CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

Education is a broad term encompassing the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values,

beliefs, and habits. It is typically formalized through institutions such as schools, colleges,

and universities, as well as through informal means like self-directed learning and practical

experiences. Education plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' intellectual, social, and

emotional development, enabling them to participate effectively in society and pursue

personal and professional goals.

In the realm of education, a principal serves as the administrative leader of a school,

overseeing its day-to-day operations, managing staff, and fostering a positive learning

environment for students. Principals are responsible for implementing educational policies,

ensuring adherence to curriculum standards, and maintaining a safe and supportive

atmosphere conducive to learning. As articulated by the National Association of Elementary

School Principals (NAESP), the principal plays a pivotal role in shaping the school's vision

and mission, collaborating with teachers and stakeholders, and addressing challenges to

promote student success (NAESP, 2018). Principals also often act as liaisons between the

school and the broader community, engaging parents, local organizations, and educational

authorities to support the school's objectives and enhance student outcomes.

A public secondary school specifically refers to a government-funded educational

institution that provides education to students typically in grades 9 through 12, or equivalent,

depending on the country's educational system. These schools are often part of a larger

education system and are open to all students within a specified geographic area, regardless

of their socioeconomic background or academic ability. Public secondary schools aim to

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provide a comprehensive education that prepares students for further academic pursuits,

career opportunities, and responsible citizenship.

Leadership plays an important role in the school effectiveness and school improvement.

Leadership is the ability to impact others so that they will willingly and enthusiastically

accomplish the organizational goals. Leadership is defined as the ability to get things done

with the support and cooperation of other people within the institution, organization or

system (Adesina 2011 in Kiboss & Jemiryott, 2014). Ukeje & Okorie (1992) in Okorie

(2009) opined that leadership is the process of impact, directing and coordinating the

activities of other people in an organization. Put together, school leadership can be viewed as

the Principal’s ability to impact teachers, students and parents so that they can willingly and

cooperatively contribute towards the achievement of the school objectives. The type of

leadership that is at play in our educational institution varies due to the fact that an individual

(leader) is not only responsible for the groups performances, but also actively seeks the

collaboration and commitment of all the group members (stakeholders, parents, etc.) towards

the achievement of the group objectives for a particular task.

Leadership styles of principals are those patterns of behavior used by them to impact the

group members’ (teachers, students and parents) performances. It varies from one institution

to another as no two educational leaders (Principals) can administer their educational

institutions in the same manner. Leadership style is the attitude in which a leader uses to

provide direction, implements plans, and motivates people so as to achieve organizational

objectives. It can be seen as a peculiar way of leading people (Chidinma and Victoria, 2018).

In recent years, leadership styles have become an important topic of study in the field of

management and many researchers consider leadership style as an important variable that

impact how individuals perform in organizations. The preferred leadership styles identified

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by Bass (1998) are transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. These leadership styles

have been found as an important predictor of organization performance. There are various

leadership styles that exist, which are autocratic, democratic, charismatic, transactional and

laissez-faire leadership styles (Chidinma and Victoria, 2018).

The biggest break through that was first discovered on recent researches is the dissatisfaction

of teachers due to exemption from leadership by principals. Hence, (Bass, 1998) stressed that

every school have urge for a competent and well trained teachers coupled with an effective

school principal that has the support and backing of some senior and middle managers who

have the charisma to coordinate the school environment to produce a better school

achievement.

Spector (1997) defines job performance as an extent to which people like or dislike their jobs.

According to Miskel (2008), job performance is that emotional state resulting from appraisal

of one’s job or experience. Olando (2008) contends that low levels of job motivation and job

performance leads to strikes, slowdowns, absenteeism and employee turn-over. North house

(2010) believed that “a teacher job performance may serve to impact their morale, motivation

and general willingness to maximize their teaching potential”. Teachers who are not satisfied

with their jobs may result in bad teaching or learning process and school effectiveness will

consequently be negatively impacted.

Teachers’ performance could be described in various ways. (Robert and Tim, 1998) as the act

of accomplishing or executing a given tasks. On the other hand (Obilade ,1999) defined

teachers performance as the duties performed by a teacher at a particular period in the school

system in achieving educational goals Whereas, (Akinyemi 1993; Okeniyi, 1995) defined it

as the ability of teachers to combine relevant inputs for the enhancement of teaching and

learning processes. However, (Meindl, 1995) argued that teachers’ performance is

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determined by the worker’s level of participation in the day to day running of the

organization.

Adepoju, (1996) asserted that variables of teachers’ performance such as effective teaching,

lesson note preparation, effective use of scheme of work, effective supervision, monitoring of

students’ work and disciplinary ability are virtues which teachers should uphold effectively in

the school system. In this regard, the teachers’ performance could be measured through

annual report of his/ her activities in terms of performance in teaching, lesson preparation,

and lesson presentation, mastery of subject matter, competence, teachers’ commitment to job

and extra-curricular activities. Other areas of assessment include effective leadership,

supervision of students’ work; motivation, class control and discipline of the students are the

virtues that teachers should uphold effectively in general secondary schools. As such,

(Ibukun, 1997) argued that the main task of the principal is to create a conducive atmosphere

for the teachers to be able to achieve desired changes in students. He noted that teachers’

perform effectively under different leadership styles. Due to this, the principal was expected

encourage effective performance of their teachers by identifying their needs and trying to

satisfying or meeting them. Supporting this argument (Ijaiya, 2000) remarked that teachers in

Nigeria express a desire for more participation in decision-making. Therefore, the concern of

this study was to describe the impactof school leadership styles on secondary school teachers

job performance; A case study of Zaria Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The issue of leadership styles is a major and basic concern for all organizations and

institutions in various countries. Different countries around the world have been attempting to

highlight and stress the concept of efficient leadership styles in various ways in their

organizational daily activities, programs, and performance, for example, England, Nigeria.

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Teachers were neglected in matters of school leadership and administration; hence, there is

little or no proper attainment or achievement of schools goals/objectives. Beare in Khalil and

Abdullatif (2016) explained that, school environment is used by the principals as a tool to

bring about the desired school achievement or change. Hence, teaching as an integral element

in the boosting of higher education curricula, demands innovative efforts of the teachers in

the collective approaches that emphasize leadership qualities in problem-based pedagogy.

However, the secondary schools have often struggled to ensure that disciplines work

cooperatively to bring about collective efforts in leadership capable of solving complex

problems, especially in relation to teaching. These failures in addressing interdisciplinary

environmental problems are a contributing factor in the struggle to attain school achievement,

including failure to use teachers in the administrative or leadership process of secondary

schools.

Although studies have been done on the relationship between principals’ leadership styles

and teachers’ job performance, little or no study to the knowledge of the researcher has been

carried out on independent and joint contribution of the impact of principal leadership styles

on secondary school teachers’ job performance in Zaria local Government Area, thus, this

study is undertaken to find out the impact of principals leadership styles on teachers

performance in some selected public secondary school in Zaria Local government Area of

Kaduna State.

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1.2 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to:

i. establish how democratic leadership style of principal has impact on teachers job

performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State;

ii. examine the impact of autocratic leadership style of principal has impact on

teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government

Area of Kaduna State;

iii. determine how laissez-faire leadership style of principal has impact on teachers

job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State and

iv. establish how transactional leadership style of principal has impact on teachers job

performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions are to be used to guide the study:

i. How does democratic leadership style of principal has impact on teachers’ job

performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State?

ii. How does autocratic leadership style of principal has impact teachers’ job

performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State?

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 iii. How does laissez-faire leadership style impact teachers’ job performance in public

secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of Kaduna State?

iv. How does transactional leadership style impact teachers’ job performance in

public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of Kaduna State?

1.4 Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were used to guide the study:

i. There is positive significant relationship between democratic style of leadership

and teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local

Government Area of Kaduna State.

ii. There is positive significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and

teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government

Area of Kaduna State.

iii. There is positive significant relationship between laissez-faire leadership style and

teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government

Area of Kaduna State.

iv. There is positive significant relationship between transactional leadership style

and teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local

Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.5 Basic Assumption of the Study

The study was based on the following assumptions

i. It is assumed that democratic leadership style of principal has significant impact

on teachers job performance in Public Secondary School in Zaria Local

Government Kaduna State.

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 ii. It is assumed that autocratic leadership style of principals has significant impact

on teacher’s job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local

Government Area of Kaduna State.

iii. It is assumed that laissez-faire leadership style has significant impact on teacher

job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State.

iv. It is assumed that transactional leadership style has significant impact on teachers

job performance in public secondary schools in Zaria Local Government Area of

Kaduna State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The research findings from this study could assist in making school principals more

cognizant of their own leadership ability and their own leadership capacity to support

teachers in adequately managing the increase demand placed on them, thus improving levels

of teacher job performance.

