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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series of articles about

Quantum mechanics

iℏddt|Ψ⟩=H^|Ψ⟩

Schrödinger equation

Introduction
Glossary
History

show

Background

show

Fundamentals

show

Experiments

show

Formulations
 show

Equations

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Interpretations

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Advanced topics

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Scientists

In physics, quantum tunnelling, barrier

penetration, or simply tunnelling is a
quantum mechanical phenomenon in which
an object such as an electron or atom
passes through a potential energy barrier
that, according to classical mechanics,
should not be passable due to the object not
having sufficient energy to pass or surmount
 the barrier.

Tunneling is a consequence of the wave

nature of matter, where the quantum wave
function describes the state of a particle or
other physical system, and wave equations
such as the Schrödinger equation describe
their behavior. The probability of
transmission of a wave packet through a
barrier decreases exponentially with the
barrier height, the barrier width, and the
tunneling particle's mass, so tunneling is
seen most prominently in low-mass particles
such as electrons or protons tunneling
through microscopically narrow barriers.
Tunneling is readily detectable with barriers
of thickness about 1–3 nm or smaller for
electrons, and about 0.1 nm or smaller for
heavier particles such as protons or
[1]
hydrogen atoms. Some sources describe
the mere penetration of a wave function into
the barrier, without transmission on the other
side, as a tunneling effect, such as in
tunneling into the walls of a finite potential
[2][3]
well.

Tunneling plays an essential role in physical

[4]
phenomena such as nuclear fusion and
alpha radioactive decay of atomic nuclei.
 Tunneling applications include the tunnel
[5]
diode, quantum computing, flash memory,
and the scanning tunneling microscope.
Tunneling limits the minimum size of devices
used in microelectronics because electrons
tunnel readily through insulating layers and
transistors that are thinner than about 1 nm.
[6]

The effect was predicted in the early 20th

century. Its acceptance as a general physical
[7]
phenomenon came mid-century.

Introduction to
the concept[edit]
Duration: 1 minute and 31 seconds.

1:31

Subtitles available.

CC

Animation showing the tunnel effect and its

application to an STM

Quantum tunnelling falls under the domain of

quantum mechanics. To understand the
 phenomenon, particles attempting to travel
across a potential barrier can be compared
to a ball trying to roll over a hill. Quantum
mechanics and classical mechanics differ in
their treatment of this scenario.

Classical mechanics predicts that particles

that do not have enough energy to classically
surmount a barrier cannot reach the other
side. Thus, a ball without sufficient energy to
surmount the hill would roll back down. In
quantum mechanics, a particle can, with a
small probability, tunnel to the other side,
thus crossing the barrier. The reason for this
difference comes from treating matter as
having properties of waves and particles.

Tunnelling problem[edit]

A simulation of a wave packet incident on a

potential barrier. In relative units, the barrier
energy is 20, greater than the mean wave
packet energy of 14. A portion of the wave
 packet passes through the barrier.

The wave function of a physical system of

particles specifies everything that can be
[8]
known about the system. Therefore,
problems in quantum mechanics analyze the
system's wave function. Using mathematical
formulations, such as the Schrödinger
equation, the time evolution of a known wave
function can be deduced. The square of the
absolute value of this wave function is
directly related to the probability distribution
of the particle positions, which describes the
probability that the particles would be
measured at those positions.

As shown in the animation, a wave packet

impinges on the barrier, most of it is reflected
and some is transmitted through the barrier.
The wave packet becomes more de-
localized: it is now on both sides of the
barrier and lower in maximum amplitude, but
equal in integrated square-magnitude,
meaning that the probability the particle is
somewhere remains unity. The wider the
barrier and the higher the barrier energy, the
lower the probability of tunneling.

Some models of a tunneling barrier, such as

the rectangular barriers shown, can be
 [9]: 96
analysed and solved algebraically. Most
problems do not have an algebraic solution,
so numerical solutions are used.
"Semiclassical methods" offer approximate
solutions that are easier to compute, such as
the WKB approximation.

History[edit]
The Schrödinger equation was published in
1926. The first person to apply the
Schrödinger equation to a problem that
involved tunneling between two classically
allowed regions through a potential barrier
was Friedrich Hund in a series of articles
published in 1927. He studied the solutions
of a double-well potential and discussed
[10]
molecular spectra. Leonid Mandelstam
and Mikhail Leontovich discovered tunneling
independently and published their results in
[11]
1928.

In 1927, Lothar Nordheim, assisted by Ralph

Fowler, published a paper that discussed
thermionic emission and reflection of
electrons from metals. He assumed a
surface potential barrier that confines the
electrons within the metal and showed that
 the electrons have a finite probability of
tunneling through or reflecting from the
surface barrier when their energies are close
to the barrier energy. Classically, the
electron would either transmit or reflect with
100% certainty, depending on its energy. In
1928 J. Robert Oppenheimer published two
papers on field emission, i.e. the emission of
electrons induced by strong electric fields.
Nordheim and Fowler simplified
Oppenheimer's derivation and found values
for the emitted currents and work functions
[10]
that agreed with experiments.

A great success of the tunnelling theory was

the mathematical explanation for alpha
decay, which was developed in 1928 by
George Gamow and independently by
[12][13]
Ronald Gurney and Edward Condon.
[14][15]
The latter researchers simultaneously
solved the Schrödinger equation for a model
nuclear potential and derived a relationship
between the half-life of the particle and the
energy of emission that depended directly on
the mathematical probability of tunneling. All
three researchers were familiar with the
[10]
works on field emission, and Gamow was
aware of Mandelstam and Leontovich's
 [16]
findings.

In the early days of quantum theory, the term

tunnel effect was not used, and the effect
was instead referred to as penetration of, or
leaking through, a barrier. The German term
wellenmechanische Tunneleffekt was used
[10]
in 1931 by Walter Schottky. The English
term tunnel effect entered the language in
1932 when it was used by Yakov Frenkel in
[10]
his textbook.

In 1957 Leo Esaki demonstrated tunneling of

electrons over a few nanometer wide barrier
in a semiconductor structure and developed
[17]
a diode based on tunnel effect. In 1960,
following Esaki's work, Ivar Giaever showed
experimentally that tunnelling also took place
in superconductors. The tunnelling spectrum
gave direct evidence of the superconducting
energy gap. In 1962, Brian Josephson
predicted the tunneling of superconducting
Cooper pairs. Esaki, Giaever and Josephson
shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physics for
their works on quantum tunneling in solids.
[18][7]

In 1981, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer

developed a new type of microscope, called
scanning tunneling microscope, which is
based on tunnelling and is used for imaging
surfaces at the atomic level. Binnig and
Rohrer were awarded the Nobel Prize in
[19]
Physics in 1986 for their discovery.

Applications[edit]
Tunnelling is the cause of some important
macroscopic physical phenomena.

Solid-state physics[edit]

Electronics[edit]

Tunnelling is a source of current leakage in

very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
electronics and results in a substantial power
drain and heating effects that plague such
devices. It is considered the lower limit on
how microelectronic device elements can be
[20]
made. Tunnelling is a fundamental
technique used to program the floating gates
of flash memory.

Cold emission[edit]

Main article: Field electron emission

 Cold emission of electrons is relevant to
semiconductors and superconductor physics.
It is similar to thermionic emission, where
electrons randomly jump from the surface of
a metal to follow a voltage bias because they
statistically end up with more energy than the
barrier, through random collisions with other
particles. When the electric field is very
large, the barrier becomes thin enough for
electrons to tunnel out of the atomic state,
leading to a current that varies approximately
[21]
exponentially with the electric field. These
materials are important for flash memory,
vacuum tubes, and some electron
microscopes.

Tunnel junction[edit]

Main article: Tunnel junction

A simple barrier can be created by

separating two conductors with a very thin
insulator. These are tunnel junctions, the
study of which requires understanding
[22]
quantum tunnelling. Josephson junctions
take advantage of quantum tunnelling and
superconductivity to create the Josephson
effect. This has applications in precision
measurements of voltages and magnetic
 [21]
fields, as well as the multijunction solar
cell.

Tunnel diode[edit]

Main article: Tunnel diode

A working mechanism of a resonant tunnelling

diode device, based on the phenomenon of
quantum tunnelling through the potential
barriers

Diodes are electrical semiconductor devices

that allow electric current flow in one
direction more than the other. The device
depends on a depletion layer between N-
type and P-type semiconductors to serve its
purpose. When these are heavily doped the
depletion layer can be thin enough for
tunnelling. When a small forward bias is
 applied, the current due to tunnelling is
significant. This has a maximum at the point
where the voltage bias is such that the
energy level of the p and n conduction bands
are the same. As the voltage bias is
increased, the two conduction bands no
[23]
longer line up and the diode acts typically.

