Acknowledgment

I, Saptak Santra, would like to express my sincere gratitude to all

those who have supported and guided me throughout the completion of
this chemistry project.
Firstly, I would like to thank my chemistry teachers for their invaluable
guidance, encouragement, and for providing me with the resources
needed to conduct this research. Their insights and expertise have
greatly contributed to the depth and quality of this project.
I am also grateful to my family and friends for their constant support
and understanding during the course of this work. Their encouragement
has been a source of motivation for me.
Lastly, I would like to thank my classmates for their collaboration and
the stimulating discussions that have enhanced my learning experience.
This project would not have been possible without the collective efforts
and support of everyone involved.
Thank you.

Saptak Santra
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the CHEMISTRY project titled 'STUDY OF

CONSTITUENTS OF ALLOYS' has been successfully completed by
Saptak Santra of XII-A-55 in partial fulfillment of the curriculum of
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (CBSE) in the
year of 2024-2025.

INTERNAL EXAMINER TEACHER IN-CHARGE

INDEX

Sl. No. Title/Topic Page No.

1. Acknowledgement 1

2. Certificate 2

3. Introduction 3

4. Some Common Alloys 4-5

5. Preparation of Alloys 6

6. Analysis of an Alloy

7. Experiment 1

8. Experiment 2
 Introduction:
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-
metal. When mercury combines with another metal, the resulting alloy is known
as amalgam. Alloys are generally harder than their individual components but are
often less ductile and malleable. For example, the hardness of gold is increased by
the addition of copper. Additionally, the melting point of an alloy is usually lower
than that of its constituent metals.
The properties of alloys, such as reactivity to atmospheric oxygen and moisture,
mechanical strength, ductility, and color, change compared to the constituent
metals. These property changes make alloys highly valuable in various
applications.
Here are some common alloys and their compositions:
1. Brass:

• Copper: 50-90%
• Zinc: 20-40%
• Small amounts of tin, lead, and iron
2. Bronze:

• Copper: 60-90%
• Tin: 5-35%
• Small amounts of lead, iron, and zinc
3. Duralumin:

• Aluminum: 95%
• Copper: 4%
• Manganese: 0.5%
• Magnesium: 0.5%
4. Gun Metal:

• Copper: 85-90%
• Zinc: 1-3%
• Tin: 8-12%
The composition of alloys may vary slightly based on their quality, though the
main components remain consistent.
Some Common Alloys:

Amalgam:
An amalgam is an alloy containing mercury, and it’s known for its ability to
dissolve most metals, though iron is an exception. Amalgams are widely used in
dental fillings due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of use, and durability.
Despite being considered safe for a long time, recent concerns have been raised
about the potential health risks associated with mercury in these fillings. Dental
amalgams are made by mixing mercury with silver, copper, tin, and other metals.
Mercury amalgams have also played a crucial role in gold and silver mining
due to their affinity for these precious metals. Moreover, thallium amalgam,
which freezes at -58°C (compared to pure mercury's -38°C freezing point), is used
in thermometers as a liquid material.
Brass:
Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc, with the zinc content ranging
from 5% to 45%, giving rise to various types of brass, each with distinct
properties. Historically, brass was produced by melting copper with calamine, a
zinc ore, long before zinc was discovered as a separate element. Despite its
similarity to bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin, brass has unique
characteristics, such as its golden-yellow color and resistance to tarnishing.
Brass’s malleability and excellent acoustic properties make it a preferred
material for musical instruments like trombones, tubas, trumpets, and
euphoniums. Though brass is used in saxophones and harmonicas, the former is
classified as a woodwind instrument, and the latter as a free reed aerophone.
Additionally, brass strips are used as reeds in organ pipes.
Aluminum enhances the strength and corrosion resistance of brass by forming a
protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on the surface. Tin is also added for
similar purposes, particularly in applications involving seawater, such as naval
brasses. Other elements like iron, silicon, and manganese can be added to
increase brass’s resistance to wear and tear.
Bronze:
Bronze is a broad category of copper alloys, typically containing tin as the
primary additive, though other elements like phosphorus, manganese,
aluminum, or silicon may also be included. A typical bronze alloy consists of
about 60% copper and 40% tin. The significance of bronze in early civilizations
led to the era being named the "Bronze Age," during which tools, weapons,
armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were made from this
durable metal, which proved superior to stone and copper.
In ancient times, the presence of natural arsenic impurities in bronze sometimes
resulted in a superior natural alloy known as "arsenical bronze." While not as
strong as steel, bronze has advantages over iron in many applications, including
its resistance to corrosion and metal fatigue, as well as its better thermal and
electrical conductivity. Bronze also has a lower casting temperature and is less
brittle than iron.
Today, bronze remains a vital material in various industries, particularly for
making springs, bearings, bushings, and fittings in small electric motors. Its
resistance to seawater corrosion makes it ideal for marine applications. Bronze
is also widely used in art for cast metal sculptures and in the creation of high-
quality bells and cymbals. Commercial bronze, also referred to as brass, is an
alloy containing 90% copper and 10% zinc, without any tin.
Preparation of Alloys:

Alloys are typically prepared through fusion, compression, or electro-deposition.

The components are mixed in precise proportions in a fused clay crucible, melted,
and stirred with charcoal to prevent oxidation. The molten mixture is then
allowed to cool, forming the alloy. For example, brass is produced using this
method.

Analysis of an Alloy:
The analysis of an alloy involves two main steps:
1. Qualitative Analysis:
Identifies the components of the alloy.
2. Quantitative Analysis:
Measures the percentage of each component, typically through volumetric
or gravimetric methods.
Note: This project focuses on qualitative analysis only.

Project Objective:
The goal of this project is to identify the metals present in the provided alloy
sample.
Experiment - 1

To analyze a sample of brass

Experiment – 2

To analyze a sample of bronze

ARAMBAGH VIVEKANANDA ACADEMY

Academic Year: 2024-2025

Student Details

Name: Saptak Santra

Class: 12 (Science)

Section: A

Roll No: 55

Subject: Chemistry
Uses of Alloys:

1. To Modify Chemical Reactivity: Sodium is highly reactive and difficult to

handle safely. However, its alloy with mercury, known as sodium amalgam,
can be used as a reducing agent without the risks associated with pure
sodium.

2. To Increase Hardness: The hardness of gold is improved by adding

copper, resulting in a more durable material. Similarly, zinc is added to
copper to produce brass, which is much harder than pure copper.

3. To Increase Tensile Strength: Nickeloy, an alloy composed of 1% nickel,

4% copper, and 95% aluminum, exhibits high tensile strength, making it
suitable for applications requiring robust material properties.

4. To Lower the Melting Point: Solder, an alloy of 30% tin (Sn) and 70%
lead (Pb), has a significantly lower melting point compared to its individual
components. This property makes it ideal for use in joining metals.

5. To Modify the Color: Aluminum bronze, an alloy of copper (Cu) and

aluminum (Al), has a distinctive and attractive golden color, often used for
decorative purposes and in various applications.

6. To Resist Corrosion: Iron is prone to rust and corrosion over time.

However, stainless steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, resists rust and
corrosion. The typical composition of stainless steel is:
• Iron: 98%
• Carbon: 2%
PORT
FOLIO
Aim:
To qualitatively analyze a sample of bronze.
Requirements:
• China dish
• Test tubes
• Funnel
• Filter paper
• Common laboratory reagents
Theory:
Bronze is an alloy of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn), with the following composition:
• Cu: 88-96%
• Sn: 4-12%

Both metals dissolve in nitric acid, leading to the following reactions:

• Copper reaction:
3Cu + 8H⁺ + 2NO₃⁻ → 3Cu²⁺ + 2NO + 4H₂O
• Tin reactions:

• With cold and dilute acid:

4Sn + NO₃⁻ + 10H⁺ → 4Sn²⁺ + NH₄⁺ + 3H₂O
• With concentrated acid:
Sn + 4NO₃⁻ + 4H⁺ → H₂SnO₃ + 2NO₂ + H₂O
(Metastannic Acid)
After removing excess nitric acid by heating, the resulting solution contains Cu²⁺
ions and metastannic acid. When this solution is acidified with dilute HCl and
H₂S gas is passed through it, the sulphides of copper and tin are formed:
• Cu²⁺ + S²⁻ → CuS (Black precipitate)
• H₂SnO₃ + 2H₂S → SnS₂ (Black precipitate) + 3H₂O

The sulphides are separated by boiling the precipitate with yellow ammonium
sulphide:
• SnS₂ + (NH₄)₂S → (NH₄)₂SnS₂ (Soluble ammonium thiostannate)
• CuS + (NH₄)₂S → CuS (Unaffected, black precipitate)