It may help the school leaders to be aware of the styles against the level of teacher

performance and the practitioners’ principals to exercise efficient leadership styles so as to

improve teachers’ performance.

It may help the school principals to revisit and enrich with new knowledge, theories,

methodologies and practical behaviors leaders need in secondary schools.

The findings of this study will give the clear picture of principal leadership style on teachers’

level of performance for decision-maker, higher officials of the regional, zonal education

office.

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The findings will also guide the school principal who is in mount exposure to different

pressures both internal and external has to constantly review own leadership style as effective

guide in performing his/ her task.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation

This research project will cover the impact of principal leadership styles on secondary school

teachers’ job performance in Zaria local government area. Due to time and financial

constraints it will be delimited to only some selected public secondary schools in Zaria local

government area of Kaduna state, namely: Government Girls Secondary School (Former

WTC), Alhudahuda College, Zaria, Barewa College, Zaria and Government Secondary

School, Dakace.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is going to review related literature on concept of leadership, leadership styles,

types of leadership and concept of job performance. Theoretical framework such as path-goal

theory, traits theory, situational theory and contingency theory were going to be reviewed.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Concept of Leadership

Leadership plays an important role in the school effectiveness and school improvement.

Leadership is the ability to impact others so that they will willingly and enthusiastically

accomplish the organizational goals. Leadership is defined as the ability to get things done

with the support and cooperation of other people within the institution, organization or

system (Adesina 2011 in Kiboss & Jemiryott, 2014). Ukeje & Okorie (1992) in Okorie

(2009) opined that leadership is the process of impact, directing and coordinating the

activities of other people in an organization. Put together, school leadership can be viewed as

the Principal’s ability to impact teachers, students and parents so that they can willingly and

cooperatively contribute towards the achievement of the school objectives. The type of

leadership that is at play in our educational institution varies due to the fact that an individual

(leader) is not only responsible for the groups performances, but also actively seeks the

collaboration and commitment of all the group members (stakeholders, parents, etc.) towards

the achievement of the group objectives for a particular task.

Leadership as a concept has been given a wide range of meanings and interpretations by

different scholars based on their schools of thought. Some see leadership as a field of study in

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social and management sciences; others see it as a practical and professional skill to control

others in administrative activities. At whatever point, leadership is given a meaning to ensure

its directional focus. According to Kruse (2013), “Leadership is a process of social impact,

which maximises the efforts of others towards the achievement of a goal” In his view,

Nworgu (1991) stated that leadership is the process of influencing the activities of a group of

people by a leader in effort towards goal achievement. Similarly, Igbal, Anwar, and Haider

(2015) see leadership as a process, by which leaders can direct, guide and impactthe

behaviour and work of others towards the accomplishment of specific goal in a given

situation. In considering the above explanations, the scholars see the executive as the leader

in a given situation, and the leader is the human factor that can impactother resources (human

and material) to achieve the set goal.

Adwelle (2004) saw leadership as the operational tool in influencing people to strive

willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of the organisational goals, including

secondary schools. Nworgu (1991), Omalayo (2000), and Aghenta (2001) explained

leadership as a process of influencing the activities of a group of people by a leader in an

effort towards the attainment of the organisational goal. It involves the act of getting things

done with the cooperation and assistance of other people. Leadership is therefore an

important instrument in the initiation and implementation of the organisational policies,

including educational policies and philosophy of the secondary schools in the State, and the

leadership style and traits so applied by the leader impacts the job performance of the staff in

the organisation (Yahaya, Osman, Mohammed, Gibrilla, and Issah, 2014).

In another development, Koudri (1999) opined that leadership is to deal and cope with

changes, focusing on the long-term and the big picture, not always doing to save himself, but

in fact to take risks, and concentrating on people and their values, not just the bottom line.

According to Collins (1995) “leadership is the most powerfully transformed executives

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possessing a paradoxical mixture of personal humility and professional will, they are timid

and ferocious. They focus on empowerment rather than control for the development of

employees’ performance “In the views of Collins (1995), and Koudri (1999), leadership is

personalised as a risk bearer, who is even helpless in the face of the organisational risk, but is

determined to impact value on others with the view of developing them and utilising them to

achieve set goals. Leadership involves the capacity and knowledge of the individual in

executive position to impactothers. In consideration of the views of different scholars on

leadership, Trevisani (2016) identified leadership as a holistic approach in controlling others

and achieving set goals, and further explained leadership in six perspectives namely;

 higher levels of physical power, need to display power and control others, force

superiority, ability to generate fear, or group-member's need for a powerful group

protector (Primal Leadership);

 superior mental energies, superior motivational forces, perceivable in communication

and behaviours, lack of fear, courage, determination (Psychoenergetic Leadership);

 higher abilities in managing the overall picture (Macro-Leadership);

 higher abilities in specialized tasks (Micro-Leadership);

 higher ability in managing the execution of a task (Project Leadership);

 and higher level of values, wisdom, and spirituality (Spiritual Leadership), where any

Leader derives its Leadership from a unique mix of one or more of the former factors.

2.1.2 Concept of Leadership Styles

Leadership style is an important aspect in the success of any organization due to its effects on

employees’ performance. In a constantly changing social, economic, and technological

environment, leadership is a more important attribute of management today than before.

Whereas managers are concerned with bringing resources together, developing strategies,

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organizing and controlling activities to achieve agreed objectives, leadership performs the

influencing function of management. Leadership increases the effectiveness and proficiency

of management and sustainable performance (Reed, 2005) and effective management of

resources. (Maicibi, 2005) observes that proper leadership style leads to effective

performance in learning institutions. Leadership style in many organizations has been facing

different challenges due to its effects on organizations’ performance, department, and teams,

as well as work climate and atmosphere. Leaders who want the best results should not rely on

a single leadership style (Nampa, 2007). Clark and Clark (2002) explained that different

people require different styles of leadership. For example, a newly hired person requires more

supervision than an experienced employee. A person who lacks motivation requires different

leadership styles and supervision than one with a high degree of motivation. A leader must

have an honest understanding of who his subordinates are, what they know, and what they

can do.

Many scholars, including Babalola (2016) and Adeyemi (2006) agreed that leadership entails

the capacity of the leader to impactthe activities of others to achieve the corporate goal of the

organisation. In leadership, the leader applies several leadership styles to achieve the set goal.

To Akinwumiju and Olaniyan (1996), and Adeyemi (2006), leadership style is seen as a

process through which the leader impacts others in the process of attaining the group goal. As

a process, it requires that the leader has a laid down procedure to follow in his/her leadership

activities, and such a leader has specific direction to follow. According to Okumbe (1998)

leadership style “is a particular behaviour applied by a leader to motivate subordinates to

achieve the objectives of the organisation”. To this scholar, leadership is not only an act of

influencing others to carry out the organisational goal, but includes the specific activity such

as the “motivation” of others to ensure that they carry out organisational goal to the desire of

the leader. This provides the leader with the opportunity of controlling others in the

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organisation. To Chandan (1987), leadership style entails the ingredient of personality

embedded in the leader that causes subordinates to follow them. It is the leadership style that

attracts the followers to the leader. Okurumeh (2001) saw leadership as the manifestation of

dominant pattern of behaviour of a leader. This definition implies that the leader has a

specific leadership attitude, which the leader applies to impactother people in a given

situation. Mohammed, Yusuf, Sanni, Ifeyinwa, Bature, and Kazeen (2014) agreed with the

above views on leadership style and add that leadership style is the pattern of behaviours

engaged by a leader when dealing with the employees. This explanation on leadership style

entails that the leader applies a specific behaviour when dealing with the organisational staff.

Such behaviour makes the staff/employees to respond willingly or otherwise to the directive

of the leader, and determines the type of leader in question. This makes leadership style to be

prominent in the success or failure of any organisation, including secondary schools, as the

Principals’ leadership style applied in the school management determines the level of staff

response to the Principal directives, and the capacity to achieve the schools’ educational

goals.

2.1.2.1 Types of Leadership Styles

Style of leadership is the manner in which the leader goes about communicating with those

whom he or she leads. There are many things to be taken into account when determining

what style of leadership is appropriate for a given situation (Akerele, 2007).

