Road Crack Detection Using Deep Convolutional

Neural Network and Adaptive Thresholding

Rui Fan1∗ , Mohammud Junaid Bocus2∗ , Yilong Zhu3 ,
Jianhao Jiao1 , Li Wang4 , Fulong Ma3 , Shanshan Cheng4 , Ming Liu1

Abstract— Crack is one of the most common road distresses of gradient features using gradient filters, such as Sobel
which may pose road safety hazards. Generally, crack detection [12], [13], for each image pixel, and then using a binary
is performed by either certified inspectors or structural engi- classifier to determine whether an image pixel is part of a
neers. This task is, however, time-consuming, subjective and
arXiv:1904.08582v1 [cs.CV] 18 Apr 2019

labor-intensive. In this paper, we propose a novel road crack crack region or not [8]. In early methods, such as [14] and
detection algorithm based on deep learning and adaptive image [15], the authors used threshold-based approaches to find
segmentation. Firstly, a deep convolutional neural network is crack regions based on the assumption that a pixel lying
trained to determine whether an image contains cracks or in a crack area is consistently darker than others [7], [16].
not. The images containing cracks are then smoothed using Furthermore, many researchers [10], [11], [17], [18] tried
bilateral filtering, which greatly minimizes the number of noisy
pixels. Finally, we utilize an adaptive thresholding method to to suppress the inference of noise by considering additional
extract the cracks from road surface. The experimental results local features, such as the mean and the standard deviation
illustrate that our network can classify images with an accuracy of an image region. However, these methods are still very
of 99.92%, and the cracks can be successfully extracted from sensitive to noise because only the brightness features are
the images using our proposed thresholding algorithm. taken into consideration.
I. INTRODUCTION In recent years, some novel algorithms, such as minimal
path selection (MPS) [19]–[21], minimum spanning tree
Road damages in the form of cracks may reduce the road (MST) [22], [23] and crack fundamental element (CFE) [24],
performance and pose potential road safety hazards [1]. Ev- [25], have been proposed to improve the existing crack de-
ery year, government bodies across the globe allocate funds tection approaches. In addition, Hu and Zhao [26] proposed
to enhance the quality of their road networks [2]. Road safety a crack detection algorithm based on local binary patterns
should be taken very seriously and authorities are fully aware (LBP), whereas the authors of [27] utilized Gabor filter for
of the need for suitable road inspection and maintenance the same purpose. In [22], an automated crack detection
techniques [3]. Crack detection is an essential part of road algorithm based on a tree structure, referred to as CrackTree,
maintenance systems, and it has attracted growing interest was introduced. Moreover, Oliveira et al. [7], [28] utilized
from researchers in this field over the past few years [4]. Tra- a comprehensive set of image analysis algorithms to detect
ditional manual road crack detection approaches are known and characterize cracks from road pavements. Although the
to be very time-consuming, dangerous, labor-intensive and above-mentioned algorithms have been widely used in crack
subjective [5]. Therefore, the slow and subjective traditional detection and they perform well on high-quality datasets [22],
methods have been gradually replaced by automated crack [28], [29], it is important to note that these algorithms are
detection systems which provide fast and reliable analysis in not accurate enough to distinguish cracks from the complex
intelligent transportation systems (ITS) [6]. Automated crack background in low-quality images.
detection systems can effectively assess the quality of the Furthermore, some machine learning-based crack detec-
road surfaces and help governments plan and prioritize the tion approaches [30]–[35] have been proposed in recent
maintenance of the road network, thereby keeping the roads years, and the features produced by neural network are very
in good condition and extending their service life [7]. likely to replace the local features utilized in traditional
With the development of image analysis techniques, road methods [36]. For example, restricted Boltzmann machine
crack detection and recognition have been widely investi- (RBM) anto encoder and their variants are capable of de-
gated over the past few decades [8]–[11]. The traditional tecting cracks, when the training samples are limited [37].
framework for crack detection consists of defining a variety In addition, deep convolutional neural networks (DCNNs)
1 R. Fan, J. Jiao and M. Liu are with the Robotics and Multi-Perception are popular for feature-learning and supervised classification
Laboratory in Robotics Institute at the Hong Kong University of Science [38]. Zhang et al. [36] trained a neural network to determine
and Technology, Hong Kong. whether the patches in an images contain cracks or not.
2 M. J. Bocus is with the Visual Information Institute at the University
Hence in this paper, we build on the recent successful
of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom.
3 Y. Zhu and F. Ma are with Unity-Drive Technology Inc, Shenzhen, application of deep neural network to image classification
China. and train a convolutional neural network (CNN) to find
4 L. Wang and S. Cheng are with the National Engineering Research
the images that contain cracks. Then, we present a novel
Center of Road Maintenance Technologies, Beijing, China.
∗ These two authors contributed equally to this work and therefore are thresholding method to extract cracks from classified color
joint first authors. Corresponding author: Rui Fan. Email: [email protected]. images.
 227×227×3 227×227×2

