Thermal Analysis Container Passive

RESEARCH
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CLIMATES ON A SHIPPING

CONTAINER PASSIVE HOUSE IN CANADA
Wesley Bowley,1 Phalguni Mukhopadhyaya2*
ABSTRACT
Passive House buildings with an annual energy demand of less than 15 kWh/m2a (i.e.
Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jgb/article-pdf/14/4/133/2403365/i1943-4618-14-4-133.pdf by guest on 11 August 2024

kWh/m2 per annum) can help Canada and other countries achieve thermal comfort
with minimum energy use and carbon footprint through meticulous design and
selection of highly efficient building envelope elements and appliances. Shipping con-
tainer based passive houses can reduce the cost of passive house construction and also
promote recycling. In this paper, a passive house built using shipping containers, orig-
inally designed for Victoria, BC, Canada, is analyzed using Passive House Planning
Package (PHPP) software in different climactic zones of Canada. The locations under
consideration are: Halifax (Cool–Temperate), Toronto (Cold–Temperate), Edmonton
(Cold), and Yellowknife (Arctic–Climate). This paper critically examines the energy
demand changes in various climate zones and make necessary modifications to the
design to achieve passive house energy performance requirements in selected climates.
Results show that with modified designs shipping container passive houses can meet
passive house requirements, except in the Arctic–Climate of Yellowknife.
KEYWORDS
shipping container, passive house, energy efficiency, cold climate, passive house
certification
INTRODUCTION
The Passive House Standard (PHS), developed by the Passivehaus Institute, provides design and
construction guidelines for ultra-low energy buildings and up to 90% less energy consumption
than conventional new buildings [1]. This is achieved namely through large amounts of insula-
tion, airtightness, limiting thermal bridging and heat recovery ventilation (HRV). By decreasing
the required heating demand to a low enough value, significant savings can be made by not
requiring large dedicated Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems [2].
Passive house buildings are mostly constructed in central Europe, where it was first intro-
duced, but as passive house gains more recognition, they are now being built globally, especially
in North America [3–5]. Investigation on the performance of passive houses in different climates
1. Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Victoria, BC, Canada

2. Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Victoria, BC, Canada; *Corresponding Author, [email protected],
250-472-4546
Journal of Green Building 133

has been reported in the literature [6]. Usually, significant changes to the design are needed
for different climates to meet passive house requirements. While most of the studies on passive
houses are conducted in the Northern Hemisphere, a study has been reported where the feasi-
bility of the passive house concept is examined in the Southern Hemisphere [7].
There exist a few studies on buildings with shipping containers [8–12] but no study on
a container house built to passive house standard has been reported, except the recent one
published by the authors [13] for a shipping container house in Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada. This paper goes further to demonstrate that through appropriate analysis and design
it is possible to create a container passive house in most climatic zones of Canada. Apart from
Victoria in British Columbia, additional locations considered were Halifax in Nova Scotia,
Toronto in Ontario, Edmonton in Alberta, and Yellowknife in Northwest Territories, located

in Cool–Temperate, Cold–Temperate, Cold, and Arctic climatic zones [14], respectively. The
concept of building passive houses with shipping containers can address various issues related
to sustainability, recycling and affordable energy-efficient housing.
METHODOLOGY
The software tool that was chosen for the design is the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP),
version PHPP_V9.6a_EN, which is the standard modeling package used by passive house
designers, developed by the Passive House Institute [15]. This tool calculates the heating and
cooling loads, ventilation requirements, energy use of plug loads as well as energy generated
from renewables such as solar panels and solar hot water heaters. Based on the inputs provided
to the software by the designer, it will then determine whether or not the design meets passive
house requirements.
The structure that will be used in this analysis is a design that uses shipping containers
as the main structural elements. The building is designed in such a way so that it is capable of
being off-grid and self-sufficient in the cool–temperate climate of Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada, while meeting the energy requirements of a passive house. Some of the benefits of
container houses include a robust and weather-proof structural element that is self-supporting
and inexpensive to acquire in port cities. Design challenges include limited interior space, lack of
insulation and extreme thermal bridging due to a steel exterior, thus requiring either structural
modifications to introduce thermal breaks, or encapsulation of the interior or exterior with
insulation. In some cases, depending on climate and local building codes, the thermal bridging
is often ignored. However due to the high performance requirements of passive house, this is
not an option.
BASE CASE—CONTAINER PASSIVE HOUSE