Democratic leadership style

Democratic leadership style also referred to as interactive or participatory leadership is

characterized by cooperation and collaboration. This leadership style refers to situations

where a leader seeks for the opinion of the subordinate before making a decision. In this

leadership style the leader seeks opinion of the subordinates on a tentative plan of action and

14
then makes decisions or the leader may ask for group input in formulating plans before

making a decision. The style decentralizes power and authority (Okumbe, 1998). Cole (2005)

advocates for the leadership of a head teacher to be democratic combining self-confidence,

friendliness, firmness and tact and should not merely consist of issuing orders. The head

teacher should be aware of the techniques that work in which situations and those that

backfire. Democratic style of leadership practiced by head teachers, proper delegation of

duties relieves the school administrators from their many tasks and secondly it inculcates a

sense of responsibility, hardworking and commitment among the subordinates which in turn

enhances teacher performance. Lewin LIippit, & White (1939) concluded that democratic

style of leadership is the most effective, but also pointed that the effectiveness of group

leaders is dependent on the criterion which was being used to assess leadership”. Thus, if

leadership is assessed in terms of productivity, then autocratic style is most efficient but if the

role is seen as maintaining good morale and a steady level of work, democratic style is

effective. Absence of leadership style brings about lack of direction from the leader resulting

in low morale and lack of interest in the work. Nzuve (2005) argued that a democratic leader

is one who obtains ideas and opinions from workers. He gives them a chance to express their

feelings about how things should be done. The manager considers the ideas and opinions of

workers and he still makes the final decision. The head teacher allows staff to participate in

decision-making within the framework of the mission and objectives of the school.

Democratic leaders show consideration and concern for others by empathetic listening and

understanding. They foster open communication among all employees at all levels. Reasons

and circumstances pertaining to decisions that affect the employees, department, or

organization are shared in a timely fashion. The democratic or enlightened leader practices

employee involvement in considering important issues and exercises impactin reaching

consensual decisions (Northouse, 2006). Democratic style of leadership means that leaders

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work together with others, including discussing matters with the teachers before taking

decisions. “Leadership is distributed among the teachers. This helps to create a co-operative

atmosphere in the schools. Schools become more democratic through the practice of

participative decision making and actions. Leadership requires participation from everyone so

that all members are engaged in creating a meaning and acting on that meaning (Harris,

2002).

Advantages of Democratic leadership style

1. It is a leadership style anyone can practice.

Democratic leadership styles are an option for everyone. Even leaders who find themselves in

coercive situations can still invite opinions or perspectives in to evaluate all possible

outcomes. When this style is employed, the team environment benefits because people feel

like their opinions and perspectives matter. Although there may be concerns if the team wants

to go in one direction and the leader another, the sharing of information benefits all.

2. It helps to solve complex problems.

Leaders wouldn’t be brought into their role if they didn’t know how to solve problems. There

is a difference, however, in being able to solve a problem and solving it with the best possible

solution. Using democratic leadership styles, a leader can tap into the creative resources

around them, finding innovative new methods they may not have readily seen if making

decisions on their own.

3. It builds team-based relationships.

People who work with leaders that use democratic methods tend to form closer relationships

with those in charge. Those relationships are necessary because without them, there would be

no team loyalty. The team feels like they are in situations together, solving problems, and

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everyone works harder to make sure something positive is available at the other side. Over

time, as these relationships develop, the organization benefits from the constant back-and-

forth of feedback.

4. It makes honesty a top priority.

With a democratic leadership style in place, leaders come to their teams with an authentic

problem that needs to be solved. There are no “what ifs” or “hypotheticals” presented at the

team meeting. When an honest issue is being addressed, team members feel more engaged

with the process. It connects them on a personal level to the company. It creates a level of

equality in the workplace that other leadership styles struggle to create.

5. It improves the relevant knowledge of the team.

Because each person is given a chance, if they wish, to contribute their own experiences and

knowledge to any given situation, every other team member is able to benefit. Knowledge

comes from shared information that is offered in relevant situations. Team leaders improve

the over capabilities of their team through democratic leadership styles because every

situation becomes an opportunity to learn.

6. It gives team members a look at the bigger picture.

In many workplaces, the entry-level employees are not always privy to the long-term goals or

vision that an organization is pursuing. Through democratic leadership styles, it becomes

easier for everyone on the team to see what is going on. Even when there is dissent within the

team, there is common ground present because everyone is working toward the good of the

company. This encourages each person to evaluate more options, creating a stronger bond

toward future goals.

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 7. It creates higher levels of job satisfaction.

When people feel like their experiences matter, then it gives them more personal satisfaction

over the work being done. The process fosters passion, which improves the quality and

quantity of work in some employees.

Disadvantages of Democratic Leadership Styles

1. It can cause disharmony if it is misapplied.

The goal of democratic leadership styles is to give every voice a platform. Some leaders may

choose the opinions of one person over the rest of the team on a consistent basis, often for

valid reasons. When that occurs, the other team members may feel like their experiences or

opinions don’t matter, so they stop sharing them. Over time, this disharmony can cause some

people to feel under-valued, so it reduces their productivity.

2. It can cause leaders to start fence-sitting.

Democratic leadership styles can also stop a leader from making an immediate decision, even

if a choice must be made immediately. The democratic process requires them to defer to their

team. When time is short, making decisions can be difficult using this leadership style

because every team member still gets a chance to weigh-in on the process. Instead of moving

one way or another, the team just sits on the fence, waiting for a choice to be made.

3. It may never reach a true consensus.

Even with multiple levels of feedback and experience offered, the democratic leadership

process doesn’t always come up with a true consensus. The leader will be asked to make a

choice from the best available options or go on their own path. In many circumstances, the

18
discussion period with this leadership style becomes a waste of time because the leader is

forced to make decisions on their own anyway.

4. It struggles to offer a clear definition of leadership.

Democratic leadership styles tend to frame equality above any other perspective within the

team environment. Each team member is equal to the other, including the leader. There are

just different roles that each person fulfills. When the lines of leadership are blurred and

everyone feels like they can have a say in what is going on, then the lack of structure can

become a disruption to the workplace.

5. It does not always offer a positive outcome.

As with any other leadership style, a democratic leader is looking for options. Although there

are more options available in these styles that is still not a guarantee that the right choice is

going to be made. Some leaders even allow the majority to make the decision on their behalf,

which further increases the chances that an incorrect decision would be made.

Laissez -faire leadership

Laissez-faire type of leadership is the absence of transactions with followers. It allows

freedom to group decision without the participation of the leader. The laissez-faire leadership

style is also known as the hands-off ̈ style. It is one in which the manager provides little or no

direction and gives employees as much freedom as possible. Basically, this style looks simple

and easy-going between leaders and subordinates. Leaders who adopt the laissez-faire

leadership style exercise little control over the followers and let the followers have freedom

to carry out their assigned tasks without direct supervision (Wu and Shiu, 2009). According

to Mbiti (2007), laissez-faire leadership style refers to style as a free-reign style where the

leader doesn’t lead but leaves the group entirely to itself. Such a leader allows maximum

19
freedom to subjects. They are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods”.

The leaders who use this style of leadership believe that there should be no rules and

regulations since everybody has inborn sense of responsibility. Laissez-faire leadership style

is not suited for use by head teachers because complete delegation without follow-up

mechanisms creates performance problems. “Teachers and students are motivated when they

are afforded opportunities to make their own decisions. The acceptance of their opinions and

ideas, together with the monitoring of their performance by head teachers is a healthy way of

enhancing discipline in secondary schools (Wu and Shiu, 2009). In laissez-faire leadership,

the head teacher believes that there should be no rules and regulations since everyone has a

sense of responsibility (Pont et al., 2008). A laissez-faire schools environment may be more

creative and fulfilling for those involved in school management system. The extent to which

a head teacher succeeds in attaining the school objectives, mission, vision and philosophy

depends on how he or she uses suitable management styles to a specific school contextual

environment.

Laissez-Faire leadership is when leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the

decisions. With this style, freedoms are fully determined by group goals, techniques, and

working methods. Leaders rarely intervene. Laissez-faire style is described by Hackman and

Johnson (2009) as the most effective style, especially where followers are mature and highly

motivated. Laissez-faire leadership style allows complete freedom to group decision without

the leader’s participation. Thus, subordinates are free to do what they like. The role of the

leader is just to supply materials. The leader does not interfere with or participate in the

course of events determined by the group (Talbert and Milbrey, 1994).

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Advantages of Laissez Faire Leadership Style

Laissez faire leadership style has the following benefits or strengths:

1. Greater Job Satisfaction: This leadership style increase job satisfaction to the subordinates.

Employees can set their own goals and develop plans to achieve those goals. It also build

employee morale.

2. Maximum Possible Scope: Laissez faire leadership provides maximum possible scope for

the development of workers in the organization.

3. Positive Motivation: This is another key benefit of laissez faire leadership. It practice

positive motivational tools and approaches to empower employees in order to achieve

organizational goals and objectives.