56×56×8
28×28×8
7×7×32 7×7×64 3×3×64 3×3×128 1×1×2

14×14×32
14×14×16
28×28×16
56×56×4 convolution + batch normalization + ReLU
113×113×4 max pooling
113×113×2 fully connected + softmax
Image Input

Fig. 1. The structure of the proposed deep neural network for image classification.

input convolution
batch
normalization
output ReLU

Fig. 2. The structure of the green block in Fig. 1. (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3. Bilateral filtering and image segmentation; (a) original positive

image; (b) filtered positive image; (c) segmentation result.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: Sec-
tion II introduces the proposed crack detection algorithm. In
Section III, we present our experimental results and discuss
input and passes the extracted features to the next layer
the performance of the proposed method. Finally, Section IV
[38]. Batch normalization is then performed on the output
concludes the paper and provides some recommendations for
of the convolutional layer, whereby the extracted features are
future work.
normalized by adjusting and scaling the activations. [39]. The
II. M ETHODOLOGY structure of the green block in Fig. 1 is shown in Fig. 2. Max
pooling downsamples the input representations [38], whereas
The proposed crack detection method consists of two the softmax function translates a vector into a probability
steps: image classification and image segmentation. For distribution. Finally, a fully connected layer computes the
notational convenience, images showing the presence and score of each class and infers the category of the input image
absence of cracks are referred to as positive and negative [36]. Therefore, the proposed network is also referred to as a
images, respectively. Firstly, an image is classified as ei- fully connected network (FCN). More details on the training
ther positive or negative using a deep convolutional neural process are provided in Section III.
network. The positive images are then processed using an
adaptive thresholding method. The cracks in the positive
images can therefore be extracted. The rest of this section B. Image Segmentation
gives a detailed description of these two steps.
Since the images have already been classified using our
A. Image Classification proposed deep neural network, only the positive images
are considered for processing in this subsection. Before
The structure of the proposed deep convolutional neural
performing image segmentation, we first utilize a bilateral
network is shown in Fig. 1, where ReLU represents a recti-
filter [40], [41] to smooth the input images. Bilateral filter
fied linear unit, which is the most popular activation function
outperforms other image filters in terms of edge preservation
for deep neural networks, due to its better performance than
[40]. A general expression for bilateral filtering is as follows:
both sigmoid function and hyperbolic tangent function in
terms of training and evaluation [38]. A CNN is generally Pu+ρ Pv+ρ
considered as a hierarchical feature extractor [36]. A convo- x=u−ρ y=v−ρ ωs (x, y)ωc (x, y)i(x, y)
ibf (u, v) = Pu+ρ Pv+ρ , (1)
lutional layer performs a convolution operation on the image x=u−ρ y=v−ρ ωs (x, y)ωc (x, y)
 o