The base case container passive house design has been done for the climate conditions of
Victoria, British Columbia, and essential aspects of the design are outlined below.
Construction
The design is based on four twenty-foot long high cube containers (20 ft. length × 8 ft. width
× 9.5 ft. height) or (6100mm length × 2440mm width × 2900mm height) and one forty-foot
long high cube container (40 ft. length × 8 ft. width × 9.5 ft. height) or (12200mm length
× 2440mm width × 2900mm height). The twenty-foot containers are positioned side by side
along the long dimension and make up the ground floor. The forty-foot container is then
134 Volume 14, Number 4

FIGURE 1. 3D Model of Passive Container House.

positioned rotated 90 degrees with the long face facing the ends of the twenty-foot containers
below them. It is located at the back end of the floor below so that the top of the twenty-foot
containers form a deck, accessed by stairs and French doors on the forty-foot container. A three-
dimensional model of the construction is shown in Figure 1.
The wall cross section is made up of the container wall with all insulation on the interior
surface. The insulation layer is made up of a 24mm vacuum insulation panel (VIP) (thermal
resistance = 8.8 m2.K/W), sandwiched between two 12.5mm extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam
boards for a nominal combined thermal resistance of around 9.7 m2.K/W. 2 × 4 (38mm ×
89mm) framing could then be added on the interior in order to have a surface which drywall
and other components could be mounted on without damaging the VIP.
The goal of the design is to be compact in size (just under 90m2 treated floor area) and
off-grid, with solar panels providing all power and rainwater harvesting from the roof and deck
to provide drinking water. The layout of the containers is optimized such that there is sufficient
area to collect the required volume of water. This means that the volume to surface area ratio is
not optimized for energy efficiency but is enough to meet passive house standard.
Thermal Bridge
All walls of the containers are insulated from inside. Hence, the main thermal bridges are
window and door frames, and interior doorframes that are cut through containers walls with
narrow thickness that makes it difficult to insulate with VIPs. Another source of thermal bridg-
ing would be the attachment points for the wood framing if it makes direct contact with the
container walls.

FIGURE 2. External temperatures and solar radiation values for each cardinal direction (Victoria).

Month of the year
Climate
Exterior temperature strongly influences energy consumption characteristics of buildings. Figure
2 shows a typical graph obtained from the average monthly temperatures and directional solar
radiations for Victoria, British Columbia. Similar data are available in PHPP software (Version
PHPP_V9.6a_EN) for other locations considered in this study.
Energy Conservation Measures

Thermal characteristics of the materials used for construction of the building envelope and
related construction details together determine the overall thermal transmittance capacity
(U-value) of the assembly. Table 1 shows the materials used in the exterior envelope, and their
respective U-values, and the U-value for the combined wall. The calculated total U-value for
the exterior wall is 0.105 W/(m2K). Apart from insulating the exterior walls, other energy
conservation measures considered for this passive house design exercise are: windows, doors,
and HRV system. These building components were taken from the passive house certified
database that comes with the software. The list includes all of their operating parameters, and
it allows designers to vary different components and compare the results. Table 2 is a list of the
components used for base case design. Table 3 compiles window information, such as thermal
transmittance (U) and solar heat gain coefficient (g) values, and window and glazing areas in
each cardinal direction. There are three different U-values in Table 3 due to the different sizing
of the windows on each face and the ratio of glass area to window frame area that creates minor
differences in the total U value for the window.
Energy Efficiency
The internal temperature is set to 21 degrees Celsius and the number of occupants is the stan-
dard residential occupancy rate default in the PHPP. The air replacement rate is 140 m3/h, with

TABLE 1. Thermal properties of exterior wall assembly.
External Wall Layer Thermal Conductivity [W/(m.K)] Thickness [mm]