4. Utilization of Employees Potentiality: In laissez faire leadership, the potentiality of the

employees is fully utilized. Their skills and capabilities are properly used towards the

achievement of the goals and objectives.

5. Encourage Personal Development: Laissez faire leadership encourages personal

development of the subordinates. It provides the opportunity to grow and enhance their skill

and knowledge.

Disadvantages of laissez faire leadership style

Laissez faire leadership has the following disadvantages or weakness:

1. Ignoring the Leader: This is one of the major drawbacks of laissez faire leadership style. It

ignores the contribution of leader and focuses only on employee performance.

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2. Lack of Guidance: In laissez faire leadership, subordinates do not get proper guidance and

direction from the leader. They have to set up goals and develop plan to achieve them. Lack

of guidance may reduce the productivity of the organization.

3. Unsuitable for Less Competent: Laissez faire leadership style is not suitable for less

competent and illiterate subordinates. It is suitable for highly educated, skilled and

specialized workers only.

Authoritarian/Autocratic leadership

Wu and Shiu (2009) explained that, Authoritarian leadership is gained through punishment,

threat, demands, orders, rules, and regulations. The functions of authoritarian leadership

include unilateral rule-making, task-assignment, and problem solving while the roles of

authoritarian followers include adhering to the leader's instructions without question or

comment. Authoritarian leadership is appropriate in settings with a constant stream of new

employees, limited decision-making time or resources, and the need for large-scale

coordination with other groups and organizations. Authoritarian leaders receive aggressive or

apathetic behavior from their subordinates. Productivity is slightly higher under the

authoritarian leader than under the democratic one. However, it is the lowest under the

laissez-faire leader’s supervision” (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2012). In authoritarian

leadership, the leaders make most or all of the decisions, without the involvement or input of

the employees. Authoritarian leaders inform their subordinates on what must be done, how it

should be done and when it must be completed. This kind of leader is likely to ignore

suggestions made by staff members. Where quick decision making is a key factor, this

particular leadership style might work well because there might not be any time to consult

with staff for their involvement anyway.

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Autocratic leadership refers to a system that gives full empowerment to the leader with

minimal participation from the followers. Yukl (2005) found that autocratic leaders tend to

have the following five characteristics: they do not consult members of the organization in

the decision-making process, the leaders set all policies, the leader predetermines the methods

of work, the leader determines the duties of followers, and the leader specifies technical and

performance evaluation standards. Since this style of leadership usually only involves one

person deciding, it permits quick decision-making. Although the autocratic style is relatively

unpopular, in certain circumstances it can be an effective strategy, especially when the leader

is short on time and when followers are not productive. The autocratic leadership style is also

known as the authoritarian style of leadership Power and decision-making reside in the

autocratic leader. The leader directs group members on the way things should be done and

does not maintain clear channel of communication between himself or herself and the

subordinates. He or she does not delegate authority nor permit subordinates to participate in

policy-making (Smylie and Jack, 1990; Hoy and Miskel, 1992).

Advantages of Autocratic Leadership Style

1. The autocratic style provides fast crisis management benefits.

An autocratic leader is well-equipped to deal with a crisis situation. They can easily manage

these issues because they’re the only ones who get to call the shots. Their expertise becomes

an asset to the company, even being able to fill-in during a shortfall to immediately correct a

problem in virtually any situation. This helps to resolve the emergencies rather effectively

when compared to other leadership styles.

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2. Decisions can be made faster with this leadership style.

Autocratic leaders don’t deal with the hassle of multiple leadership levels. They aren’t

required to wait for the feedback from senior managers or consult with a leadership team.

There is just one person in charge. That means a decision is made on the timetable of the

leader and no one else. This is an advantage because team members can continue projects,

move deadlines, and remove obstacles that could negatively impact their overall productivity.

3. It removes the pressure on the employees.

Autocratic leaders take the pressure off of their teams because they are fully responsible for

the decisions that are made. Some employees don’t like the idea of being asked to make an

important decision about the future of the company. Some people don’t like the idea of

coming up with new ideas. They just want to come to work, do what they’re told, then go

home at the end of the day with a paycheck. The autocratic leadership style does a good job

of facilitating this process.

4. Productivity levels can see increases with this leadership style.

Autocratic leaders are often charged with information movement. They use their personal

experiences to form rules or regulations that translate into step-by-step instructions for

workers to follow. When there is clear direction, with a path toward success, offered to

workers, then they are able to focus on productivity instead of problem solving. There are

fewer delays because best practices are being followed consistently. In time, this may result

in fewer errors, which can provide a boost to revenues.

5. Inexperienced teams can still produce experienced results.

When the autocratic leadership style is used with an inexperienced team, the experience of

the leader can replace the skill gap that is present. Each person benefits from the regulated

24
competencies that are offered by the leader. They can replicate results because they are given

specific instructions to follow. If there isn’t enough time to develop personal skills or learn

something new, then autocratic leaders are still able to get the job done.

6. It is a leadership style that is very easy to learn.

There is nothing complicated about the autocratic leadership style. It is a style which dictates

how people are supposed to work. In many ways, it could be described as, “Do it my way or

go hit the highway.” Workers get the job done, or else they go find a different job. This

leadership style doesn’t have a specific training forum to attend or require knowledge of a

specific theory of leadership. There is no need to recognize emotions, respond to personal

issues, or find other ways of motivation.

7. Safety is a top priority within the autocratic leadership style.

There are some work environments which require a high level of control. There may be

dangerous situations or working environments which require complicated tasks to be

completed. These environments allow for an error margin of zero. When an autocratic

leadership style is used in these situations, then the control the policies and procedures

provide encourage a deeper commitment to safety.

8. This leadership style can produce authoritative short-term results.

Many companies tend to turn to an autocratic leadership style when they need to create short-

term results in an urgent way. When a company crisis occurs, a leader with authoritative traits

can begin to call the shots to make immediate changes. This allow for a quick turn-around of

the issue, helping the company to begin pursuing its mission once again.

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9. It is a leadership style that can be applied in three different ways.

Although the autocratic leadership style is often viewed as being a directive relationship

between the leader and the team member, there are two other varieties found with this style.

In the directing format, the subordinates of the leader are told what to do, how to do it, and

when the deadline happens to be. In the permissive version, the autocratic leader still makes

the final decision, but extends some flexibility to their direct reports in how tasks are

completed. In the paternalistic form, the core characteristics of this leadership style are used,

with an added emphasis on worker wellbeing as part of the experience.

10. It creates focused targets for everyone.

Through close supervision and an emphasis on order and discipline, the autocratic leadership

style allows everyone to focus on specific goals or targets to reach. Open lines of

communication ensure that everyone on the team is working toward the same goal. People

who step out of this line are quickly identified and brought back into the fold. This creates

more speed, better productivity, and enhanced efficiencies within the workplace.

Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership Style

1. Autocratic leaders are often micromanagers.

When a leader is asked to operate in an authoritarian manner, it is difficult to turn that role on

and off on-demand. That means many leaders practicing this leadership style eventually turn

into micromanagers, even if that is not their intent. They must control the consistency at a

personal level, which means they can no longer afford to give their team any freedom to

operate. Strict compliance becomes necessary.

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2. There can be a lack of accountability within its structures.

There are two reasons why the autocratic leadership style encourages an overall lack of

accountability. The first involves the work that gets done. When the leaders are taking

ownership for the quality of the completed work, there is no opportunity for team members to

do so. The second involves a leader refusing to take responsibility for work they personally

instructed a worker to complete. Both issues decrease worker morale and put blame on

someone, even though the issue may not be their fault.

3. It may create an unwelcome culture within the organization.

The quality of a team, structure, or organization practicing autocratic leadership is dependent

upon the ethics of the leader in charge. If that leader does not create a fair working

environment, then it is difficult for any employees to change that environment. Within

autocratic structures, there may not be anyone who has the authority to make a rogue leader

accountable to the company to stop their behavior. That means the personal morality of the

leader becomes the corporate reality of the business.

4. The autocratic leadership style is highly dependent upon the leader.

One of the primary reasons why the autocratic leadership style tends to fail is because it is

fully dependent upon the skills and knowledge of the leader. If that leader goes away, then

the team is unable to function because they were focused on their role. A team can become so

dependent upon the leader that they stop functioning when their directions are no longer

present. For that reason, some entities using this structure create an inheritance chain which

allows another person to step into the leadership role right away.

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5. It is a leadership style that is based on a lack of trust.

Rules are placed for employees to follow in an autocratic leadership style because there is a

need to create consistency. That “need” is generated by an overall lack of trust. To be

effective, people need to work in an environment where there is a trusting partnership.

Autocratic leaders can’t make trust a priority because they are forced to make the rules be the

priority. That means the partnerships formed by the workers are with the rules, not with

people, and that helps to drive down morale over time.