Downsampled Image Region 1 Region 3

76×76×3

Region 4 Region 2

Filtered Image 227×227×3

within-cluster
Fig. 4. Image downsampling. sum squares

Fig. 5. 2D histogram and the within-cluster sum squares with respect to

different δ.
where
( )
(x − u)2 + (y − v)2
ωs (x, y) = exp , (2) According to the Markov Random Field [42], the intensity
σs 2
of a pixel which is not located near the boundary between
( ) foreground and background is similar to those of its neigh-
(i(x, y) − i(u, v))2 bors in all directions. Hence, we search for the threshold
ωc (x, y) = exp . (3)
σc 2 along the principal diagonal of the 2D histogram using k-
mean clustering [43]. Given a threshold δ, the 2D histogram
i(x, y) represents the intensity of a pixel at (x, y) in the input can be divided into four regions, as shown in Fig. 5. Regions
image. ibf (u, v) denotes the intensity of a pixel at (u, v) in the 1 and 2 store the vectors of foreground and background,
filtered image. ωs and ωc are based on spatial distance and respectively. On the other hand, regions 3 and 4 store the
color similarity, respectively. Their values are controlled by noisy vectors. In our method, the vectors in regions 3 and
two parameters σs and σc , respectively. In our experiments, 4 are not considered into the clustering process. The best
the values of σs and σc are set to 300 and 0.1, respectively. threshold is computed by minimizing the within-cluster sum
ρ is set to 5. The filtered image is shown in Fig. 3. squares as follows:
To further reduce noise in the filtered image, the latter
2
is downsampled as shown in Fig. 4. The downsampled X X
arg min ||m − µi ||2 , (5)
image is approximately nine times smaller than the original S i=1 m∈S i
filtered image and it is utilized as the threshold for image
segmentation. It is to be noted that the intensity of a pixel where µi denotes the mean of the vectors in S i . The within-
in the downsampled image is normalized. cluster sum squares with respect to different δ are shown in
The proposed thresholding method hypothesizes that the Fig. 5, and the corresponding segmentation result is shown in
downsampled image is composed of two parts: foreground Fig. 3(c), where the crack and road surface are in white and
(cracks) and background (road surface), and they can be black, respectively. The performance of the crack detection
separated using one threshold δ. Furthermore, we assume algorithm is evaluated in Section III.
that a pixel lying in a crack area is consistently darker
III. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
than others. To find the best threshold δ, we formulate the
thresholding problem as a 2D vector quantization problem, In our experiments, the proposed deep neural network
where each pixel p = [x, y]> and its neighborhood system is trained on an NVIDIA GTX 1080 Ti GPU1 , which has
Q = [qp 0 , qp 1 , . . . , qp n ]> provide a vector m = [ids , inb ]> , 3584 CUDA cores and 11 GB GDDR5X memory. The GPU
where ids represents the intensity of p = [x, y]> , and inb memory bandwidth is 484 GB/s. The training is implemented
denotes the mean intensity of Q. The vectors are stored in a on Matlab R2018b. Our trained neural network is publicly
2D histogram, as shown in Fig. 5. The relationship between available at: https://github.com/ruirangerfan/
ids and inb is as follows: road_crack_detection_net.git.
The dataset2 utilized for training the proposed network
u+τ v+τ
X X was created by the researchers from Middle East Technical
inb (u, v) = ids (x, y) − inb (u, v), (4) University. The dataset contains 40000 RGB images (resolu-
x=u−τ y=v−τ
tion: 227×227). The number of positive and negative images
where τ dictates the size of the neighborhood system. The are both 20000.
threshold can be determined by partitioning the vectors into 1 https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/products/10series/geforce-gtx-
two clusters S = {S 1 , S 2 }, where S 1 and S 2 correspond 1080-ti/
to the foreground and background, respectively. 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/5y9wdsg2zt.1
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 6. Experimental results of image classification. (a) True positive images. (b) True negative images.

TABLE I
C OMPARISON BETWEEN OUR PROPOSED METHOD AND OTSU ’ S
(a) THRESHOLDING METHOD .