The black precipitate is tested for Cu²⁺ ions, while the solution is tested for Sn² ⁺
ions using standard qualitative analysis techniques.
Procedure:
1. Dissolution:
Take about 1g of small pieces of bronze in a China dish. Add 5-10 ml of dilute
HNO₃ and heat slowly to dissolve the copper and tin completely. Boil the
contents to a paste to remove excess HNO₃.
2. Solution Preparation:
Dissolve the dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to obtain a clear
solution.
3. Precipitation:
Transfer the solution to a test tube and pass H₂S gas through it until precipitation
is complete. Filter and discard the filtrate.
4. Separation:
Take the black precipitate in a test tube, add 2-3 ml of yellow ammonium
sulphide, and heat. Filter the contents. Test the black residue for Cu²⁺ ions and the
filtrate for Sn²⁺ ions.
5. Analysis of Black Residue (Cu²⁺ ions):

• Transfer a small amount of the black precipitate to a test tube. Add 2-3 ml
of 50% HNO₃ and boil. A light blue or green solution indicates the
presence of Cu²⁺ ions.
• Divide the solution into two parts:
(a) Add excess NH₄OH to one part. A deep blue coloration confirms Cu²⁺
ions.
(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K₄[Fe(CN)₆]
(potassium ferrocyanide). A reddish-brown precipitate confirms Cu²⁺ ions.
2. Analysis of Filtrate (Sn²⁺ ions):

• Boil the filtrate with 1 ml of dilute HCl. A yellow precipitate is obtained.

• Dissolve the precipitate in 1 ml of concentrated HCl. Add 0.5 g of zinc dust
and boil for 2-3 minutes.
• Filter, and add 1-2 ml of mercuric chloride solution to the filtrate. A white
precipitate that turns grey upon standing confirms the presence of Sn⁴⁺
ions.
Result:
The given sample of bronze contains Cu and Sn as the main constituents.
Aim:
To qualitatively analyze a sample of brass.
Requirements:
• China dish
• Test tubes
• Funnel
• Filter paper
• Common laboratory reagents
Theory:
Brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), with the following composition:
• Cu: 60-90%
• Zn: 10-40%

Both copper and zinc dissolve in 50% nitric acid, forming soluble nitrates:
• Copper reactions:
3Cu + 8HNO₃ (dil.) → 3Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2NO + 4H₂O
or
Cu + 8H⁺ + 2NO₃⁻ → 3Cu²⁺ + 2NO + 4H₂O
• Zinc reactions:
4Zn + 10HNO₃ (dil.) → 4Zn(NO₃)₂ + N₂O + 5H₂O
or
4Zn + 2NO₃⁻ + 10H⁺ → 4Zn²⁺ + N₂O + 5H₂O
The solution is boiled to expel oxides of nitrogen, and the resulting solution is
tested for Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions.
Procedure:
1. Dissolution:
Place a small piece of brass in a China dish and heat it with a minimal
amount of 50% HNO₃ until the piece dissolves completely.
2. Evaporation:
Continue heating the solution until a dry solid residue is obtained.
3. Filtration:
Dissolve the solid residue in dilute HCl and filter. Add distilled water to the
filtrate.
 4. Precipitation of Copper (Cu²⁺ ions):
Pass H₂S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper sulfide is
obtained. Separate the black precipitate and keep the filtrate for the test of
Zn²⁺ ions. Dissolve the black precipitate by heating it with 50% HNO₃.
Add ammonium hydroxide solution. A deep blue coloration in the solution
indicates the presence of Cu²⁺ ions.
5. Test for Zinc (Zn²⁺ ions):
Boil the filtrate to remove H₂S gas, then add solid NH₄Cl and heat to
dissolve the NH₄Cl. Add excess NH₄OH to make the solution ammoniacal.
Pass H₂S gas through this ammoniacal solution. A dirty white or grey
precipitate indicates the presence of Zn²⁺ ions. Separate the precipitate and
dissolve it in a minimal amount of dilute HCl. Boil to expel H₂S gas, then
add potassium ferrocyanide solution. A white or bluish-white precipitate
confirms the presence of Zn²⁺ ions in the solution.
Result:
The given sample of brass contains copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) as the main
constituents.