6. This leadership style makes it difficult to correct poor results.

If the results an autocratic leader achieves do not meet corporate expectations, then it can be

difficult to correct the issue. Many companies have been forced to completely reset their

under-performing teams because the leadership in place formed the identity of everyone

involved. Because all decisions are made by the leader, a new leader must be brought in,

which requires everyone to start from scratch.

7. It increases the work burden for the leader.

In most autocratic leadership structures, the leader is responsible for every action of the team.

A review of the team’s work falls on their shoulders. They must make every decision for the

team. That means leaders using this style tend to be busier than other leaders. Even if low-

skill tasks need to get done, it is the leader’s responsibility to make sure someone makes

copies, gets coffee, or files documents properly.

8. Autocratic leaders ignore the skills of competent workers.

Most autocratic leaders will not take the opinions, experiences, or knowledge of their team

members into account when making decisions. Even if the leader is not knowledgeable in the

area, they are forced into a position where they must decide. That means workers who are

28
highly skilled or motivated begin to lose their incentives to stay active under this leadership

structure. It is a negative cycle which only increases when the leader makes a poor decision

that could have been avoided if a team consultation occurred.

9. It can be a joyless experience for team members.

There are high levels of frustration often found in an autocratic environment, even if workers

are inexperienced. The productivity levels may be higher, but with no say in the process,

resentment will quickly build. It gets even worse if workers can voice an opinion that is never

utilized. People only thrive here is there is no investment in what they do.

Transactional leadership

The transactional leadership behaviour is a hybrid between the nomothetic and idiographic

leadership behaviours. It is situation-oriented. However, unlike the idiographic leadership

behaviour, which emphasizes individual’s needs, the transactional leadership behaviour

recognizes the importance of institutional roles and expectations. The leader assumes that

pursuing institutional goals could result in the fulfilment of individual personality drives.

Transactional leadership allows for the practices of good human relationship (Bidwell, 2001).

According to Sergiovanni (2004), Transactional leadership is another type of leadership. It is

sometimes called bartering. It is based on an exchange of followers’ services in lieu of

various kinds of tangible rewards (such as a salary) that the leader controls. It is also based on

the conviction that people desire to be led rather than be liable for their own actions and

decisions. As a result, the leader relies on top down decision processes to control staff,

allocate resources and initiate the process of change. Transactional leadership is often viewed

as being complementary with transformational leadership. In a study conducted by Bateh and

Heyliger (2014) on Academic Administrator Leadership Styles and the Impact on Faculty Job

29
Satisfaction and self-esteem in Florida, the results of logistic regression analysis revealed that

faculty members who identified transformational leadership as dominant had increased

performance, while faculty members who identified transactional leadership as dominant had

increased job satisfaction, and faculty members who identified passive/avoidant leadership as

dominant had decreased job satisfaction. Demographics did not appear to predict satisfaction.

Using this model, academic leaders can take further action by refining their leadership styles

on the basis of their faculty members’ indicated preferences. The study results may contribute

to social change at the departmental level by making academic administrators aware of

effective leadership models that promote higher job satisfaction among faculty in universities.

Headmaster often encounters with the need to transform the school from low performance to

acceptable performance or from acceptable performance to high performance. At other times,

a headmaster is expected to move firm from crisis mode to high ground. To accomplish these

purposes, the transformational leader attempts to have a strong teacher's commitment towards

the school. The increasing range and complexity of leadership responsibilities in schools

means that it is no longer possible for the principal to be the sole leader (Michel & Peter,

2007). In her study, Brown (2003) was unable to find any statistically significant correlation

among any of the transformational leadership behaviors and continuance commitment. The

leadership behaviors may not be related to how employees feel about having to stay in the

current organization. Transformational leadership stimulates and inspires followers to achieve

beyond expectation and in the process developing their own capacities. With an aim of

building shared vision, the transformational leader responds to followers’ needs through

empowerment and aligning the objectives and goals of the organization with that of

followers. A high level of follower performance is attained affirmed that transformational

leadership behaviours were positively related with higher performance (Bass and Avolio,

2000). Head teachers should do everything they can to give information and experience to

30
teachers in order to accomplish certain task or jobs, especially for those who are new in this

field. This could improve their early job experience. Head teachers also should provide

opportunities for committing acts and the school must show high level of commitment to the

teachers in return. There is also a need for training programme, designed to improve and to

increase head teachers transformational leadership (Michel & Peter, 2007).

Advantages of Transactional Leadership

1. It can effectively motivate team members to maximize productivity.

People stay employed because there is a reward in doing so that they find to be valuable.

Workers might be passionate about what it is they do. They might enjoy working for a

company that can positively impactthe lives of others. Even something as simple as earning a

paycheck to support their family can be a primary motivator.

Transactional leadership structures specific rewards for success that have clearly defined

parameters. Workers know when they’ll reach that reward and what they’ll receive when they

do. Simultaneously, workers also know that their team leaders are supervising them to ensure

outcomes, good or bad, are distributed.

2. It creates achievable goals for individuals at all levels.

Within a creative or innovative environment, it can be difficult to create achievable goals. A

goal can only become achievable when there is a defined ending point. Transactional

leadership creates these end points as part of their overall organizational structure. That

means workers can grow in confidence as they progress toward goals because every step they

need to take is outlined for them.

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That is why transactional leadership struggles in creative environments. There is no wiggle

room. Workers either follow the mandated instructions or they do not. People are expected to

follow the rules at all times.

3. It eliminates confusion within the chain of command.

A transactional leadership style creates a clear chain of command that is easily recognized by

the entire team. Structures within a team are implemented with precision. Everyone knows,

before they start working, what will be expected of them. They also know where they fit into

the organization chart or command structure, which allows them to access the proper

channels should a problem arise during the work phase. This type of structure prevents

workers from “going rogue” by attempting to assume leadership roles that they have not

earned or to which they have not been assigned.

4. It reduces costs while improving productivity levels.

Transactional leaders are typically focused on production improvements while exercising

cost-savings measures. Think of it as a “lean and mean” philosophy. Employees typically

work harder when short-term, achievable goals are presented to them. Successfully reaching a

goal creates internal rewards, such as a feeling of confidence, that makes them want to repeat

that process a second time.

Motivators are often used to encourage high productivity as well. Incentives are given to

works who figure out new ways to complete their work in a shorter time period. Various

rewards are also built into the system to encourage top performers to continue working at

their peak output levels.

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5. It is a simple process to implement.

Transactional leadership is straightforward and simple. It does not require a manager to have

extensive training, a high emotional intelligence, or specific personal leadership traits. All a

manager must do in this type of environment is be a rules enforcer. That means there is no

need to balance the complex needs of a diverse team with a leader who can be inspirational

and charismatic. It requires someone who is willing to confront non-conformists and get rid

of people who are unable to meet their assigned tasks.

6. It creates a system that is easy to follow.

Team members within a transactional environment can quickly implement the instructions

they are given. There is rarely any room for misinterpreting the instructions that are offered.

Regulations are rarely ambiguous. People know what they must do. It is up to them as to

whether or not they will decide to implement what they have been told to do.

7. It allows workers to choose the rewards they want to achieve.

In the typical transactional environment, the workers are allowed to choose which rewards

they value the most. Company management and team leaders should allow workers to have

some kind of control over the rewards they are able to learn. Incentives can come in a variety

of formats. That way, workers who want a bigger paycheck can feel satisfied. Workers who

want more vacation time can also feel satisfied.

Disadvantages of Transactional Leadership

1. It eliminates individuality from the production process.

Transactional leadership is defined by a strict set of rules and regulations. There is no room to

bend or break these rules for any reason. They are considered the best practices for the team

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to follow. People who come from a creative mindset struggle to produce under such a

leadership structure because creativity is usually produced through freedom of movement.

Under this leadership style, violating policies or refusing to follow instructions can often lead

to the termination of a worker. Workers are expected to fulfill their duties without complaint.

Without individuality, there is no flexibility, which means this leadership style can fail under

certain conditions.

2. It limits the amount of innovation that is achievable.

Transactional leaders are rigid and unyielding. They don’t bend the rules because the rules

are there for a good reason – even if that reason is not known to them. This attitude limits

innovation because team members stay focused on assigned tasks. Structured policies dictate

actions instead of common sense interactions with the regulations.

Even when creativity is permitted within the regulations of a company, regulated creativity

does not produce the same results as free creative thinking. That is often why this structure

ultimately fails. It is difficult for individuals to be creative when their creativity is being

dictated to them.

