicharepolitical,andamongthe politicalones,notallofwhichareprofoundandrational.Weshouldalsobemorecriticaloftheself aggrandizing, exclusive, and constraining logic of the political. Reading good novels help us rediscover the ambivalent and unruly impetus of the human experience including its political manifestations.TosaythatKunderaunderestimatestheimportanceofchoiceanddecisioninpolitics takesnothingawayfromhismerittoemphasizethesimilaritybetweencriticismandfreedom:thatis, theircommonpropensitytovaluetheirreverentquestforautonomyandselfdevelopment.