Because the tunnelling current drops off

rapidly, tunnel diodes can be created that
have a range of voltages for which current
decreases as voltage increases. This
peculiar property is used in some
applications, such as high speed devices
where the characteristic tunnelling probability
[23]
changes as rapidly as the bias voltage.

The resonant tunnelling diode makes use of

quantum tunnelling in a very different
manner to achieve a similar result. This
diode has a resonant voltage for which a
current favors a particular voltage, achieved
by placing two thin layers with a high energy
conductance band near each other. This
creates a quantum potential well that has a
discrete lowest energy level. When this
energy level is higher than that of the
electrons, no tunnelling occurs and the diode
is in reverse bias. Once the two voltage
 energies align, the electrons flow like an
open wire. As the voltage further increases,
tunnelling becomes improbable and the
diode acts like a normal diode again before a
[24]
second energy level becomes noticeable.

Tunnel field-effect transistors[edit]

Main article: Tunnel field-effect transistor

A European research project demonstrated

field effect transistors in which the gate
(channel) is controlled via quantum
tunnelling rather than by thermal
injection, reducing gate voltage from
≈1 volt to 0.2 volts and reducing power
consumption by up to 100×. If these
transistors can be scaled up into VLSI
chips, they would improve the performance
[25][26]
per power of integrated circuits.

Conductivity of crystalline solids[edit]

While the Drude-Lorentz model of electrical

conductivity makes excellent predictions
about the nature of electrons conducting in
metals, it can be furthered by using quantum
tunnelling to explain the nature of the
[21]
electron's collisions. When a free electron
 wave packet encounters a long array of
uniformly spaced barriers, the reflected part
of the wave packet interferes uniformly with
the transmitted one between all barriers so
that 100% transmission becomes possible.
The theory predicts that if positively charged
nuclei form a perfectly rectangular array,
electrons will tunnel through the metal as
free electrons, leading to extremely high
conductance, and that impurities in the metal
[21]
will disrupt it.

Scanning tunneling microscope[edit]

Main article: Scanning tunnelling

microscope

The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM),

invented by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich
Rohrer, may allow imaging of individual
[21]
atoms on the surface of a material. It
operates by taking advantage of the
relationship between quantum tunnelling with
distance. When the tip of the STM's needle is
brought close to a conduction surface that
has a voltage bias, measuring the current of
electrons that are tunnelling between the
needle and the surface reveals the distance
between the needle and the surface. By
using piezoelectric rods that change in size
when voltage is applied, the height of the tip
can be adjusted to keep the tunnelling
current constant. The time-varying voltages
that are applied to these rods can be
recorded and used to image the surface of
[21]
the conductor. STMs are accurate to
0.001 nm, or about 1% of atomic diameter.
[24]

Nuclear physics[edit]

Nuclear fusion[edit]

Main article: Nuclear fusion

Quantum tunnelling is an essential

phenomenon for nuclear fusion. The
temperature in stellar cores is generally
insufficient to allow atomic nuclei to
overcome the Coulomb barrier and achieve
thermonuclear fusion. Quantum tunnelling
increases the probability of penetrating this
barrier. Though this probability is still low, the
extremely large number of nuclei in the core
of a star is sufficient to sustain a steady
[27]
fusion reaction.

Radioactive decay[edit]
 Main article: Radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is the process of emission

of particles and energy from the unstable
nucleus of an atom to form a stable product.
This is done via the tunnelling of a particle
out of the nucleus (an electron tunneling into
the nucleus is electron capture). This was
the first application of quantum tunnelling.
Radioactive decay is a relevant issue for
astrobiology as this consequence of
quantum tunnelling creates a constant
energy source over a large time interval for
environments outside the circumstellar
habitable zone where insolation would not be
[27]
possible (subsurface oceans) or effective.

Quantum tunnelling may be one of the

[28]
mechanisms of hypothetical proton decay.
[29]

Chemistry[edit]

Kinetic isotope effect[edit]

Main article: Kinetic isotope effect

In chemical kinetics, the substitution of a light

isotope of an element with a heavier one
typically results in a slower reaction rate.
This is generally attributed to differences in
the zero-point vibrational energies for
chemical bonds containing the lighter and
heavier isotopes and is generally modeled
using transition state theory. However, in
certain cases, large isotopic effects are
observed that cannot be accounted for by a
semi-classical treatment, and quantum
tunnelling is required. R. P. Bell developed a
modified treatment of Arrhenius kinetics that
is commonly used to model this
[30]
phenomenon.

Astrochemistry in interstellar clouds[edit]

By including quantum tunnelling, the

astrochemical syntheses of various
molecules in interstellar clouds can be
explained, such as the synthesis of
molecular hydrogen, water (ice) and the
[27]
prebiotic important formaldehyde.
Tunnelling of molecular hydrogen has been
[31]
observed in the lab.

Quantum biology[edit]

Quantum tunnelling is among the central

non-trivial quantum effects in quantum
[32]
biology. Here it is important both as
 electron tunnelling and proton tunnelling.
Electron tunnelling is a key factor in many
biochemical redox reactions (photosynthesis,
cellular respiration) as well as enzymatic
catalysis. Proton tunnelling is a key factor in
[27]
spontaneous DNA mutation.

Spontaneous mutation occurs when normal

DNA replication takes place after a
particularly significant proton has tunnelled.
[33]
A hydrogen bond joins DNA base pairs. A
double well potential along a hydrogen bond
separates a potential energy barrier. It is
believed that the double well potential is
asymmetric, with one well deeper than the
other such that the proton normally rests in
the deeper well. For a mutation to occur, the
proton must have tunnelled into the
shallower well. The proton's movement from
its regular position is called a tautomeric
transition. If DNA replication takes place in
this state, the base pairing rule for DNA may
[34]
be jeopardised, causing a mutation. Per-
Olov Lowdin was the first to develop this
theory of spontaneous mutation within the
double helix. Other instances of quantum
tunnelling-induced mutations in biology are
believed to be a cause of ageing and cancer.
 [35]

Mathematical
discussion[edit]

Quantum tunnelling through a barrier. The

energy of the tunnelled particle is the same but
the probability amplitude is decreased.

Schrödinger equation[edit]

The time-independent Schrödinger equation

for one particle in one dimension can be
written as

−ℏ22md2dx2Ψ(x)+V(x)Ψ(x)=EΨ(x)

or

d2dx2Ψ(x)=2mℏ2(V(x)
−E)Ψ(x)≡2mℏ2M(x)Ψ(x),
 where

● ℏ

● is the reduced Planck constant,

● m is the particle mass,
● x represents distance measured in
the direction of motion of the
particle,
● Ψ is the Schrödinger wave
function,
● V is the potential energy of the
particle (measured relative to any
convenient reference level),
● E is the energy of the particle that
is associated with motion in the x-
axis (measured relative to V),
● M(x) is a quantity defined by
V(x) − E, which has no
accepted name in physics.

The solutions of the Schrödinger equation

take different forms for different values of x,
depending on whether M(x) is positive or
negative. When M(x) is constant and
negative, then the Schrödinger equation can
be written in the form

d2dx2Ψ(x)=2mℏ2M(x)Ψ(x)=−k2Ψ(x)
 ,wherek2=−2mℏ2M.

The solutions of this equation represent

travelling waves, with phase-constant
+k or −k. Alternatively, if M(x) is
constant and positive, then the
Schrödinger equation can be written in
the form

d2dx2Ψ(x)=2mℏ2M(x)Ψ(x)=κ2Ψ(x),wher
eκ2=2mℏ2M.

The solutions of this equation are rising and

falling exponentials in the form of evanescent
waves. When M(x) varies with position, the
same difference in behaviour occurs,
depending on whether M(x) is negative or
positive. It follows that the sign of M(x)
determines the nature of the medium, with
negative M(x) corresponding to medium A
and positive M(x) corresponding to medium
B. It thus follows that evanescent wave
coupling can occur if a region of positive
M(x) is sandwiched between two regions of
negative M(x), hence creating a potential
 barrier.

The mathematics of dealing with the situation

where M(x) varies with x is difficult, except in
special cases that usually do not correspond
to physical reality. A full mathematical
treatment appears in the 1965 monograph by
Fröman and Fröman. Their ideas have not
been incorporated into physics textbooks,
but their corrections have little quantitative
effect.