3. It creates more followers than leaders.

Companies can struggle when they focus on transactional leadership above anything else. If

the leader leaves the company, then the rest of the team may not know how to complete their

next assignment. Transactional leadership puts all leadership responsibilities in the hands of

the team leader. It expects team members to be followers, offering input to the productivity

process only if they have been invited to do so.

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To counter this issue, many teams create an “assistant” that steps in when the leader or

manager is away for some reason. Even then, the assistant is more of a follower than a leader.

They must follow the direction of the regulations. They must follow the direction of their

supervisor. And, when they are not acting in a management role, they must follow the

production requirements their position demands.

4. It tends to focus on consequences instead of rewards.

Although rewards are part of the transactional leadership process, most leaders focus on the

consequences of failure instead. It places the blame on the people who are assigned a task,

rather than placing blame on the leadership in the first place. That blame leads to disciplinary

actions, which then leads to higher levels of employee dissatisfaction.

Even if rewards are possible, the overall attitude of the transactional environment is that team

members are being paid to do their jobs in a specific way. Rewards feel transactional, which

reduces the value of them when received. Instead of focusing on employee welfare, the

structure of the organization focuses on profitability and success instead. It is for this reason

that many teams in a transactional environment tend to have low levels of morale.

5. It places zero value on empathy.

Transactional leaders are also working under rules and regulations that cannot be changed.

That means their emotions are not considered to be essential to the production process. That

attitude is then transferred to their direct reports. As long as the work is being completed, the

transactional environment does not care how people think or feel.

35
Over time, these creates an insensitivity within the average worker to anyone but themselves.

They focus on their assigned tasks only. If someone needs help, then that means they are a

failure and should be removed from the team.

6. It does not motivate some people toward higher productivity.

There are many ways for workers to feel motivated by their job. Rewards may not be

something that motivates a person. Some workers are motivated by internal triggers, like

wanting to be away from their home for some time each day. Some workers might be

motivated by social interactions they have with customers. When a team member is not

motivated by the rewards that are offered in the transactional environment, then there is no

incentive to increase their productivity.

7. It places more value on efficiency.

Transactional leadership places the highest value on the efficiency of each worker. That is

why it rewards workers who can improve their set routines or their production methods. At

the same time, however, experimentation with new methods is rarely encouraged – unless it

happens on a worker’s time outside of their assigned working hours.

Some transactional environments may have a set process in place for developing new

products. Far too often, the structure discourages those who could innovate new processes by

demanding compliance with the current system. Instead of working smarter, it wants people

to work harder.

8. It places success within the hands of the leadership only.

Transactional leadership can only be successful when there is an experienced leader at the

helm of a team. The leader must be familiar with the transactional style. They must also be

comfortable implementing this style with each of their direct reports. Most people who can be

36
successful in this role have dynamic personalities who are not worried about the culture of

their team or the vision of their company.

9. It makes leadership incompetence difficult to counter.

Under the structure of a transactional environment, subordinates who do not complete an

assigned task as indicated are held responsible for their lack of productivity. What if their

lack of activity is because of inadequate leadership instead of inadequate skill?

With transactional leaders, that does not matter. Companies place more value on the

productivity of the worker than the effectiveness of the leader. It is because of this issue that

high-skill employees often shun the transactional environment, as their success is ultimately

determined by the competency of their supervisor.

Communicative Leadership

Communication (Organizational communication) is a process of creating and exchanging

messages. The process includes several key elements such as network, interdependence,

relationship, environment, uncertainty and messages. Communication is closely connected to

organizational structure and culture. Communication can be used to analyze and reflect as

well as affect what is happening in the organization. Communication is here seen as a

pervasive role rather than an individual skill (Kowalski et al., 2007). In almost all school

activities, communication plays an important role. “How and what we talk about both

construct and form our reality. This implies that communication can be both a way to analyze

and understand processes in schools and a process to impactothers’ actions and

understanding. An ordinary working day for head teachers and teachers contains many

meetings, interactions and conversations (Czarniawska-Joerges, 2000).

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According to Eriksen (2001), a communicative leadership is especially important in

organizations with values that are non-negotiable”. Even if the principal takes part in

different processes and therefore is affected by them, there are organizational expectations on

how the leader shall contribute to these processes. What principals and teachers talk about

and how they communicate both reflect and construct what is considered important in

different processes and activities. Communication therefore reveals what is in focus in the

organization’s everyday work. How the principal listens, transmits information, makes

decisions and leads dialogues will affect leadership and communication processes and

ultimately the school outcomes. The different techniques and how individual skills are used

in conversations can reveal the communicator’s pre-understanding, values, knowledge and

preparation. Communication becomes a way to understand and conduct leadership and

actions within the organization. A communicative leadership uses language and

communication to motivate different actions (Isaacs, 2006).

Supportive style

Supportive leadership style is more of a relationship-oriented style. It requires the leader to be

approachable and friendly. He/she displays concern for the well being and personal needs of

the subordinates. He/she creates an emotionally supportive climate. This style is effective

when subordinates lack self-confidence; work on dissatisfying or stressful tasks and when

work does not provide job satisfaction (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).

Participative Style

The leader who employs this style consults with subordinates for ideas and takes their ideas

seriously when making decisions. This style is effective when subordinates are well

motivated and competent (Lussier & Achua, 2001).

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Directive Style

Directive leadership style is similar to the task-oriented style. The leader who uses this type

of leadership style provides teachers with specific guidelines, rules and regulations with

regard to planning, organizing and performing activities. This style is deemed to be

appropriate when the subordinates‟ ability is low and or the task to be performed is complex

or ambiguous. Job satisfaction is increased when the leader gives more directives (Hoy &

Miskel, 2001).

Achievement-Oriented Style

In this style, the leader sets challenging but achievable goals for the subordinates. He/she

pushes work improvement sets high expectations for subordinates and rewards them when the

expectations are met. That is, the leader provides both high directive (structure) and high

supportive (consideration) behavior. This style works well with achievement-oriented

subordinates (Lussier & Achua, 2001).

2.2.3 Concept of Job Performance

Performance could be described in various ways. It could be an act of accomplishing or

executing a given task (Robert and Tim, 1998). It could also be described as the ability to

combine skillfully the right behaviour towards the achievement of organizational goals and

objectives (Olaniyan, 1999).

Teachers’ job performance could be described as the duties performed by a teacher at a

particular period in the school system in achieving organizational goals (Obilade, 1999). It

could also be described as the ability of teachers to combine relevant inputs for the

enhancement of teaching and learning processes (Akinyemi 1993; Okeniyi, 1995). However,

39
Meindl (1995) argued that job performance is determined by the worker’s level of

participation in the day to day running of the organization

The term job performance is a multidimensional concept that has been used in organizations

all over the world. It is used to describe tasks done by workers in their various organizations.

Borman and Motowidlo (1993) explained that job performance implies task performance

involving individual activities that contribute to the organisational value, and could be direct

or indirect based on the status of the staff involved in the organisational activities under the

directive of the leader. Motiwidlo, Borman & Schmidt in Bullock (2013) defined job

performance as the overall expected value from employees behaviours carried out over the

course of a set period of time. Motowidlo in Bullock (2013) saw job performance as that

entire worth of an employees’ conduct which he performs over a certain period of time.

An employee is expected to perform some duties in his workplace, in which over a particular

period may be assessed if he is really doing well or not. Campbell (1990) described job

performance as something done by an employee or a person. This can be seen as a duty or

obligation carried out by an employee. Job performance therefore, is the act of accomplishing

a task for which an individual or employee is paid for. From these definitions, something

valuable is expected from employee’s behavior in the workplace. Job performance is usually

associated with behavior and outcomes. Generally, the behavior of workers can make or mar

the organization’s goal and objectives.

It is widely agreed that job performance consists of complicated series of interacting

variables pertaining to aspects of the job, the employee and the environment (Milkovich &

Wigdor, 1991). Job performance is usually associated with good and comfortable working

conditions. Meeting the expectation and needs of the employee results in high job

performance while depriving them of these expectations leads to low outcome in the

40
workplace. One of the most important resources used in education is the teacher. The

importance of a teacher as a facilitator of learning process to achieve learning outcomes

cannot be overemphasized, especially due to his roles in the impartation of knowledge in a

morally acceptable manner.

Job performance of teachers could also be seen as those duties in the school implemented by

a teacher at any specified time which is geared towards accomplishing the daily school and

classroom tasks as well as the set goals and objectives of education. Furthermore, job

performance of teachers could be measured through annual report of their activities in terms

of performance in teaching, lesson preparation, and presentation, mastery of subject matter,

competence, teachers’ commitment to job and extra-curricular activities. Other areas of

assessment include effective leadership, supervision, monitoring of students’ work,

motivating students’ interest, class control and disciplinary ability of the teachers (Adeyemi,

2011).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework guides researchers in the selection of appropriate variables. Without

such guidance, researchers cannot be confident that the set of variables they have chosen is

complete or relevant, and as such the result of the statistical analysis may be flawed (Baker,

1994). The impactof principals’ leadership styles on teachers’ job performance can be

explained by path-goal theory, trait theory, situational theory and contingency theory. For the

purpose of this study, the Path-Goal theory was adopted.