Method Precision Recall Accuracy F1 -measure

Otsu’s thresholding 0.9590 0.9339 0.9848 0.9462
Proposed (τ = 1) 0.9774 0.9331 0.9870 0.9548
Proposed (τ = 2) 0.9854 0.9246 0.9867 0.9541
Proposed (τ = 3) 0.9967 0.9046 0.9848 0.9484
Proposed (τ = 4) 0.9955 0.8952 0.9831 0.9427
(b)

both four). The true positive and true negative examples are
Fig. 7. The failed classification results. (a) False positive images. (b) False
negative images. shown in Fig. 6, while the false positive and false negative
results are shown in Fig. 7. The image classification takes
about 4.8 ms on an Intel Core i7-8700K CPU processed with
a single core (3.7 GHz).
In our practical experiments, we randomly select 15000 Furthermore, we evaluate the performance of the image
positive images and 15000 negative images from the dataset, segmentation at pixel level. Some experimental results of
to train the neural network. The rest of the images are utilized image filtering and segmentation are shown in Fig. 8. Since
to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach. The the dataset we use does not contain pixel-level ground truth,
initial learning rate, the maximum number of epochs and the we manually label the crack areas in a set of images and use
validation frequency are set to 0.01, 16 and 60, respectively. these ground truth images to quantify the performance of our
The stochastic gradient descent with momentum (SGDM) is proposed segmentation method. Moreover, we compare our
utilized as the optimizer, and the value of momentum is set method with Otsu’s thresholding method [44] with respect to
to 0.9. pixel-level precision, recall, accuracy and F1 -measure. The
To quantify the accuracy of our proposed image classier, notations ntp , nfp , nfn and ntn in (6), (7) and (8) represent the
we compute ntp , nfp , nfn and ntn , which represent the number of pixels that are true positive, false positive, false
number of testing images that are true positive, false positive, negative and true negative, respectively. The comparison
false negative and true negative, respectively. The precision, between these two methods is shown in Table I. It is to be
recall, accuracy and F1 -measure can be computed using the noted here that the crack areas with less than 100 pixels
following equation: are ignored in our experiments. From Table I, it can be
ntp observed that our method outperforms Otsu’s thresholding
precision = , (6)
ntp + nfp method in terms of precision, accuracy and F1 -measure,
ntp and the proposed segmentation method achieves the best
recall = , (7) performance when τ is set to 1.
ntp + nfn
ntp + ntn
accuracy = , (8) IV. C ONCLUSION AND F UTURE WORK
ntp + ntn + nfp + nfn
A novel crack detection approach was proposed in this
precision · recall
F1 = 2 . (9) paper. The main novelties include a fully connected neural
precision + recall network for image classification and a k-mean clustering
The values of precision, recall, accuracy and F1 -measure based image segmentation algorithm. Firstly, our neural
achieved using the proposed network are 99.92% (the num- network classified the input images as either positive (crack
ber of false positive images and false negative images are present) or negative (crack absent). The positive images
Fig. 8. Experimental results of image segmentation; (a) input images; (b) filtered images; (c) results obtained using Otsu’s thresholding method; (d)-(g)
results obtained using the proposed method when τ is set to 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively; (h) ground truth.

were then processed using a bilateral filter, which not only (road surface), some color images with a large number of
minimized the number of noisy pixels but also preserved noisy pixels cannot be properly segmented. Therefore, as a
the edges between the cracks and road surface. Finally, the future work, a deep neural network can be trained to segment
filtered images were downsampled, and an adaptive threshold the positive images into a set of semantically meaningful
was computed by minimizing the within-cluster sum squares. regions, i.e., cracks and road surface.
The cracks can therefore be detected by segmenting the
filtered images using the adaptively determined threshold. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The experimental results showed that the precision of the
image classification is 99.92% and the pixel-level segmenta- This work is supported by grants from the Research
tion accuracy is around 98.70%. Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR Government, China
(No. 11210017 and No. 21202816) awarded to Prof. Ming
Although the proposed image segmentation algorithm per- Liu. This work is also supported by grants from the
forms better than Otsu’s thresholding method in terms of Shenzhen Science, Technology and Innovation Commission,
distinguishing between foreground (cracks) and background JCYJ20170818153518789, and National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 61603376) awarded to Dr. Lujia [22] Q. Zou, Y. Cao, Q. Li, Q. Mao, and S. Wang, “Cracktree: Automatic
Wang. crack detection from pavement images,” Pattern Recognition Letters,
vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 227–238, 2012.
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