WKB approximation[edit]

Main article: WKB approximation

The wave function is expressed as the

exponential of a function:

Ψ(x)=eΦ(x),

where

Φ″(x)+Φ′(x)2=2mℏ2(V(x)−E).

Φ′(x)
 is then separated into real and
imaginary parts:

Φ′(x)=A(x)+iB(x),

where A(x) and

B(x) are real-valued functions.

Substituting the second equation into the first

and using the fact that the real part needs to
be 0 results in:

A′(x)+A(x)2−B(x)2=2mℏ2(V(x)−E).

Duration: 11 seconds.

0:11

Quantum tunneling in the phase space

formulation of quantum mechanics. Wigner
function for tunneling through the potential
barrier

U(x)=8e−0.25x2

in atomic units (a.u.). The

solid lines represent the level set of the
 Hamiltonian

H(x,p)=p2/2+U(x)

To solve this equation using the

semiclassical approximation, each function
must be expanded as a power series in

. From the equations, the power series

must start with at least an order of

ℏ−1

to satisfy the real part of the equation;

for a good classical limit starting with the
highest power of the Planck constant
possible is preferable, which leads to

A(x)=1ℏ∑k=0∞ℏkAk(x)

and

B(x)=1ℏ∑k=0∞ℏkBk(x),
 with the following
constraints on the lowest order terms,

A0(x)2−B0(x)2=2m(V(x)−E)

and

A0(x)B0(x)=0.

At this point two extreme cases can be

considered.

Case 1

If the amplitude varies slowly as compared to

the phase

A0(x)=0

and

B0(x)=±2m(E−V(x))

which
corresponds to classical motion. Resolving
 the next order of expansion yields

Ψ(x)≈Cei∫dx2mℏ2(E−V(x))
+θ2mℏ2(E−V(x))4

Case 2

If the phase varies slowly as compared to the

amplitude,

B0(x)=0

and

A0(x)=±2m(V(x)−E)

which
corresponds to tunneling. Resolving the next
order of the expansion yields

Ψ(x)≈C+e+∫dx2mℏ2(V(x)−E)
+C−e−∫dx2mℏ2(V(x)−E)2mℏ2(V(x)
−E)4
 In both cases it is apparent from the
denominator that both these approximate
solutions are bad near the classical turning
points

E=V(x)

. Away from the potential hill, the

particle acts similar to a free and oscillating
wave; beneath the potential hill, the particle
undergoes exponential changes in
amplitude. By considering the behaviour at
these limits and classical turning points a
global solution can be made.

To start, a classical turning point,

x1

is chosen and

2mℏ2(V(x)−E)

is expanded in a power
 series about

x1

2mℏ2(V(x)
−E)=v1(x−x1)+v2(x−x1)2+⋯

Keeping only the first order term ensures

linearity:

2mℏ2(V(x)−E)=v1(x−x1).

Using this approximation, the equation near

x1

becomes a differential equation:

d2dx2Ψ(x)=v1(x−x1)Ψ(x).
 This can be solved using Airy functions as
solutions.

Ψ(x)=CAAi(v13(x−x1))
+CBBi(v13(x−x1))

Taking these solutions for all classical

turning points, a global solution can be
formed that links the limiting solutions. Given
the two coefficients on one side of a classical
turning point, the two coefficients on the
other side of a classical turning point can be
determined by using this local solution to
connect them.

Hence, the Airy function solutions will

asymptote into sine, cosine and exponential
functions in the proper limits. The
relationships between

C,θ

and
 C+,C−

are

C+=12Ccos⁡(θ−π4)

and

Quantum tunnelling through a barrier. At

the origin (x = 0), there is a very high, but
narrow potential barrier. A significant
tunnelling effect can be seen.

C−=−Csin⁡(θ−π4)

With the coefficients found, the global

solution can be found. Therefore, the
transmission coefficient for a particle
tunneling through a single potential barrier is
 T(E)=e−2∫x1x2dx2mℏ2[V(x)−E],

where

x1,x2

are the two classical turning points for

the potential barrier.

For a rectangular barrier, this expression

simplifies to:

T(E)=e−22mℏ2(V0−E)(x2−x1)

Iron(II) sulfide or ferrous sulfide (Br.E. sulphide) is one of a family of chemical

compounds and minerals with the approximate formula FeS. Iron sulfides are often iron-
deficient non-stoichiometric. All are black, water-insoluble solids.

Preparation and structure[edit]

[1]
FeS can be obtained by the heating of iron and sulfur:

Fe + S → FeS

FeS adopts the nickel arsenide structure, featuring octahedral Fe centers and trigonal
prismatic sulfide sites.
Reactions[edit]
[2]
Iron sulfide reacts with hydrochloric acid, releasing hydrogen sulfide:

FeS + 2 HCl → FeCl2 + H2S

FeS + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2S

In moist air, iron sulfides oxidize to hydrated ferrous sulfate.

Biology and biogeochemistry[edit]

An overcooked hard-boiled egg, showing the distinctive green coating on the yolk caused by the
presence of iron(II) sulfide

Iron sulfides occur widely in nature in the form of iron–sulfur proteins.

As organic matter decays under low-oxygen (or hypoxic) conditions such as in swamps
or dead zones of lakes and oceans, sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce various sulfates
present in the water, producing hydrogen sulfide. Some of the hydrogen sulfide will
react with metal ions in the water or solid to produce iron or metal sulfides, which are
not water-soluble. These metal sulfides, such as iron(II) sulfide, are often black or
brown, leading to the color of sludge.

Pyrrhotite is a waste product of the Desulfovibrio bacteria, a sulfate reducing bacteria.

When eggs are cooked for a long time, the yolk's surface may turn green. This color
change is due to iron(II) sulfide, which forms as iron from the yolk reacts with hydrogen
[3]
sulfide released from the egg white by the heat. This reaction occurs more rapidly in
[4]
older eggs as the whites are more alkaline.
The presence of ferrous sulfide as a visible black precipitate in the growth medium
peptone iron agar can be used to distinguish between microorganisms that produce the
cysteine metabolizing enzyme cysteine desulfhydrase and those that do not. Peptone
iron agar contains the amino acid cysteine and a chemical indicator, ferric citrate. The
degradation of cysteine releases hydrogen sulfide gas that reacts with the ferric citrate
to produce ferrous sulfide.

See also[edit]
● Iron sulfide
● Troilite
● Pyrite
● Iron-sulfur world theory

References[edit]
● ^ H. Lux "Iron (II) Sulfide" in Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd
Ed. Edited by G. Brauer, Academic Press, 1963, NY. Vol. 1. p. 1502.
● ^ Hydrogen Sulfide Generator
● ^ Belle Lowe (1937), "The formation of ferrous sulfide in cooked eggs",
Experimental cookery from the chemical and physical standpoint, John Wiley &
Sons
● ^ Harold McGee (2004), McGee on Food and Cooking, Hodder and Stoughton

show

● V
● T
● E

Iron compounds

show

● V
● T
● E
 2−
Sulfides (S )

Categories:

Monosulfides
Non-stoichiometric compounds
Sulfide minerals
Nickel arsenide structure type
This page was last edited on 25 October 2023, at 17:20 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; ad

[14]
eviously by J. J. Thomson in his series of lectures at Yale University in May
1903 that the dynamic equilibrium between the velocity generated by a
concentration gradient given by Fick's law and the velocity due to the
variation of the partial pressure caused when ions are set in motion "gives
us a method of determining Avogadro's Constant which is independent of
any hypothesis as to the shape or size of molecules, or of the way in which
[14]
they act upon each other".

An identical expression to Einstein's formula for the diffusion coefficient was also found
[15]
by Walther Nernst in 1888 in which he expressed the diffusion coefficient as the ratio
of the osmotic pressure to the ratio of the frictional force and the velocity to which it
gives rise. The former was equated to the law of van 't Hoff while the latter was given by
Stokes's law. He writes

k′=po/k

for the diffusion coefficient k′, where

po

is the osmotic pressure and k is the ratio of the frictional force to the molecular
viscosity which he assumes is given by Stokes's formula for the viscosity. Introducing
the ideal gas law per unit volume for the osmotic pressure, the formula becomes
[16]
identical to that of Einstein's. The use of Stokes's law in Nernst's case, as well as in
Einstein and Smoluchowski, is not strictly applicable since it does not apply to the case
[17]
where the radius of the sphere is small in comparison with the mean free path.
At first, the predictions of Einstein's formula were seemingly refuted by a series of
experiments by Svedberg in 1906 and 1907, which gave displacements of the particles
as 4 to 6 times the predicted value, and by Henri in 1908 who found displacements 3
[18]
times greater than Einstein's formula predicted. But Einstein's predictions were finally
confirmed in a series of experiments carried out by Chaudesaigues in 1908 and Perrin
in 1909. The confirmation of Einstein's theory constituted empirical progress for the
kinetic theory of heat. In essence, Einstein showed that the motion can be predicted
directly from the kinetic model of thermal equilibrium. The importance of the theory lay
in the fact that it confirmed the kinetic theory's account of the second law of
[19]
thermodynamics as being an essentially statistical law.