Path-Goal Theory

Path-Goal Theory, originally developed by Evans (1970) and later modified by House (1971),

was designed to identify a leader’s most practiced style as a motivation to get subordinates to

41
accomplish goals. It is a contingency theory rooted in the expectancy theory of motivation

developed by Victor Vroom, Daniel, Villa, Howell, and Dorfman, (2003). The main

assumption of Path-Goal Theory is based on that effective leaders impactemployee

satisfaction and job performance. It also assumes that effective leaders strengthen the effort

of performance expectancy by providing information, support, and resources to help workers

complete their tasks. Path-Goal Theory considers four leadership styles and several

contingency factors leading to various indicators of leader effectiveness (Evans, 2002).

The Path-Goal Theory suggests that leaders motivate and satisfy employees in a particular

situation by adapting the following leadership styles. Directive Style where the leader

clarifies performance goals, means of reaching the goals, specifies standards against which

the goals are measured and uses rewards to motivate the employees. Supportive Style where

the leader provides psychological support to the staff, the leader is friendly and approachable

treats staff with respect, shows concern for the well being of staff members and goes out of

his way to make work pleasant. Participative Style of leadership is where the leader

encourages and facilitates staff involvement in decision making beyond their normal work

activities. The leader consults with staff, seeks their suggestion before making any decision

(Daniel, 2003).

The Path-Goal Theory is relevant to this study because it recognizes the impact of a leader on

the achievement of goals by the organization. According to the theory, leaders need to be

cognizant of the necessary steps to clarify goals, paths, and enhance satisfaction through

extrinsic motivation.

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Contingency Theory

The contingency theory is a combination of the Trait Theory and the Situational Theory. The

theory implies that leadership is a process in which the ability of a leader to exercise

impactdepends upon the group task situation and the degree to which the leader’s personality

fit the group (Sybil, 2000).

The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that

every leadership style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that there are

certain people who perform at the maximum level in certain places; but at minimal

performance when taken out of their element (Vidya, 2015).

2.3 Empirical Studies

Bass and Avolio (1997) explain that a laissez-faire leadership style occurs when there is an

absence or avoidance of leadership. In this case, decisions are delayed and reward for

involvement absent. No attempt is made to motivate followers or to recognize and satisfy

their needs (Bass and Avolio, 1997). Laissez-faire leadership is not the best leadership style

to use in the school system because complete delegation without follow-up mechanisms may

create performance problems, which are likely to affect the job performance of teachers. This

is in agreement with MacDonald (2007) who opined that the laissez-faire leadership style is

associated with the highest rates of truancy and delinquency, and with the slowest

modifications in performance of teachers, which can lead to unproductive attitudes and

disempowerment of subordinates.

Omeke and Onah (2007) carried out a descriptive design study that investigated the impactof

principals’ leadership styles on secondary school teachers’ performance and satisfaction in

the Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. The study found that only democratic

43
leadership style enhanced teachers’ job performance and satisfaction, while autocratic and

laissez-faire styles did not. Kiboss and Jemiryott (2014) examined the relationship between

leadership styles of principals and teachers’ job satisfaction and performance in Kenyan

public secondary schools. The Pearson correlation coefficient and t-test were used to

establish the relationships between principal’s leadership styles and teachers’ job satisfaction

and gender differentials at the .05 level. The study found that principals’ democratic

leadership style, among others, has a great impact on the working atmosphere in a school and,

consequently, on teachers’ job performance.

Bwiruk (2009) investigated the effectiveness of head teachers’ leadership style on teachers’

performance in Bushenyi District, Ghana. The study revealed that pseudo-democratic and

autocratic leadership styles existed in Bushenyi schools and was affecting service delivery. It

was also found that a transactional, democratic and middle-of-the-road leadership style

positively impactd teachers’ observance of their professional code of conduct and was

considered to be the most effective in promoting teachers’ performance regarding the

completion of their respective academic tasks. In cases where this style of leadership was

applied, it had led to good results due to its being good for building morale, team spirit,

creating confidence plus setting of goals.

Werang and Lane (2010) examined the relationship between principals’ leadership, school

organizational climate and teachers’ job performance in Merauke regency, Gambia. The

population comprised 164 teachers at state senior high schools in Merauke regency. The

descriptive survey design was used in the study. The population was approximately 170

teachers in the region, while the sample drawn was 118, representing 69.4% of the

population. Questionnaires were the main tool of the research to collect data. The data were

collected through the aid of a structured questionnaire. Statistical Package for Social Science

(SPSS) was used to analyze the data collected. Based on the data analyses, the result revealed

44
that (a) there was a significant relationship between principals’ leadership and teachers’ job

performance at state senior high schools in Merauke regency, Papua; (b) there was a

significant relationship between school organizational climate and teachers’ job performance

at state senior high schools in Merauke regency, Papua; and (c) the majority of principals in

Merauke regency were often autocratic in the use of their office as the administrative head of

the school.

Adeyemi (2011) investigated principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in

senior secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive research

design. The study population comprised all 281 senior secondary schools in Ondo State,

Nigeria. The sample was made up of 240 principals of schools and 1800 teachers, who were

the respondents in the study. Two instruments were used to collect data for the study – the

Principals’ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLESQUE) and the Teachers’ Job Performance

Questionnaire (TEJOPAQ). The data collected on the two tests were analyzed using the

Pearson product-moment correlation. A correlation coefficient of .81 was obtained, indicating

that the instruments were reliable for the study. Data were analyzed using frequency counts,

percentages, t-tests and Pearson product-moment correlation, while the hypotheses were

tested at .05 alpha level. Among other findings, it was found that the democratic leadership

style was the most commonly used leadership style among principals of senior secondary

schools in the state.

Duze (2012) investigated the leadership styles of principals’ and the effect on job

performance of teachers’ and supportive staff in senior secondary schools in the Delta State

of Nigeria. The population comprised all 358 senior secondary schools in the state, from

which a sample of 120 was selected through the simple random sampling technique. Three

instruments were used for data collection – PLESQUE, TEJOPAQ and supportive staff job

performance questionnaires. The data collected were analyzed using frequencies,

45
percentages, analysis of variance and regression statistics. Results showed that autocratic

leadership style was the most commonly used among principals of secondary schools in Delta

State, followed by laissez-faire, and lastly democratic. Job performance was found to be the

lowest under autocratic principals compared to other styles (democratic and laissez-faire).

Kozaala (2012) investigated the leadership styles and job performance of teachers in 15

secondary schools in Kamuli District. The study was cross-sectional in design and collected

data from a total of 50 respondents, including 15 head teachers, 30 members of the Board of

Governors and five officials from the Ministry of Education and Sport at Kamuli District.

Data were collected via a self-administered questionnaire, and an interview schedule with

teachers was analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Results showed that head

teachers and principals in secondary schools in the Kamuli District used the autocratic

leadership style while administering their schools; they use directive language when talking

to teachers, they make personal decisions without consulting teachers and regards democratic

leadership style, they do not delegate work or responsibility to teachers. Teachers felt left out

of most pertinent issues pertaining to their schools; they were demotivated and felt rejected,

thus having a negative impact on the job performance of the junior teachers.

Ejaigu (2013), investigated the impactof administrator’s leadership styles on business

educators’ job performance among tertiary institutions in Delta State, Nigeria. The findings

revealed that administrators’ laissez-faire leadership, among other leadership styles

(democratic, autocratic and bureaucratic), impactd business educators’ job performance.

Recent studies by Bogler (2001), Duze (2012) and Mwangi (2013) have been conducted to

determine the relationship between an autocratic leadership style and teachers’ job

performance. Bogler (2001) examined the effects of principals’ leadership style

(transformational or transactional), principals’ decision-making strategies (autocratic versus

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participative) and teachers’ occupational perceptions of teacher satisfaction from the job. The

most salient finding was that principals’ autocratic leadership affected teachers’ satisfaction

and job performance both directly and indirectly through their occupational perceptions.

Mwangi (2013) investigated the effects of leadership styles on teachers’ job performance and

satisfaction in public secondary schools in Nakuru Country, Ghana, and determined if the

principals’ leadership styles affected teachers’ job performance. Among the key findings of

the study, Mwangi found that teachers who lack enthusiasm were unable to teach effectively,

causing students to not learn well. However, the findings showed that principals’ autocratic

leadership was significantly helpful in enforcing teachers to perform their duties.