Steel 42.7 2
Rigid Polyurethane Foam 0.025 13
Vacuum Insulation Panel 0.003 24
Drywall 0.250 13
Total U value [W/(m2K)] = 0.105

TABLE 2. Component list for base case design.
Component Name*
Glazing AGC–iplus Advanced 1.0 (4:/12/4/12/:4 Kr 90%)
Window Frames ENERGATE® / Ludwig Häußler GmbH–EN1042+ –HKKF
Door Pazen Fenster+Technik–ENERslide (Schiebeelement)–SWISSP. Ultimate PU
HRV Airflow UK–DV80 Adroit
* As in Passive House Institute Database
TABLE 3. Window summary for base case.
Window Window U Value Glazing

Direction g-Value Area [m2] [W/(m2K)] Area [m2]
North 0.42 5.04 0.79 2.96
East 0.42 8.72 0.65 6.62
South 0.42 16.00 0.62 12.53
West 0.42 4.00 0.62 3.13
Total or Average Value for All Windows 0.42 33.76 0.67 25.25
an infiltration rate of 7 m3/h. Other relevant parameters used in the PHPP are program defaults.
According to the passive house design strategy, there is no need for a dedicated cooling system.
Night time ventilation can be used to lower the air temperature overnight, if needed. Using these
design principles, the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) calculated the annual energy use
per square meter for the base case in Victoria to be 9.5 kW/m2a. This is well below the passive
house requirement of 15 kW/m2a. The energy balance showing heat losses through envelope
and heating demand for the base case in Victoria are shown in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3. Energy balance showing heat losses through envelope and heating demand for the
base case in Victoria.

CONTAINER PASSIVE HOUSE IN OTHER CITIES
The purpose of this analysis is to assess the energy performance of the aforementioned base
case structure in different climatic zones of Canada. Thereafter, if energy performance does
not meet the passive house design requirement, changes will be made to the design so that it
meets the requirement. Ideally, this could be done by changing building components or adding
more insulation. However, in the case of the arctic climate zone, an alternate design has been
developed in addition to the original design in an attempt to meet the requirement in such a
challenging climate.

FIGURE 4. External temperatures and solar radiation values for each cardinal direction (Halifax).

Month of the year
Halifax
The climate zone for Halifax is cool–temperate, which is the same as Victoria. So only a few
changes are required, however, this location is chosen because of the much harsher winters that
Atlantic Canada experiences when compared to the Pacific Coast. Climate characteristics are
shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5 presenting the energy balance for the base case in Halifax climate.
The only change that needs to be made in the base case design was to replace the solid
doors with windowed French doors, thereby increasing solar thermal gains. The list of com-
ponents that are used in the modified building is shown in Table 4. Window information is
summarized in Table 5.
Using the above components, the PHPP calculated the annual energy use per square meter
to be 12.5 kW/m2a (Figure 6). This is below the passive house requirement of 15 kW/m2a.
TABLE 4. Component list for Halifax.
Component Name*
Glazing AGC–iplus Top 1.1 (4:/12/4/12/:4 Kr 90%)
Window Frames ENERGATE® / Ludwig Häußler GmbH–EN1042+–HKKF
HRV Wernig–G90-160 Enthalpie

FIGURE 5. Energy balance showing heat losses through envelope and heating demand for base
case in Halifax.

TABLE 5. Window summary for Halifax.

North 0.42 5.04 0.79 2.96
East 0.42 8.72 0.65 6.62
South 0.42 24.00 0.64 18.59
West 0.42 4.00 0.62 3.13

FIGURE 6. Energy balance showing heat losses through envelope and heating demand for
modified design in Halifax.
Toronto
Toronto is in a cold–temperate climate zone in the PHPP, which is only one step colder than
the cool–temperate Victoria. As a result, less extensive modifications are needed to reach the
requirements. Toronto’s climate data can be seen in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows the energy balance
for the base case in this climate with no modifications. The heating load requirements could
be met in this location just by upgrading the building components to more efficient models. A
more efficient HRV with humidity recovery is chosen, as well as upgrading the glazing of the
windows. The solid panel doors have been replaced with windowed French doors to increase

FIGURE 7. External temperatures and solar radiation values for each cardinal direction for
Toronto.