Duration: 1 minute and 53 seconds.

1:53

Brownian motion model of the trajectory of a particle of dye in water.

Smoluchowski model[edit]

[20]
Smoluchowski's theory of Brownian motion starts from the same premise as that of
Einstein and derives the same probability distribution ρ(x, t) for the displacement of a
Brownian particle along the x in time t. He therefore gets the same expression for the
mean squared displacement:

E[(Δx)2]

. However, when he relates it to a particle of mass m moving at a velocity u

which is the result of a frictional force governed by Stokes's law, he finds

E[(Δx)2]=2Dt=t3281mu2πμa=t642712mu23πμa,

where μ is the viscosity coefficient,

and a is the radius of the particle. Associating the kinetic energy
 Thermal
mu2/2

equilibrium
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Not to be confused with Thermodynamic equilibrium.

 Development of a thermal equilibrium in a closed system over time through a heat flow that
levels out temperature differences

Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal
energy between them when they are connected by a path permeable to heat. Thermal
equilibrium obeys the zeroth law of thermodynamics. A system is said to be in thermal
equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatially uniform and
temporally constant.

Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are always in thermal equilibrium, but the

converse is not always true. If the connection between the systems allows transfer of
energy as 'change in internal energy' but does not allow transfer of matter or transfer of
energy as work, the two systems may reach thermal equilibrium without reaching
thermodynamic equilibrium.

Two varieties of thermal

equilibrium[edit]
Relation of thermal equilibrium between two thermally
connected bodies[edit]

The relation of thermal equilibrium is an instance of equilibrium between two bodies,

which means that it refers to transfer through a selectively permeable partition of matter
or work; it is called a diathermal connection. According to Lieb and Yngvason, the
essential meaning of the relation of thermal equilibrium includes that it is reflexive and
symmetric. It is not included in the essential meaning whether it is or is not transitive.
After discussing the semantics of the definition, they postulate a substantial physical
axiom, that they call the "zeroth law of thermodynamics", that thermal equilibrium is a
transitive relation. They comment that the equivalence classes of systems so
[1]
established are called isotherms.

Internal thermal equilibrium of an isolated body[edit]

Thermal equilibrium of a body in itself refers to the body when it is isolated. The
background is that no heat enters or leaves it, and that it is allowed unlimited time to
settle under its own intrinsic characteristics. When it is completely settled, so that
macroscopic change is no longer detectable, it is in its own thermal equilibrium. It is not
implied that it is necessarily in other kinds of internal equilibrium. For example, it is
possible that a body might reach internal thermal equilibrium but not be in internal
[2]
chemical equilibrium; glass is an example.

One may imagine an isolated system, initially not in its own state of internal thermal
equilibrium. It could be subjected to a fictive thermodynamic operation of partition into
two subsystems separated by nothing, no wall. One could then consider the possibility
of transfers of energy as heat between the two subsystems. A long time after the fictive
partition operation, the two subsystems will reach a practically stationary state, and so
be in the relation of thermal equilibrium with each other. Such an adventure could be
conducted in indefinitely many ways, with different fictive partitions. All of them will
result in subsystems that could be shown to be in thermal equilibrium with each other,
testing subsystems from different partitions. For this reason, an isolated system, initially
not its own state of internal thermal equilibrium, but left for a long time, practically
always will reach a final state which may be regarded as one of internal thermal
equilibrium. Such a final state is one of spatial uniformity or homogeneity of
[3]
temperature. The existence of such states is a basic postulate of classical
[4][5]
thermodynamics. This postulate is sometimes, but not often, called the minus first
[6]
law of thermodynamics. A notable exception exists for isolated quantum systems
which are many-body localized and which never reach internal thermal equilibrium.

Thermal contact[edit]
Heat can flow into or out of a closed system by way of thermal conduction or of thermal
radiation to or from a thermal reservoir, and when this process is effecting net transfer
of heat, the system is not in thermal equilibrium. While the transfer of energy as heat
continues, the system's temperature can be changing.

Bodies prepared with separately

uniform temperatures, then put
into purely thermal
communication with each other[edit]
If bodies are prepared with separately microscopically stationary states, and are then
put into purely thermal connection with each other, by conductive or radiative pathways,
they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other just when the connection is followed
by no change in either body. But if initially they are not in a relation of thermal
equilibrium, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder, by whatever pathway,
conductive or radiative, is available, and this flow will continue until thermal equilibrium
is reached and then they will have the same temperature.

[7][8]
One form of thermal equilibrium is radiative exchange equilibrium. Two bodies,
each with its own uniform temperature, in solely radiative connection, no matter how far
apart, or what partially obstructive, reflective, or refractive, obstacles lie in their path of
radiative exchange, not moving relative to one another, will exchange thermal radiation,
in net the hotter transferring energy to the cooler, and will exchange equal and opposite
amounts just when they are at the same temperature. In this situation, Kirchhoff's law of
equality of radiative emissivity and absorptivity and the Helmholtz reciprocity principle
are in play.

Change of internal state of an

isolated system[edit]
If an initially isolated physical system, without internal walls that establish adiabatically
isolated subsystems, is left long enough, it will usually reach a state of thermal
equilibrium in itself, in which its temperature will be uniform throughout, but not
necessarily a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if there is some structural barrier that
can prevent some possible processes in the system from reaching equilibrium; glass is
an example. Classical thermodynamics in general considers idealized systems that
have reached internal equilibrium, and idealized transfers of matter and energy
between them.

An isolated physical system may be inhomogeneous, or may be composed of several

subsystems separated from each other by walls. If an initially inhomogeneous physical
system, without internal walls, is isolated by a thermodynamic operation, it will in
general over time change its internal state. Or if it is composed of several subsystems
separated from each other by walls, it may change its state after a thermodynamic
operation that changes its walls. Such changes may include change of temperature or
spatial distribution of temperature, by changing the state of constituent materials. A rod
of iron, initially prepared to be hot at one end and cold at the other, when isolated, will
change so that its temperature becomes uniform all along its length; during the process,
the rod is not in thermal equilibrium until its temperature is uniform. In a system
prepared as a block of ice floating in a bath of hot water, and then isolated, the ice can
melt; during the melting, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but eventually, its
temperature will become uniform; the block of ice will not re-form. A system prepared as
a mixture of petrol vapour and air can be ignited by a spark and produce carbon dioxide
and water; if this happens in an isolated system, it will increase the temperature of the
system, and during the increase, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but
eventually, the system will settle to a uniform temperature.

Such changes in isolated systems are irreversible in the sense that while such a
change will occur spontaneously whenever the system is prepared in the same way, the
reverse change will practically never occur spontaneously within the isolated system;
this is a large part of the content of the second law of thermodynamics. Truly perfectly
isolated systems do not occur in nature, and always are artificially prepared.

In a gravitational field[edit]

One may consider a system contained in a very tall adiabatically isolating vessel with
rigid walls initially containing a thermally heterogeneous distribution of material, left for a
long time under the influence of a steady gravitational field, along its tall dimension, due
to an outside body such as the earth. It will settle to a state of uniform temperature
throughout, though not of uniform pressure or density, and perhaps containing several
phases. It is then in internal thermal equilibrium and even in thermodynamic equilibrium.
This means that all local parts of the system are in mutual radiative exchange
[8]
equilibrium. This means that the temperature of the system is spatially uniform. This is
so in all cases, including those of non-uniform external force fields. For an externally
imposed gravitational field, this may be proved in macroscopic thermodynamic terms,
[9][10][11][12][13]
by the calculus of variations, using the method of Langrangian multipliers.
[14]
Considerations of kinetic theory or statistical mechanics also support this statement.
[15][16][17][18][19][20][21]

Distinctions between thermal and

thermodynamic equilibria[edit]
There is an important distinction between thermal and thermodynamic equilibrium.
According to Münster (1970), in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, the state
variables of a system do not change at a measurable rate. Moreover, "The proviso 'at a
measurable rate' implies that we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to
specified processes and defined experimental conditions." Also, a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium can be described by fewer macroscopic variables than any
other state of a given body of matter. A single isolated body can start in a state which is
not one of thermodynamic equilibrium, and can change till thermodynamic equilibrium is
reached. Thermal equilibrium is a relation between two bodies or closed systems, in
which transfers are allowed only of energy and take place through a partition permeable
to heat, and in which the transfers have proceeded till the states of the bodies cease to
[22]
change.