Haruni and Mafwimbo (2014) investigated the impactof leadership styles on teachers’ job

satisfaction in Songea and Morogoro Districts, Tanzania. The study employed a cross-

sectional research design, with samples of 200 teachers from 20 selected primary schools in

Songea and Morogoro Districts. Interviews, documentary analysis and questionnaires were

used to collect the data. The data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively using

tables, frequencies and percentages. It was found that the democratic leadership style was the

most dominant in the best performing primary schools. It is, therefore, suggested that there is

much to be learnt from the democratic leadership style as a copying strategy in low-

performing primary schools.

The impactof principals’ leadership styles on the job performance of teachers has been

reported in recent studies. Mehrab (2014) investigated the relationship between principals’

leadership styles and the performance of physical education teachers in secondary schools in

western provinces of Iran. Results showed that the correlation coefficient between the

leadership style of principals and the performance of teachers was equivalent to .16.

Furthermore, 26% (r2 = 26%) of the teachers’ job performance, as shown by the efficiency

47
variance, was explained by leadership style dimensions. Hence, the multiple regressions

showed that the dimensions of leadership styles (partnership and consultative styles) together

could not express a significant impacton teachers’ performance.

Okoji (2016) conducted a study titled “Relationship between secondary school principals’

leadership style and teachers’ job performance in selected rural communities of Ondo State,

Nigeria”. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between autocratic

leadership style and teachers’ job performance (r = –314, n = 300, p < .01). A significant

relationship also existed between democratic leadership style and teachers’ job performance

(r = .118, n = 300, p < .05). Considering the findings of this study, a mixture of autocratic and

democratic leadership styles by principals would promote better job performance among

teachers.

Similarly, Okoji (2016) examined the relationship between secondary school principals’

leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in selected communities of Ondo State.

Based on the findings, it was concluded that a mixture of autocratic and democratic

leadership styles by principals would promote better job performance among teachers.

2.4 Summary

This chapter reviewed literature on concept of leadership, leadership styles, types of

leadership and concept of job performance. Theoretical framework such as path-goal theory,

traits theory, situational theory and contingency theory were also reviewed. Adequate

empirical studies on leadership styles will also review. Although studies have been done on

the relationship between principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance, also to

the knowledge of the researcher little studies has been carried out on independent and joint

contribution of the impact of principal leadership styles on public secondary school teachers’

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job performance, thus, this study is undertaken to find out the impact of principal leadership

styles on public secondary school teachers’ job performance in the study area.

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 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter will cover: research design, target population, sample size and sampling

procedure, research instruments, validity of the research instruments, reliability of the

research instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis technique and ethical

considerations.

3.1 Research Design

In this study, a descriptive survey design will be employed to investigate the impact of

principal leadership styles on teachers’ job performance in some selected private/public

secondary schools in Zaria. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), descriptive survey

helps to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking individuals about

their perceptions, attitude, behaviour or values. Descriptive research gives researchers the

opportunity to use both quantitative and qualitative data in order to find data and

characteristics about the population or phenomenon that is being studied. The data collection

for descriptive research presents a number of advantages as it can provide a very multifaceted

approach.

3.2 Population for the Study

Kaduna state ministry of education science and technology has a total number of twelve (12)

quality assurance authority divisions. These are Anchau Division, Birnin Gwari Division,

Zaria Division, Giwa Division, Rigachikun Division, Kaduna Division, Sabon Tasha

Division, Kachia Division, Lere Division, Kafanchan Division, Godo-Godo Division and

Zankwa Division (Ministry of Education Kaduna, 2019).

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But attention will be focused on Zaria Division. (Ministry of Education Kaduna, 2019). This

division has a total number of 49 public secondary schools, that is categorized into three (3):

 The Rearticulated Public Secondary School

 The Public Senior Secondary School

 The Public Junior Secondary School

(Ministry of Education Kaduna, 2019).

These schools caught across five local government areas of Kaduna state. These are Zaria,

Sabon gari, Soba and some parts of Kudan and Giwa local governments respectively. The

study will focused on Zaria local government which has 22 public secondary schools and a

total number of 831 teachers. Therefore, the population of this study comprises of 831

teachers and 22 principals, details are presented in the table below:

Table 3.1: Population of the study area

S/N Name of School No. of Teachers No. of Principals

1 Alhudahuda College 78 1
2 Barewa College 69 1
3 G.G.S.S Gyallesu 32 1
4 G.G.S.S K/Gayan 56 1
5 G.G.S.S K/Jatau 29 1
6 G.G.S.S Pada (Jnr) 31 1
7 G.G.S.S Zaria (Snr) 50 1
8 G.G.S.S (WTC) Zaria 70 1
9 G.J.S.S T/Wada 44 1
10 G.G.S.S Kaura 27 1
11 G.G.S.S Pada (Snr) 33 1
12 G.G.S.S. Magajiya (Jnr) 23 1
13 G.G.S.S Magajiya (Snr) 22 1
14 G.G.S.S Kufena 65 1
15 G.G.S.S Kugu 15 1
16 G.G.S.S K/Kuyanbaba 50 1
17 G.G.S.S Dakace 31 1
18 G.G.S.S Zaria (Jnr) 40 1
19 G.J.S.S R/Doko 15 1
20 S/A SS K/Karau B 25 1
21 G.S.S K/Doka 19 1
22 G.S.S T/Jukun 07 1
Total 831 22
Source: (Ministry of Education Kaduna, 2019).

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3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The sample indicates the individuals or groups of individuals that participated in the study

and how these individuals were selected. It is recommended that researchers use the largest

sample possible because statistics calculated from a large sample are more accurate and

representative. The sample size depends on the type of research design. In descriptive studies

10-20% of the accessible population is enough (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2008). Therefore,

the sample will be 150. But for the purpose of this study, a sample of 150 respondents was

used. The researcher will adopt a purposive sampling technique in selecting the respondents,

the reason is that some respondents do not want to participate in the study are discarded while

those interested are captured to make up the sample of the study, in this case our (4) selected

schools will be used as sampled schools; namely Government Girls Secondary School Zaria

(Former WTC), Alhudahuda College, Zaria, Barewa College Zaria and Government

Secondary School Dakace Zaria.

Table 3.2: Sample size of the study

S/N Name of School Population

1 G.G.S.S (WTC) 45
2 Alhudahuda College 45
3 Barewa College 30
4 G.S.S Dakace 30
Total 150

3.4 Instrumentation

The information for this study wil gathered by the use of questionnaire as the main research

instrument. The questionnaire was divided into two parts, that is A and B. Part A will be

titled questionnaire for principals and it will also be divided into two sections; A and B.

Section A will contain the respondents bio-data while section B the perception of the

respondents own behaviour of school leadership styles. The researcher will use a five likert

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scale to determine the extent of how the respondents perceived the study. The five point likert

scale is ranked as shown below: Strongly Agreed –SA = 5, Agreed – A = 4, Undecided – UD

= 3, Disagreed – D = 2, and Strongly Disagreed – SD = 1.

Part B will be itled questionnaire for teachers and it will also be divided into two sections A

and B. Section A will contain the respondents bio-data while section B will also contain

teachers; job performance. It will also comprises of five likert scale to determine the extent of

how the respondents will perceived the study.

3.5 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

3.5.1 Validity

Validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the

topic under study (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). The study will use content validity which

is the type of validity that shows the extent to which elements of research questions and

objectives are presented in the study (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). The content validity

will be determined by giving the instrument to research experts in field of Education and

English Language, the researcher’s supervisor to make meaningful corrections, commentary

and observations. Kerlinger (1986) hold the view that, the validation of the content of the

research instruments by experts is an important and acceptable technique.

3.5.2 Reliability of the Instrument

Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) defined reliability as a measure of the degree to which a

research yields a consistent results or data after repeated tests when administered a number of

times. The researcher minimized random errors by cross checking the questionnaires during

piloting. The researcher will administer 30 copies of questionnaire to respondents that are not

part of the study area herself and with the help of research assistant. The data collected was

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subjected to statistical test of coefficient correlation reliability and a reliability coefficient of

0.77.

3.6 Procedure for Data Collection

The data to be collected will be through test-retest technique. The researcher will administer

the questionnaire to the respondents personally. The respondents will be given instructions by

the researcher on how to fill and complete the questionnaire and to be collected immediately

after they are filled.

3.8 Data Analysis Techniques

Kombo and Tromp (2006) define data analysis as interpretation of collected raw data into

useful information. Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient will be used to determine the

impact on principal’s leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire and transactional)

and teachers job performance. In this study mean and standard deviation was used to compute

quantitative analysis.

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