Month of the year
solar thermal gains. No changes are made to window sizes, however, glazing area is increased
due to the windows in the French doors. Table 6 contains a component list, and a summary of
window information is shown in Table 7. The energy balance for the modified Toronto case is
shown in Figure 9. This design meets passive house requirements for heating demand at 14.8
kW/m2a. This has been achieved simply by swapping out components for more energy efficient
models. A further increase could be achieved by reducing north facing window size.
Edmonton
According to the PHPP, Edmonton is in the cold climatic zone, which is the second coldest
zone after the Arctic. As a result, there are more changes to the components, especially window
sizing. Figure 10 shows the average monthly temperature and solar radiation levels throughout
the year. Figure 11 depicts the energy balance, not meeting the passive house requirement, for
the base case in this climate with no modifications.
TABLE 6. Component list for Toronto.
Component Name*

case in Toronto.

TABLE 7. Window summary for Toronto.

North 0.51 5.04 0.82 2.96
East 0.51 8.72 0.68 6.62
South 0.51 24.00 0.68 18.59
West 0.51 4.00 0.66 3.13

modified design in Toronto.

Several changes were incorporated to meet the passive house energy efficiency target. These
changes were chosen in the order of least invasive to most invasive. The first preference was
given to swapping out components such as HRV, windows and doors, with better performance
rating. The next option considered was increased wall insulation, since it is relatively simple to
add more foam. Lastly, window dimensions and locations were altered which would require
more invasive construction changes.
A more efficient HRV model was chosen which increased the amount of heat recovered
from the exhaust air. The thickness of the foam insulation in the walls was doubled from two
13mm thick layers to two 24mm thick layers. All north facing windows were removed, and the
window dimensions for all non-south facing windows were halved with the addition of the east
and west bedroom windows having a further height decrease from 1.0m to 0.7m. Insulated glass
French doors were used instead of a south facing solid panel door to increase solar gains. Table

Edmonton.

Month of the year
8 contains a component list, and a summary of window information is shown in Table 9. The
energy balance for the modified Edmonton case is shown in Figure 12. With the changes to
the base case mentioned above, this design now has a heating demand of 12.7 kW/m2a, which
is below that of the requirement of 15 kW/m2a.
Yellowknife
Yellowknife is in the Arctic climate zone according to the PHPP, and as expected it is a much
harsher climate than the rest of Canada. Figure 13 shows the average monthly temperature and
solar radiation levels throughout the year. The original container house design was for Victoria,
British Columbia, so it was not as critical that it be optimized for energy efficiency. In addi-
tion, the layout of the containers was made in such a way as to maximize the roof area for a
rainwater harvesting system with enough collection area to supply the residence with drinking
water year-round. This means that the layout is not optimized in terms of the interior volume
to surface area ratio. This makes a significant difference when external temperatures are as cold
as the Arctic. Hence, preliminary assessment indicated that substantial design modifications
would be required. Consequently, a new container layout is modeled consisting of two floors
made up of three twenty-foot containers (total six) joined together on the twenty-foot faces.
This significantly decreases the volume to surface area ratio and results in reduced heat transfer
through surfaces. It also means that the floor of the second floor, and the ceiling of the first
floor are facing each other and not exposed to the outside directly. However, thermal bridging
effects will dictate the temperature of the floor/ceiling. Hence, further modifications are done
by cutting out these container faces (floor/ceiling) and rebuild it in wood, introducing a thermal
break between floor/ceiling and the steel walls. The modified design has the same south facing
window area as the original design, with the exception of the French door on the second floor
that lead to the deck because the new layout lacks a deck. The thermal characteristics of the
external wall and its components are shown in Table 10. Table 11 contains a building compo-
nent list, and a summary of window information is shown in Table 12.

case in Edmonton.

TABLE 8. Component list for Edmonton.
Component Name*

TABLE 9. Window summary for Edmonton.

North 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
East 0.51 1.58 0.92 0.75
South 0.51 24.00 0.68 18.59
West 0.51 0.70 0.88 0.36

modified design in Edmonton.

Yellowknife.