An explicit distinction between 'thermal equilibrium' and 'thermodynamic equilibrium' is

made by C.J. Adkins. He allows that two systems might be allowed to exchange heat
but be constrained from exchanging work; they will naturally exchange heat till they
have equal temperatures, and reach thermal equilibrium, but in general, will not be in
thermodynamic equilibrium. They can reach thermodynamic equilibrium when they are
[23]
allowed also to exchange work.

Another explicit distinction between 'thermal equilibrium' and 'thermodynamic

equilibrium' is made by B. C. Eu. He considers two systems in thermal contact, one a
thermometer, the other a system in which several irreversible processes are occurring.
He considers the case in which, over the time scale of interest, it happens that both the
thermometer reading and the irreversible processes are steady. Then there is thermal
equilibrium without thermodynamic equilibrium. Eu proposes consequently that the
zeroth law of thermodynamics can be considered to apply even when thermodynamic
equilibrium is not present; also he proposes that if changes are occurring so fast that a
steady temperature cannot be defined, then "it is no longer possible to describe the
process by means of a thermodynamic formalism. In other words, thermodynamics has
[24]
no meaning for such a process."

Thermal equilibrium of planets[edit]

Main article: Planetary equilibrium temperature

A planet is in thermal equilibrium when the incident energy reaching it (typically the
solar irradiance from its parent star) is equal to the infrared energy radiated away to
space.

See also[edit]
● Thermal center
● Thermodynamic equilibrium
● Radiative equilibrium
● Thermal oscillator

Citations[edit]
 ● '^ Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (1999). The physics and mathematics of the
second law of thermodynamics, Physics Reports, 314..a': 1–96, p. 55–56.
● ^ Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), pp. 249–251.
● ^ Planck, M., (1897/1903), p. 3.
● ^ Tisza, L. (1966), p. 108.
● ^ Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 20.
● ^ Marsland, Robert; Brown, Harvey R.; Valente, Giovanni (2015). "Time and
irreversibility in axiomatic thermodynamics". American Journal of Physics. 83 (7):
628–634. Bibcode:2015AmJPh..83..628M. doi:10.1119/1.4914528.
hdl:11311/1043322. S2CID 117173742.
● ^ Prevost, P. (1791). Mémoire sur l'equilibre du feu. Journal de Physique (Paris),
vol. 38 pp. 314-322.
● ^
● Jump up to:
ab
● Planck, M. (1914), p. 40.
● ^ Gibbs, J.W. (1876/1878), pp. 144-150.
● ^ ter Haar, D., Wergeland, H. (1966), pp. 127–130.
● ^ Münster, A. (1970), pp. 309–310.
● ^ Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 254-256.
● ^ Verkley, W. T. M.; Gerkema, T. (2004). "On Maximum Entropy Profiles".
Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 61 (8): 931–936.
Bibcode:2004JAtS...61..931V. doi:10.1175/1520-
0469(2004)061<0931:OMEP>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469.
● ^ Akmaev, R.A. (2008). On the energetics of maximum-entropy temperature
profiles, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 134:187–197.
● ^ Maxwell, J.C. (1867).
● ^ Boltzmann, L. (1896/1964), p. 143.
● ^ Chapman, S., Cowling, T.G. (1939/1970), Section 4.14, pp. 75–78.
● ^ Partington, J.R. (1949), pp. 275–278.
● ^ Coombes, C.A., Laue, H. (1985). A paradox concerning the temperature
distribution of a gas in a gravitational field, Am. J. Phys., 53: 272–273.
● ^ Román, F.L., White, J.A., Velasco, S. (1995). Microcanonical single-particle
distributions for an ideal gas in a gravitational field, Eur. J. Phys., 16: 83–90.
● ^ Velasco, S., Román, F.L., White, J.A. (1996). On a paradox concerning the
temperature distribution of an ideal gas in a gravitational field, Eur. J. Phys., 17:
43–44.
● ^ Münster, A. (1970), pp. 6, 22, 52.
● ^ Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), pp. 6–7.
● ^ Eu, B.C. (2002). Generalized Thermodynamics. The Thermodynamics of
Irreversible Processes and Generalized Hydrodynamics, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, ISBN 1-4020-0788-4, page 13.

Citation references[edit]
● Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, third edition,
McGraw-Hill, London, ISBN 0-521-25445-0.
● Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of
Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
 ● Boltzmann, L. (1896/1964). Lectures on Gas Theory, translated by S.G.
Brush, University of California Press, Berkeley.
● Chapman, S., Cowling, T.G. (1939/1970). The Mathematical Theory of Non-
uniform gases. An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal
Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, third edition 1970, Cambridge University
Press, London.Contents hide
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Construction of the concept of an adiabatic enclosure
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Definitions of transfer of heat
Thermodynamic stream of thinking
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References
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to
quantum mechanics.

Wave functions of the electron in a hydrogen atom at different energy levels. Quantum
mechanics cannot predict the exact location of a particle in space, only the probability of finding
[1]
it at different locations. The brighter areas represent a higher probability of finding the electron.

Part of a series of articles about

Quantum mechanics

iℏddt|Ψ⟩=H^|Ψ⟩

Schrödinger equation

Introduction
Glossary
History

show

Background

show

Fundamentals

show

Experiments

show
 Formulations

show

Equations

show

Interpretations

show

Advanced topics

show

Scientists

V
T
E

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory that describes the behavior of nature at

[2]: 1.1
and below the scale of atoms. It is the foundation of all quantum physics, which
includes quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum
information science.
Quantum mechanics can describe many systems that classical physics cannot.
Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopic and
(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very small
submicroscopic (atomic and subatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can
be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid at large
[3]
(macroscopic/microscopic) scale.

Quantum systems have bound states that are quantized to discrete values of energy,
momentum, angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems
where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum
systems show characteristics of both particles and waves (wave–particle duality), and
there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior
to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (the uncertainty principle).

Quantum mechanics arose gradually from theories to explain observations that could
not be reconciled with classical physics, such as Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the
black-body radiation problem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency
in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper, which explained the photoelectric effect. These early
attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the "old quantum
theory", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s by Niels
Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Paul Dirac and others. The
modern theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms. In
one of them, a mathematical entity called the wave function provides information, in the
form of probability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy,
momentum, and other physical properties may yield.

Overview and fundamental

concepts
Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical
systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-
atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with
 [4]
thousands of atoms, but its application to human beings raises philosophical
problems, such as Wigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole
[5]
remains speculative. Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified
experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy. For example, the refinement of
quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known as quantum
electrodynamics (QED), has been shown to agree with experiment to within 1 part in
12 [6]
10 when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron.

A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what
will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a probability is found by taking
the square of the absolute value of a complex number, known as a probability
amplitude. This is known as the Born rule, named after physicist Max Born. For
example, a quantum particle like an electron can be described by a wave function,
which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule
to these amplitudes gives a probability density function for the position that the electron
will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best
the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. The
Schrödinger equation relates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one
[7]: 67–87
moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.

One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in

predictability between different measurable quantities. The most famous form of this
uncertainty principle says that no matter how a quantum particle is prepared or how
carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction
for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of its
[7]: 427–435
momentum.

Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the

phenomenon of quantum interference, which is often illustrated with the double-slit
experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source, such as a
laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing
[8]: 102–111 [2]: 1.1–1.8
through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate. The wave
nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere,
producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if
[8]
light consisted of classical particles. However, the light is always found to be
absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the
interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen.
Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each
detected photon passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through
[8]: 109 [9][10]
both slits (as would a wave). However, such experiments demonstrate that
particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through.
This behavior is known as wave–particle duality. In addition to light, electrons, atoms,
and molecules are all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a
[2]
double slit.

Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics is quantum

tunnelling: a particle that goes up against a potential barrier can cross it, even if its
[11]
kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential. In classical mechanics
this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important
consequences, enabling radioactive decay, nuclear fusion in stars, and applications
such as scanning tunnelling microscopy, tunnel diode and tunnel field-effect transistor.
[12][13]

When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation of quantum
entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole
solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called
entanglement "...the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its
[14]
entire departure from classical lines of thought". Quantum entanglement enables
quantum computing and is part of quantum communication protocols, such as quantum
[15]
key distribution and superdense coding. Contrary to popular misconception,
entanglement does not allow sending signals faster than light, as demonstrated by the
[15]
no-communication theorem.
Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for "hidden variables",
hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum
theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum
theory can provide. A collection of results, most significantly Bell's theorem, have
demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact
incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually
operates in accord with any theory of local hidden variables, then the results of a Bell
test will be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been
performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by
[16][17]
local hidden variables.

It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without
introducing the actual mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics
requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but also linear algebra, differential
[18][19]
equations, group theory, and other more advanced subjects. Accordingly, this
article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its
application to some useful and oft-studied examples.

Mathematical formulation
Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics

In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a

quantum mechanical system is a vector

belonging to a (separable) complex Hilbert space

H
 . This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product,

that is, it obeys

⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1

, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global

phase), that is,

and

eiαψ

represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points
in the projective space of a Hilbert space, usually called the complex projective space.
The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for
describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complex square-
integrable functions

L2(C)

, while the Hilbert space for the spin of a single proton is simply the space of two-
dimensional complex vectors

C2

with the usual inner product.

Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by

observables, which are Hermitian (more precisely, self-adjoint) linear operators acting
on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be an eigenvector of an observable, in which
case it is called an eigenstate, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value
of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear
combination of the eigenstates, known as a quantum superposition. When an
observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given
by the Born rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalue

is non-degenerate and the probability is given by

|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2

, where

λ→

is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the
probability is given by

⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩

, where

Pλ

is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these

formulas give instead the probability density.

After the measurement, if result

λ

was obtained, the quantum state is postulated to collapse to

λ→

, in the non-degenerate case, or to

Pλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩

, in the general case. The prob

ore closely defined as a mixture, referencing them in the chemical substances index
allows CAS to offer specific guidance on standard naming of alloy compositions. Non-
stoichiometric compounds are another special case from inorganic chemistry, which
violate the requirement for constant composition. For these substances, it may be
difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium
hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for
example: "the term 'chemical substance' means any organic or inorganic substance of a
particular molecular identity, including – (i) any combination of such substances
[6]
occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature".

Geology[edit]

In the field of geology, inorganic solid substances of uniform composition are known as
[7]
minerals. When two or more minerals are combined to form mixtures (or aggregates),
[8]
they are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid
solutions, such that a single rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in
stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are a common example: anorthoclase is an alkali
aluminum silicate, where the alkali metal is interchangeably either sodium or potassium.

Law[edit]
In law, "chemical substances" may include both pure substances and mixtures with a
defined composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH
defines "monoconstituent substances", "multiconstituent substances" and "substances
of unknown or variable composition". The latter two consist of multiple chemical
substances; however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical
analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is an
extremely complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing
process. Therefore, although the exact chemical identity is unknown, identification can
be made with a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures.

Polymer chemistry[edit]

Polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses,

each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the
polymer may be defined by a known precursor or reaction(s) and the molar mass
distribution. For example, polyethylene is a mixture of very long chains of -CH2-
repeating units, and is generally sold in several molar mass distributions, LDPE, MDPE,
HDPE and UHMWPE.

History[edit]
The concept of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth
century after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure

chemical compounds such as basic cop Molecule

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Molecular)

For other uses, see Molecule (disambiguation).

This article
includes a list of
general
references, but
it lacks
sufficient
corresponding
inline
citations.
Please help to
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 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a PTCDA molecule, in which the five six-carbon rings
[1]
are visible.

A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene molecules, which consist of linear chains
[2]
of five carbon rings.

[3]
AFM image of 1,5,9-trioxo-13-azatriangulene and its chemical structure.

A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known
as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which
[4][5][6][7][8]
satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry,
the distinction from ions is dropped and molecule is often used when referring to
polyatomic ions.

A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element,
e.g. two atoms in the oxygen molecule (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical
compound composed of more than one element, e.g. water (two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom; H2O). In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used
for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. This relaxes the requirement that
[9]
a molecule contains two or more atoms, since the noble gases are individual atoms.
Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen
[10]
bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules.

Concepts similar to molecules have been discussed since ancient times, but modern
investigation into the nature of molecules and their bonds began in the 17th century.
Refined over time by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Amedeo Avogadro, Jean Perrin,
and Linus Pauling, the study of molecules is today known as molecular physics or
molecular chemistry.

Etymology
According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word
"molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass. The word is derived
from French molécule (1678), from Neo-Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles
"mass, barrier". The word, which until the late 18th century was used only in Latin form,
[11][12]
became popular after being used in works of philosophy by Descartes.

History
Main article: History of molecular theory

The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules
has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest
particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical
[13]
properties. This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary
experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline
networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.

The modern concept of molecules can be traced back towards pre-scientific and Greek
philosophers such as Leucippus and Democritus who argued that all the universe is
composed of atoms and voids. Circa 450 BC Empedocles imagined fundamental
elements (fire ( ), earth ( ), air ( ), and water ( )) and "forces" of attraction and
repulsion allowing the elements to interact.

A fifth element, the incorruptible quintessence aether, was considered to be the

fundamental building block of the heavenly bodies. The viewpoint of Leucippus and
Empedocles, along with the aether, was accepted by Aristotle and passed to medieval
and renaissance Europe.

In a more concrete manner, however, the concept of aggregates or units of bonded

atoms, i.e. "molecules", traces its origins to Robert Boyle's 1661 hypothesis, in his
famous treatise The Sceptical Chymist, that matter is composed of clusters of particles
and that chemical change results from the rearrangement of the clusters. Boyle argued
that matter's basic elements consisted of various sorts and sizes of particles, called
"corpuscles", which were capable of arranging themselves into groups. In 1789, William
Higgins published views on what he called combinations of "ultimate" particles, which
foreshadowed the concept of valency bonds. If, for example, according to Higgins, the
force between the ultimate particle of oxygen and the ultimate particle of nitrogen were
6, then the strength of the force would be divided accordingly, and similarly for the other
combinations of ultimate particles.

[14]
Amedeo Avogadro created the word "molecule". His 1811 paper "Essay on
Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies", he
[15]
essentially states, i.e. according to Partington's A Short History of Chemistry, that:

The smallest particles of gases are not necessarily simple atoms, but are made up of a
certain number of these atoms united by attraction to form a single molecule.

In coordination with these concepts, in 1833 the French chemist Marc Antoine Auguste
[16]
Gaudin presented a clear account of Avogadro's hypothesis, regarding atomic
weights, by making use of "volume diagrams", which clearly show both semi-correct
molecular geometries, such as a linear water molecule, and correct molecular formulas,
such as H2O:

Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin's volume diagrams of molecules in the gas phase (1833)
In 1917, an unknown American undergraduate chemical engineer named Linus Pauling
was learning the Dalton hook-and-eye bonding method, which was the mainstream
description of bonds between atoms at the time. Pauling, however, was not satisfied
with this method and looked to the newly emerging field of quantum physics for a new
method. In 1926, French physicist Jean Perrin received the Nobel Prize in physics for
proving, conclusively, the existence of molecules. He did this by calculating the
Avogadro constant using three different methods, all involving liquid phase systems.
First, he used a gamboge soap-like emulsion, second by doing experimental work on
Brownian motion, and third by confirming Einstein's theory of particle rotation in the
[17]
liquid phase.

In 1927, the physicists Fritz London and Walter Heitler applied the new quantum
mechanics to the deal with the saturable, nondynamic forces of attraction and repulsion,
i.e., exchange forces, of the hydrogen molecule. Their valence bond treatment of this
[18]
problem, in their joint paper, was a landmark in that it brought chemistry under
quantum mechanics. Their work was an influence on Pauling, who had just received his
doctorate and visited Heitler and London in Zürich on a Guggenheim Fellowship.

Subsequently, in 1931, building on the work of Heitler and London and on theories
found in Lewis' famous article, Pauling published his ground-breaking article "The
[19]
Nature of the Chemical Bond" in which he used quantum mechanics to calculate
properties and structures of molecules, such as angles between bonds and rotation
about bonds. On these concepts, Pauling developed hybridization theory to account for
bonds in molecules such as CH4, in which four sp³ hybridised orbitals are overlapped by
hydrogen's 1s orbital, yielding four sigma (σ) bonds. The four bonds are of the same
length and strength, which yields a molecular structure as shown below:

A schematic presentation of hybrid orbitals overlapping hydrogens' s orbitals

Molecular science
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics
necopper(II) sulfate [Cu(NH3)4]SO4·H2O. The metal is known as a "metal center" and
the substance that coordinates to the center is called a "ligand". However, the center
does not need to be a metal, as exemplified by boron trifluoride etherate BF3OEt2,
where the highly Lewis acidic, but non-metallic boron center takes the role of the
"metal". If the ligand bonds to the metal center with multiple atoms, the complex is
called a chelate.