Month of the year
TABLE 10. Thermal properties of exterior wall assembly.
External Wall Layer Thermal Conductivity [W/(m.K)] Thickness [mm]

Steel 42.7 2
Vacuum Insulated Panel 0.003 24
Drywall 0.250 13
Total U value [W/(m2K)] = 0.075
TABLE 11. Component list for Yellowknife.
Component Name*
Glazing Guardian–ClimaGuard nrG (4:/12/4/12/:4 Kr 90%)
HRV Dantherm–Dantherm HCC 2
Effective Heat Recovery Efficiency [%]: 93
Electric Efficiency [Wh/m^3]: 0.37

TABLE 12. Window summary for Yellowknife.

North 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
East 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
South 0.62 17.00 0.77 13.02
West 0 0.00 0.00 0.00

Figures 14 and 15 depict the energy balance for the base case in this climate without and
with modifications, respectively. Figure 15 indicates that the proposed design modifications are
not enough to meet the passive house energy efficiency requirement.
Another design option that would significantly improve the energy performance is insulat-
ing shutters, either external or internal. These shutters would be closed at night to temporarily
increase the U value of the windows, while being open in the day to allow maximum solar gains.
In addition, since there is much less sun during the winter due to being so far north, it may be
more beneficial to have them closed most of the day instead of getting solar gains that are not
enough to make up for the losses through the window. Again, the problem is that in PHPP
it is not possible to modify the U values of components over time according to a prescribed
schedule. In an attempt to improve energy efficiency, an approximate estimate of the effect of
having insulating shutters is calculated by changing the U-value of the glazing. The U-value
of the window glazing and a two-inch (50mm) foam panel is considered approximately as
R12 or 2.11 RSI. To account for the inability to assign a schedule for the insulating shutters,
a constant value of half the U-value of the foam is added. This aims to approximate the real
situation where the full U-value will be applied half the time (during the night and not during
the day) by having half the U-value applied at all times. By this method, as indicated by PHPP,
4.9 kW/m2a energy savings in the heating demand can be achieved. Furthermore, the same
calculation has also been carried out using vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) which were used in
the walls (R50 or 8.8RSI) [16–18]. This achieved an energy savings of 8.8 kW/m2a, though at a
significant cost increase. With these extremely non-conventional measures, the heating demand
can be lowered from 26.5 to 21.6 and 17.7 kW/m2a by using the foam panels and VIP panels,
respectively, yet still be short of passive house requirement 15 kW/m2a.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results show that designing a passive house using shipping containers in different Canadian
climates is possible but more challenging in an extreme cold climate. Figure 16 shows the
heating demand of the base case design and the modified designs of all five locations considered
in this study. Except in Arctic climate of Yellowknife, the passive house performance require-
ment (i.e. 15 kW/m2a) was met in all other locations.

case in Yellowknife.

Despite Halifax having the same climate as Victoria according to Passive House Planning
Package (PHPP), the heating demand is nearly double. The base model heating demand for
Halifax and Toronto are such that the passive house requirements could be met by simply swap-
ping some of the building components to more efficient versions, although this would increase
costs. Edmonton requires additional reduction of non-south facing windows and increasing
the area of south facing windows.
The base model in Yellowknife has more than double the heating demand of Edmonton,
and more than the heating demand of all the other locations combined. The heating demand
was high enough that a new alternate design was made once it became clear that simply modify-
ing the original design would not be sufficient. The alternate design was more rectangular, with
a higher volume to surface area ratio. Through measures such as removing all non-south facing
windows and using the most efficient components in the PHPP database, the heating demand
was cut by 64%. However, this was still not enough to meet the requirements.

modified design in Yellowknife.