In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same
composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually
have substantially different chemical properties, and often may be isolated without
spontaneously interconverting. A common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former
is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or
acid-base catalysis.

However, tautomers are an exception: the isomerization occurs spontaneously in

ordinary conditions, such that a pure substance cannot be isolated into its tautomers,
even if these can be identified spectroscopically or even isolated in special conditions.
A common example is glucose, which has open-chain and ring forms. One cannot
manufacture pure open-chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the
hemiacetal form.

Substances versus mixtures[edit]

Main article: Mixture

Cranberry glass, while appearing homogeneous, is a mixture consisting of glass and colloidal
gold particles of about 40 nm in diameter, giving it a red color.

All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often
intimately mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and
they do not have a fixed composition. Butter, soil and wood are common examples of
mixtures. Sometimes, mixtures can be separated into their component substances by
[13]
mechanical processes, such as chromatography, distillation, or evaporation.

Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed
together in any ratio to form a yellow-grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and
the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be
separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away
from the sulfur.

In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for
each atom of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol) of iron to 32 grams (1 mol) of
sulfur), a chemical reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound
iron(II) sulfide, with chemical formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the
properties of a chemical substance and is not a mixture. Iron(II) sulfide has its own
distinct properties such as melting point and solubility, and the two elements cannot be
separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be unable to recover the
iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound.

Chemicals versus chemical

substances[edit]

Chemicals in graduated cylinders and beaker.

Main article: Chemical free

While the term chemical substance is a precise technical term that is synonymous with
chemical for chemists, the word chemical is used in general usage to refer to both
[14]
(pure) chemical substances and mixtures (often called compounds), and especially
[15][16][17]
when produced or purified in a laboratory or an industrial process. In other
words, the chemical substances of which fruits and vegetables, for example, are
naturally composed even when growing wild are not called "chemicals" in general
usage. In countries that require a list of ingredients in products, the "chemicals" listed
are industrially produced "chemical substances". The word "chemical" is also often used
[15][16]
to refer to addictive, narcotic, or mind-altering drugs.

Within the chemical industry, manufactured "chemicals" are chemical substances,

which can be classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and
chemicals found in research only:

● Bulk chemicals are produced in very large quantities, usually with highly
optimized continuous processes and to a relatively low price.
● Fine chemicals are produced at a high cost in small quantities for special low-
volume applications such as biocides, pharmaceuticals and speciality
chemicals for technical applications.
● Research chemicals are produced individually for research, such as when
searching for synthetic routes or screening substances for pharmaceutical
activity. In effect, their price per gram is very high, although they are not sold.

The cause of the difference in production volume is the complexity of the molecular
structure of the chemical. Bulk chemicals are usually much less complex. While fine
chemicals may be more complex, many of them are simple enough to be sold as
"building blocks" in the synthesis of more complex molecules targeted for single use, as
named above. The production of a chemical includes not only its synthesis but also its
pu

●
2) on top of a silicon substrate, commonly by thermal oxidation and
depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly
used). As silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent
to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a
semiconductor.

When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of

charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with NA the

density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive voltage,

VG, from gate to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively
charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a

carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see doping). If VG is

high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in an inversion
layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the semiconductor and the
insulator.
Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the
inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the

threshold voltage. When the voltage between transistor gate and source (VG) exceeds

the threshold voltage (Vth), the difference is known as overdrive voltage.

This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET, which requires the
addition of n-type source and drain regions.

MOS capacitors and band diagrams[edit]

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The MOS capacitor structure is the heart of the MOSFET. Consider a MOS capacitor
where the silicon base is of p-type. If a positive voltage is applied at the gate, holes
which are at the surface of the p-type substrate will be repelled by the electric field
generated by the voltage applied. At first, the holes will simply be repelled and what will
remain on the surface will be immobile (negative) atoms of the acceptor type, which
creates a depletion region on the surface. A hole is created by an acceptor atom, e.g.,
boron, which has one less electron than a silicon atom. Holes are not actually repelled,
being non-entities; electrons are attracted by the positive field, and fill these holes. This
creates a depletion region where no charge carriers exist because the electron is now
fixed onto the atom and immobile.

As the voltage at the gate increases, there will be a point at which the surface above
the depletion region will be converted from p-type into n-type, as electrons from the bulk
area will start to get attracted by the larger electric field. This is known as inversion. The
threshold voltage at which this conversion happens is one of the most important
parameters in a MOSFET.

In the case of a p-type MOSFET, bulk inversion happens when the intrinsic energy level
at the surface becomes smaller than the Fermi level at the surface. This can be seen on
a band diagram. The Fermi level defines the type of semiconductor in discussion. If the
Fermi level is equal to the Intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of intrinsic, or pure type.
If the Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band (valence band) then the
semiconductor type will be of n-type (p-type).

[clarify]
When the gate voltage is increased in a positive sense (for the given example),
this will shift the intrinsic energy level band so that it will curve downwards towards the
valence band. If the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band (for p-type), there will be
a point when the Intrinsic level will start to cross the Fermi level and when the voltage
reaches the threshold voltage, the intrinsic level does cross the Fermi level, and that is
what is known as inversion. At that point, the surface of the semiconductor is inverted
from p-type into n-type.

If the Fermi level lies above the intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of n-type, therefore
at inversion, when the intrinsic level reaches and crosses the Fermi level (which lies
closer to the valence band), the semiconductor type changes at the surface as dictated
by the relative positions of the Fermi and Intrinsic energy levels.

Structure and channel formation[edit]

See also: Field effect (semiconductor)

Channel formation in nMOS MOSFET shown as band diagram: Top panels: An applied gate
voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left). The charge inducing the bending is
balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion charge (right). Bottom panel: A larger applied
voltage further depletes holes but conduction band lowers enough in energy to populate a
conducting channel.

C–V profile for a bulk MOSFET with different oxide thickness. The leftmost part of the curve
corresponds to accumulation. The valley in the middle corresponds to depletion. The curve on
the right corresponds to inversion.
A MOSFET is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance
between a body electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated
from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer. If dielectrics other than an oxide
are employed, the device may be referred to as a metal-insulator-semiconductor FET
(MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional
terminals (source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are
separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must
both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The source and drain
(unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by a "+" sign after the type of doping.

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are n+ regions
and the body is a p region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the
source and drain are p+ regions and the body is a n region. The source is so named
because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel, holes for p-
channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers
leave the channel.

The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the
Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges.

See also: Depletion region

With sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level,
and holes from the body are driven away from the gate.

At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the conduction band edge is
brought close to the Fermi level, populating the surface with electrons in an inversion
layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region and the oxide. This conducting
channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is conducted through it
when a voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the
gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer and therefore increases the
current flow between the source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value,
the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can
flow between the source and the drain.
When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-
channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with
opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the
threshold value (a negative voltage for the p-channel) is applied between gate and
source, the channel disappears and only a very small subthreshold current can flow
between the source and the drain. The device may comprise a silicon on insulator
device in which a buried oxide is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the
channel region between the gate dielectric and the buried oxide region is very thin, the
channel is referred to as an ultrathin channel region with the source and drain regions
formed on either side in or above the thin semiconductor layer. Other semiconductor
materials may be employed. When the source and drain regions are formed above the
channel in whole or in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain regions.

Parameter nMOSFET pMOSFET

Source/drain n-type p-type

type

Channel type n-type p-type

(MOS
capacitor)

G Polysilico n+ p+
n
 t
Metal φm ~ Si φm ~ Si
conduction valence band
band

Well type p-type n-type

Threshold Positive Negative

voltage, Vth (enhanc (enhanc

ement) ement)
Negative Positive
(depleti (depleti
on) on)

Band-bending Downwards Upwards

Inversion layer Electrons Holes

carriers

Substrate type p-type n-type

as earlier asserted. Along the line, the above expression for

|Vnet(x)|2

is seen to oscillate sinusoidally between

|Vmin|2

and

|Vmax|2

with a period of

2π

2k

. This is half of the guided wavelength λ =

2π

for the frequency f . That

[7][8]
following NSSL's research. In Canada, Environment Canada constructed the King
[9]
City station, with a 5 cm research Doppler radar, by 1985; McGill University
dopplerized its radar (J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory) in 1993. This led to a complete
[10]
Canadian Doppler network between 1998 and 2004. France and other European
countries had switched to Doppler networks by the early 2000s. Meanwhile, rapid
advances in computer technology led to algorithms to detect signs of severe weather,
and many applications for media outlets and researchers.
After 2000, research on dual polarization technology moved into operational use,
increasing the amount of information available on precipitation type (e.g. rain vs. snow).
"Dual polarization" means that microwave radiation which is polarized both horizontally
and vertically (with respect to the ground) is emitted. Wide-scale deployment was done
by the end of the decade or the beginning of the next in some countries such as the
[11]
United States, France, and Canada. In April 2013, all United States National Weather
[12]
Service NEXRADs were completely dual-polarized.

Since 2003, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has been
experimenting with phased-array radar as a replacement for conventional parabolic
antenna to provide more time resolution in atmospheric sounding. This could be
significant with severe thunderstorms, as their evolution can be better evaluated with
more timely data.

Also in 2003, the National Science Foundation established the Engineering Research

Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensi Schottky

diode
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"FET" redirects here. For other uses, see FET (disambiguation).

Cross-sectional view of a field-effect transistor, showing source, gate and drain terminals

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that uses an electric field to
control the flow of current in a semiconductor. It comes in two types: junction FET
(JFET) and metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET). FETs have three terminals:
source, gate, and drain. FETs control the flow of current by the application of a voltage
to the gate, which in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and source.

FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-type
operation. That is, FETs use either electrons (n-channel) or holes (p-channel) as charge
carriers in their operation, but not both. Many different types of field effect transistors
exist. Field effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low
frequencies. The most widely used field-effect transistor is the MOSFET (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor).

History[edit]
Further information: History of the transistor

Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, who proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor in 1925.

The concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) was first patented by the Austro-Hungarian
[1]
born physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but they were
unable to build a working practical semiconducting device based on the concept. The
transistor effect was later observed and explained by John Bardeen and Walter Houser
Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947, shortly after the 17-
year patent expired. Shockley initially attempted to build a working FET by trying to
modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to
problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper
compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons
behind their failure to build a working FET, it led to Bardeen and Brattain instead
inventing the point-contact transistor in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's bipolar
[2][3]
junction transistor in 1948.

The first FET device to be successfully built was the junction field-effect transistor
[2] [4]
(JFET). A JFET was first patented by Heinrich Welker in 1945. The static induction
transistor (SIT), a type of JFET with a short channel, was invented by Japanese
engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950. Following Shockley's
theoretical treatment on the JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was built by
[5]
George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross in 1953. However, the JFET still had issues
[6]
affecting junction transistors in general. Junction transistors were relatively bulky
devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited
them to a number of specialised applications. The insulated-gate field-effect transistor
(IGFET) was theorized as a potential alternative to junction transistors, but researchers
were unable to build working IGFETs, largely due to the troublesome surface state
[6]
barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating into the material. By
the mid-1950s, researchers had largely given up on the FET concept, and instead
[7]
focused on bipolar junction transistor (BJT) technology.

The foundations of MOSFET technology were laid down by the work of William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. Shockley independently envisioned the
FET concept in 1945, but he was unable to build a working device. The next year
Bardeen explained his failure in terms of surface states. Bardeen applied the theory of
surface states on semiconductors (previous work on surface states was done by
Shockley in 1939 and Igor Tamm in 1932) and realized that the external field was
blocked at the surface because of extra electrons which are drawn to the semiconductor
surface. Electrons become trapped in those localized states forming an inversion layer.
Bardeen's hypothesis marked the birth of surface physics. Bardeen then decided to
make use of an inversion layer instead of the very thin layer of semiconductor which
Shockley had envisioned in his FET designs. Based on his theory, in 1948 Bardeen
patented the progenitor of MOSFET, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion
layer. The inversion layer confines the flow of minority carriers, increasing modulation
and conductivity, although its electron transport depends on the gate's insulator or
quality of oxide if used as an insulator, deposited above the inversion layer. Bardeen's
patent as well as the concept of an inversion layer forms the basis of CMOS technology
today. In 1976 Shockley described Bardeen's surface state hypothesis "as one of the
[8]
most significant research ideas in the semiconductor program".

After Bardeen's surface state theory the trio tried to overcome the effect of surface
states. In late 1947, Robert Gibney and Brattain suggested the use of electrolyte placed
between metal and semiconductor to overcome the effects of surface states. Their FET
device worked, but amplification was poor. Bardeen went further and suggested to
rather focus on the conductivity of the inversion layer. Further experiments led them to
replace electrolyte with a solid oxide layer in the hope of getting better results. Their
goal was to penetrate the oxide layer and get to the inversion layer. However, Bardeen
suggested they switch from silicon to germanium and in the process their oxide got
inadvertently washed off. They stumbled upon a completely different transistor, the
point-contact transistor. Lillian Hoddeson argues that "had Brattain and Bardeen been
working with silicon instead of germanium they would have stumbled across a
[8][9][10][11][12]
successful field effect transistor".

By the end of the first half of the 1950s, following theoretical and experimental work of
Bardeen, Brattain, Kingston, Morrison and others, it became more clear that there were
two types of surface states. Fast surface states were found to be associated with the
bulk and a semiconductor/oxide interface. Slow surface states were found to be
associated with the oxide layer because of adsorption of atoms, molecules and ions by
the oxide from the ambient. The latter were found to be much more numerous and to
have much longer relaxation times. At the time Philo Farnsworth and others came up
with various methods of producing atomically clean semiconductor surfaces.

In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derrick accidentally covered the surface of silicon
wafer with a layer of silicon dioxide. They showed that oxide layer prevented certain
dopants into the silicon wafer, while allowing for others, thus discovering the passivating
effect of oxidation on the semiconductor surface. Their further work demonstrated how
to etch small openings in the oxide layer to diffuse dopants into selected areas of the
silicon wafer. In 1957, they published a research paper and patented their technique
summarizing their work. The technique they developed is known as oxide diffusion
masking, which would later be used in the fabrication of MOSFET devices. At Bell Labs,
the importance of Frosch's technique was immediately realized. Results of their work
circulated around Bell Labs in the form of BTL memos before being published in 1957.
At Shockley Semiconductor, Shockley had circulated the preprint of their article in
[6][13][14]
December 1956 to all his senior staff, including Jean Hoerni.

In 1955, Ian Munro Ross filed a patent for a FeFET or MFSFET. Its structure was like
that of a modern inversion channel MOSFET, but ferroelectric material was used as a
dielectric/insulator instead of oxide. He envisioned it as a form of memory, years before
the floating gate MOSFET. In February 1957, John Wallmark filed a patent for FET in
which germanium monoxide was used as a gate dielectric, but he didn't pursue the idea.
In his other patent filed the same year he described a double gate FET. In March 1957,
in his laboratory notebook, Ernesto Labate, a research scientist at Bell Labs, conceived
of a device similar to the later proposed MOSFET, although Labate's device didn't
[15][16][17][18]
explicitly use silicon dioxide as an insulator.

Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)[edit]

Main article: MOSFET

Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS field-effect
transistor) in 1959.
A breakthrough in FET research came with the work of Egyptian engineer Mohamed
[3]
Atalla in the late 1950s. In 1958 he presented experimental work which showed that
growing thin silicon oxide on clean silicon surface leads to neutralization of surface
states. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the
semiconductor industry as it made mass-production of silicon integrated circuits
[19][20]
possible.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was then invented by

[21][22]
Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959. The MOSFET largely superseded
[2]
both the bipolar transistor and the JFET, and had a profound effect on digital
[23][22] [24]
electronic development. With its high scalability, and much lower power
[25]
consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made
[26]
it possible to build high-density integrated circuits. The MOSFET is also capable of
[27]
handling higher power than the JFET. The MOSFET was the first truly compact
[6]
transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. The
[20]
MOSFET thus became the most common type of transistor in computers, electronics,
[28]
and communications technology (such as smartphones). The US Patent and
Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture
[28]
around the world".

CMOS (complementary MOS), a semiconductor device fabrication process for

MOSFETs, was developed by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild
[29][30]
Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by
[31]
Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. A double-gate MOSFET was first
demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa
[32][33]
and Yutaka Hayashi. FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D non-planar
multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at
[34][35]
Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.

Basic information