It is possible to reduce the heating demand further by introducing insulating shutters
or panels to cover the windows at night to reduce energy transfer through them, while being
removed during the day to make use of solar thermal gains. Using two-inch foam panels resulted
in an estimated reduction of 4.9 kW/m2a, and using the same vacuum insulation panels (VIPs)
as the walls reduced the demand by 8.8 kW/m2a.
One measure that could be taken to further reduce the heat loss through external walls is
to make use of snow, much like igloos. The weather resistant nature of the shipping containers,
coupled with having all windows and openings on the south facing side of the building makes
this possible. Snow cleared from the solar panels (if used), driveway, and other areas of the

FIGURE 16. Comparison of heating demand in different climates for base cases and modified
cases.
Energy Use In Diﬀerent Climates

80 74.3
Heating Demand [kW/m2A ]
70
60
50
40
28.5 26.5
30

16.3 17.6
20 12.5 14.8 12.7
8.9 8.9
10
0
Victoria (Cool- Halifax (Cool- Toronto (Cold- Edmonton (Cold) Yellowknife (Arctic)
Temperate) Temperate) Temperate)
Base Case Heating Demand Modiﬁed Heating Demand
property if needed can be blown on top of the roof and against the walls. However, load calcu-
lations need to carried out for checking the safe snow load carrying capacity of the container
structure. The cold temperatures of much of the year mean that there is only approximately one
month a year where there is no naturally deposited snow on the ground. The snow that is piled
on the building will be there for the majority of the year. Dry snow has an R-value of around
one per inch; for example, having around two feet of snow would give about R24 (4.22 RSI) to
the exterior. However, the PHPP software does not allow for the U-values of surfaces to change
during different times of the year. As a result, a constant value would have to be selected that
averages out through the year. Due to this and the variability of the snowfall and melting rates,
this option was not modeled, but it could be done.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Passive houses are buildings with high performance envelopes that minimize heat flows and
ensure thermal comfort and energy efficiency. Building a passive house with shipping containers
in five different Canadian climate zones, is a new concept that has been explored in this study.
Challenges to achieve required energy efficiency have been addressed through the use of appro-
priate building materials, components and design changes. The Passive House Planning Package
(PHPP) has been used to design and calculate the energy balance in the shipping container
passive houses. A comparison of energy performance of shipping container passive house in
each of the five Canadian climate zones shows that with appropriate minimal design modifica-
tions shipping container passive house performs well in Cool–Temperate, and Cold–Temperate
climates of Halifax and Toronto, respectively. Only moderate modifications are required for
Cold climates such as Edmonton. It is found that even with an alternate design with extensive
modifications, the proposed design does not meet passive house requirements in Yellowknife,
which has an arctic climate.

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RESEARCH

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CLIMATES ON A SHIPPING

Wesley Bowley,1 Phalguni Mukhopadhyaya2*

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1. Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Victoria, BC, Canada

Journal of Green Building 133

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BASE CASE—CONTAINER PASSIVE HOUSE

134 Volume 14, Number 4

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Journal of Green Building 135

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Energy Conservation Measures

136 Volume 14, Number 4

External Wall Layer Thermal Conductivity [W/(m.K)] Thickness [mm]

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* As in Passive House Institute Database

TABLE 3. Window summary for base case.

Window Window U Value Glazing

Journal of Green Building 137

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138 Volume 14, Number 4

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TABLE 4. Component list for Halifax.

* As in Passive House Institute Database

Journal of Green Building 139

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Window Window U Value Glazing

140 Volume 14, Number 4

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Journal of Green Building 141

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TABLE 6. Component list for Toronto.

* As in Passive House Institute Database

142 Volume 14, Number 4

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Window Window U Value Glazing

Journal of Green Building 143

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144 Volume 14, Number 4

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Journal of Green Building 145

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* As in Passive House Institute Database

146 Volume 14, Number 4

Window Window U Value Glazing

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Journal of Green Building 147

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TABLE 10. Thermal properties of exterior wall assembly.

External Wall Layer Thermal Conductivity [W/(m.K)] Thickness [mm]

TABLE 11. Component list for Yellowknife.

* As in Passive House Institute Database

148 Volume 14, Number 4

Window Window U Value Glazing

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Journal of Green Building 149

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Journal of Green Building 133

Journal of Green Building 135

Journal of Green Building 137

Journal of Green Building 139

Journal of Green Building 141

Journal of Green Building 143

Journal of Green Building 145

Journal of Green Building 147

Journal of Green Building 149

Journal of Green Building 151

Journal of Green Building 153